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I. INTRODUCTION
FIG. 1. Experimental details.
Laboratory experiments on Faraday’s law of electro-
magnetic induction most often involve a bar magnet mov- allowing the magnetic flux to be changed at different
ing (falling) through a coil, and studying the induced emf rates.
pulse. [1–4] Several parameters can be varied, such as the It is much more instructive to monitor the induced
velocity of the magnet, the number of turns in the coil, emf in the coil through a PC interface, which can be
and the strength of the bar magnet. The observed pro- readily realized by low-cost, convenient data-acquisition
portionality of the peak induced emf on the number of modules available in the market. We have used a mod-
turns in the coil and the magnet velocity provide a quan- ule based on the serial interface “COBRA-3” and its ac-
titative verification of the Faraday’s law. companying software “Measure”, marketed and manufac-
Commonly it is found convenient to attach the mag- tured by PHYWE. [5] We specially found useful the var-
net to an oscillating system, so that it passes through the ious features of “Measure” such as “integrate”, “slope”,
coil periodically, generating a series of emf pulses. This “extrema”, “zoom” etc. In this article we describe mod-
allows the peak emf to be easily determined by charg- ified experiments designed to take advantage of the com-
ing a capacitor with the rectified coil output. A simple, puter interface. This allows for a quantitative and peda-
yet remarkably robust setup which utilizes this concept gogical study of (i) angular (position) dependence of the
involves a rigid semi-circular frame of aluminum, piv- magnetic flux through the coil, (ii) verification of Fara-
oted at the center (O) of the circle (see Fig. 1). The day’s law of induction and (iii) electromagnetic damping,
whole frame can oscillate freely in its own plane about thereby revealing delicate features of the underlying me-
a horizontal axis passing through O. A rectangular bar chanics.
magnet is mounted at the center of the arc and the arc
passes through a coil C of suitable area of cross section.1
The positions of the weights W1 and W2 can be adjusted II. INDUCED EMF PULSE
to bring the mean position of the bar magnet vertically
below the pivot O, and the position of coil is adjusted so The equation for the induced emf E(t) as a function of
that its center coincides with this mean position (θ = 0) time t can be written as
of the magnet. The angular amplitude can be read by
means of a scale and pointer. The magnet velocity can dΦ dΦ dθ
E(t) = = , (1)
be controlled by choosing different angular amplitudes, dt dθ dt
expressing the combined dependence on the angular gra-
dient dΦ/dθ and the angular velocity ω(θ) = dθ/dt. This
is reflected in the time dependence of E(t), and a typical
1
In our experimental setup in the UG laboratory, the coil has emf pulse is shown in Fig. 2; the pulse-shape is explained
a diameter of about 10 cm, about the same length, consists below for one quarter cycle of oscillation, starting from
of several thousand turns of insulated copper wire, and has a the extreme position of the bar magnet (θ = θ0 ). As
resistance of about 1000 Ω. the magnet approaches the coil, the induced emf initially
rises, then turns over and starts falling as the magnet
1
6 500
450
4 400
350
(Volt ms)
2
300
(Volt)
250
0
200
E
-2 150
100
-4 50
0
-6 4000 4100 4200 4300 4400 4500
4000 4100 4200 4300 4400 4500
t (ms) t (ms)
FIG. 2. A typical induced emf pulse. FIG. 3. Plot of the magnetic flux Φ through the coil with
time t, showing the rapid change as the magnet crosses the
center of the coil.
enters the coil and the magnetic flux begins to saturate,
and finally changes sign as the magnet crosses the center
the magnetic flux changes very rapidly as the magnet
of the coil (θ = 0) where the flux undergoes a maximum.
crosses the center of the coil. As the angular velocity of
Thus E actually vanishes at the point where the angular
the magnet is nearly constant in the central region, the
velocity of the magnet is maximum.
time scale in Fig. 3 can be easily converted to the angular
From Fig. 2 the magnitude of E is seen to be signifi-
(θ = ωt) or linear (x = Rθ) scale. The points of inflec-
cant only in a very narrow time-interval of about 200 ms,
tion, where dΦ/dt (and therefore dΦ/dθ) are extremum,
which is much smaller than the oscillation time period
are at 4200 and 4300 ms, precisely where the peaks occur
(T ≈ 2 s). This implies that the magnetic flux through
in the emf pulse (Fig. 2).
the coil falls off very rapidly as the magnet moves away
from its center, so that dΦ/dθ is significant only in a very
narrow angular range (typically about 5◦ ) on either side
IV. VERIFICATION OF FARADAY’S LAW
of the mean position. As dΦ/dθ = 0 at θ = 0, it follows
that dΦ/dθ is strongly peaked quite close to the mean
position, which accounts for the emf pulse shape seen in For θ0 >> 5◦ , the angular velocity of the bar mag-
Fig. 2. This separation of the electromagnetic and me- net is very nearly constant in the narrow angular range
chanical time scales has interesting consquences on the near the mean position, and hence the peak emf Emax is
electromagnetic damping, as further discussed in section approximately given by
IV.
dΦ
Emax ≈ ωmax . (3)
dθ max
III. MAGNETIC FLUX THROUGH THE COIL
The maximum angular velocity ωmax itself depends on θ0
through the simple relation (see Appendix)
In order to quantitatively study the magnetic flux
through the coil, the “integrate” feature of the software 4π
is especially convenient. From Eq. (1) the time-integral ωmax = sin(θ0 /2) , (4)
T
of the induced emf directly yields the change in magnetic
flux ∆Φ corresponding to the limits of integration. If where T is the time period of (small) oscillations. There-
the lower limit of integration ti corresponds to the ex- fore if θ0 /2 (in radians) is small compared to 1, then
treme position of the magnet (θ(ti ) = θ0 ), [6] where the ωmax is nearly proportional to θ0 , and hence Emax ap-
magnetic flux through the coil is negligible (valid only proximately measures the angular amplitude θ0 .
for large θ0 ), the magnetic flux Φ(θ) for different angular Eq. (3) provides a simple way for students to quan-
positions θ(t) of the magnet is obtained as titatively verify Faraday’s law. A plot of the peak emf
Emax (conveniently obtained using the software feature
t
“extrema”) vs. ωmax (evaluated from Eq. (4)) for differ-
Z
Φ(t) ≈ E(t′ )dt′ . (2) ent angular amplitudes should show a linear dependence
ti
(for large θ0 ). While this behaviour could indeed be eas-
Figure 3 shows a plot of Φ(t) vs. t for a large angular ily verified by students, the interesting deviation from
amplitude (θ0 ∼ 30◦ ). The time interval during which linearity expected for low angular amplitudes (θ0 ∼ 5◦ ),
Φ(t) is significant (∼ 200 ms) is a very small fraction of for which the θ dependence of the angular velocity dθ/dt
the oscillation time period (about 2 sec), confirming that is not negligible, turned out to be quite elusive. This
2
6 1.0
0.9
5
0.8
Vmax(t)=Vmax(0)
0.7
4
(V)
0.6
3 0.5
Emax
0.4
2
0.3
0.2
1
0.1
0 0.0
0 0.1
q 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
1/2
FIG. 4. Plot of Emax vs. (dE /dt)θ=0 , showing the devia- FIG. 5. The normalized peak voltage Vmax (t)/Vmax (0) vs.
tion from a straight line at low angular amplitudes. time t for the short-circuit (+) and open-circuit (3) cases,
showing nearly linear fall off.
delicate deviation was presumably washed out by the
large percentage errors in θ0 measurements, especially
for small angles, precisely where this deviation is more V. ELECTROMAGNETIC DAMPING
pronounced.
An alternative approach, which eliminates the need for To study the nature of the electromagnetic damping
measuring the oscillation amplitude θ0 , is proposed be- in the oscillating system, the coil was short-circuited
low. Taking the time derivative of the induced emf, and through a low resistance (220 Ω). The oscillations were
setting θ = 0, where the angular velocity is maximum, started with a large initial amplitude (still θ0 /2 << 1),
we obtain and the voltage V (t) across the resistor was studied as a
2 function of time. As the oscillations decayed, the peak
dE d Φ voltages Vmax for sample pulses were recorded at roughly
= ω2 , (5)
dt θ=0 dθ2 θ=0 max equal intervals on the time axis. This voltage V (t) is pro-
portional to the current through the circuit, and hence to
2
which relates the slope of E at the mean position to ωmax . the induced emf E(t). As the peak emf Emax is approxi-
As this relation holds for all amplitudes θ0 , it may be used mately proportional to the oscillation amplitude (except
to obtain ωmax for different angular amplitudes without when the amplitude becomes too small), a plot of Vmax
the need for any angular measurement. The slope at vs. t actually exhibits the decay of the oscillation ampli-
the mean position (near zero crossing) is easily measured tude with time.
through linearp interpolation (see Fig. 2). Thus, a plot Although an exponential decay of amplitude is more
of Emax vs. (dE/dt)θ=0 should show both features of commonly encountered in damped systems, the plot of
interest — the linear behaviour for large angular ampli- the normalized peak voltage Vmax (t)/Vmax (0) vs. t shows
tudes and the deviation for very low amplitudes. The key a distinctly linear decay (Fig. 5). To distinguish the elec-
advantage of this plot lies in completely eliminating the tromagnetic damping from other sources (friction, air re-
errors associated with measurements of oscillation ampli- sistance etc.) the same experiment was repeated in the
tudes θ0 . open-circuit configuration, in which case electromagnetic
In this experiment the oscillations were started with damping is absent. In this case the amplitude decay is,
a large initial angular amplitude, and during the grad- as expected, much weaker, but significantly it is still ap-
ual decay of oscillations, the peak voltages Emax (on both proximately linear.
sides of the mean position) and the slope (dE/dt)θ=0 were A quantitative analysis of the energy loss provides an
measured for a large number of pulses, so as to cover explanation for this nearly linear decay in both cases. We
the full range from large to very small angular ampli- first consider the electromagnetic energy loss. Neglecting
tudes. Fig. 4 shows this plot of the averaged Emax vs.
p radiation losses, the main source of energy loss is Joule
(dE/dt)θ=0 , clearly showing the deviation from linear- heating in the coil due to the induced current. Integrat-
ity for low angular amplitudes. To provide an idea of ing over one cycle we have
the angular amplitude scale, the peak voltage of ∼ 6 V
corresponds to an angular amplitude θ0 ≈ 35◦ , so that
the deviations become pronounced when θ0 ≈ 5◦ .
3
1
Z Z
∆Eone cycle = E 2 dt
i2 R dt = the reduction in the average centripetal force M lω 2 θ02 /2
R with the oscillation amplitude θ0 , which decreases the
1
Z 2 2
dΦ dθ frictional force at the pivot due to the reduction in the
= dt , (6) normal reaction.
R dθ dt
dE √
= −k E . (8)
dt VII. APPENDIX
4
2
R. C. Nicklin, “Faraday’s law — Quantitative experi-
ments,” Am. J. Phys. 54, 422-428 (1986).
3
J. A. Manzanares, J. Bisquert, G. Garcia-Belmonte, and
M. Fernández-Alonso, “An experiment on magnetic induc-
tion pulses,” Am. J. Phys. 62, 702-706 (1994).
4
P. Carpena, “Velocity measurements through magnetic in-
duction,” Am. J. Phys. 65, 135-140 (1997).
5
PHYWE Systeme Gmbh, Göttingen, Germany.
6
Identifying the time ti for a given induced emf pulse E (t)
is a good exercise for students.