Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PREFACE
I am glad indeed to place this title NTA NET/SET PAPER 1ST (SECOND EDITION) in the
hands of those students who are preparing for NTA exam.
This book is written strictly according to the prescribed syllabus. In preparing this
book, I have freely drawn the material both from the books of Indian & foreign
authors.
I request every teacher and the taught to bring such mistakes to the notice of the
author so that they can be redressed in the nest edition.
I welcome every constructive suggestion that goes in improving the quality of the
work and the utility of the book.
2019
Srinagar-J&K
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190001
HILAL AHMED
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BASED ON NEW SYLLABUS
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CONTENTS
UNIT-1 TEACHING APTITUDES
UNIT-2 RESEARCH APTITUDE
UNIT-3 READING
COMPREHENSION
UNIT-4 COMMUNICATION
UNIT-5 MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
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UNIT-1
TEACHING APTITUDES
CONCEPT OF TEACHING
Teaching is process which usually takes place in the class room situations. It is more
of formal processes. In the class room situations we see that the teacher has
something in his mind and he wants to convey it to the students. For this purpose, he
takes the help of teaching. He makes all efforts to make the students understand it.
His teaching is successful if the students are able to grasp it fully.
NEED OF TEACHING:
Teaching in the class depends upon how the teacher performs his duty of teaching. A
sincere and hard working teacher always comes out all successful. He makes every effort to
achieve the desired ends. He always goes well prepared in every way. In his class room
teaching, there is always a very good class room interaction. He faces the class clearly and
boldly. He is always facing to case with the students while speaking in the class. Naturally,
that type of teacher will be able to impress the students fully. Such a teaching can be called
effective teaching.
Teaching may also take place outside the class rooms. The students come in contact
with their teacher in the corridors, in the staff room, in the canteen, in the playgrounds; in
the school assemble grounds etc., the process of teaching surely goes on there also which is
more of informal type. Learning by the students through informal contacts with the teacher
is many a time more sound and lasts longer.
In fact, teaching is an art of educating other people. In this age of science and
technology when there is explosion of knowledge, the process of teaching has reached new
dimensions. It is no longer a simple art of imparting information to the students. It is now
tending to become a technology by itself instructional television, computer assisted
instruction, teaching machines, etc.
Teaching is an activity which goes on between the two parties i.e. the giver and the
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receiver. Here the giver is the teacher more matured person with more experiences of life.
The receiver may be an individual, a small group or a big group. Teaching is not a
mechanical process. It is an intricate, exacting, challenging job. Teaching can’t be boiled
down to a convenient formula of “telling and testing”. It is the complex art of guiding pupils
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through a variety of selected experiences towards the attainment of a widening field of
learning.
The aims of teaching with respect to its various modes, are as follows
Teaching – To bring changes in the behavior of students.
Conditioning – To improve the learning skills of students.
Training – Shaping the behavior and conduct.
Instruction – Acquisition of knowledge.
Indoctrination – Formation of belief.
Objectives of Teaching:
LEVELS OF TEACHING
We all know that teaching is a purposeful activity. Through teaching the teacher brings a
desirable change in the learner. Both the concepts teaching and learning are interrelated to
each other. Development of all-round personality of the learner is the final goal of teaching
and learning. During teaching an interaction takes place between an experienced person
(teacher) and an inexperienced person (student). Here the main aim is to bring change in
the behavior of the student.
Teachers teach students at three levels. They have to keep in mind about the
developmental stage of the learners so that desired educational objectives can be achieved.
These three levels are:
It is the first and thoughtless level of teaching. It is concerned with memory or mental
ability that exists in all living beings. Teaching at memory level is considered to be the
lowest level of teaching. At this level:
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The study material is organized and pre-planned. The teacher presents the study material
in a sequential order.
Useful for children at lower classes. This is because of their intellect us under
development and they have a rote memory.
The role of the teacher is important in this level of teaching and he is free to make
choices of subject matter, plan it and can present it at will.
The knowledge acquired at memory level teaching forms a basis for the future i.e.
when student’s intelligence and thinking is required.
Memory level teaching acts as the first step for understanding and reflective levels
of teaching. It is pre-requisite for understanding level teaching.
helpful in real life situations as it does not develops the talents of students.
The pupils are kept in strict discipline and cramming is insisted on this teaching.
Intelligence does not carry any importance in this type of teaching and it lacks
motivation
Understanding level
Understanding something is to perceive the meaning, grasp the idea and comprehend the
meaning. In the field of Education and Psychology, the meaning of ‘understanding‘ can be
classified as:
The teaching at the understanding level is of a higher quality than the one at the memory
level. It is more useful and thoughtful from the point of view of mental capabilities. At this
level of teaching, the teacher explains the student about the relationship between
principles and facts and teach them how these principles can be applied. Memory level
teaching barrier is essential to be crossed for this level of teaching.
As compared to memory level teaching, the understanding level teaching has greater merit.
This enables students to have complete command over subject material. In the
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understanding level role of the teacher is more active. The students at this level are second
any. At this level, no cramming is encouraged. The new knowledge acquired at this level is
related to the earlier knowledge gained. A generalization is made on the basis of facts and
the facts are used in the new situations.
This level is also known as introspective level. Reflecting on something means giving
careful thought to something over a period of time. It also means thinking deeply about
something.
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centered.
There is an interaction between the teacher and the taught at the reflective level
teaching.
At this level, teaching is appropriate for the higher class.
Not suitable for small children at the lower level of teaching. It is suitable only for
mentally matured children
At this level, the study material is neither organized nor pre-planned. Therefore
students cannot acquire systematic and organized knowledge of their study courses.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
implemented.
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UNIT-9
Habitat
All habitats are environments but all environments are not habitats.
Biosphere
The biosphere is the biological component (supporting life) of earth which includes the
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.
The biosphere includes all living organisms on earth, together with the dead organic
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Ecosystem
Everything that lives in an ecosystem is dependent on the other species and elements that
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are also part of that ecological community. If one part of an ecosystem is damaged or
disappears, it has an impact on everything else
Components of an Ecosystem
The components of the ecosystem are categorized into abiotic or non-living and biotic
or living components. Both the components of ecosystem and environment are same.
Abiotic Components
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Abiotic components are the inorganic and non-living parts which act as major limiting
factors.
Primary producers are basically green plants, certain bacteria and algae that carry out
photosynthesis.
In terrestrial ecosystem, grasses, plants and trees are the primary producers while in
aquatic ecosystem, microscopic algae [plankton] are the primary producers.
Consumers are incapable of producing their own food. They depend on organic food
derived from plants, animals or both.
Consumers can be divided into two broad groups namely micro and macro
consumers.
Macro consumers
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Herbivores are primary consumers which feed mainly on plants e.g. cow.
Secondary consumers feed on primary consumers e.g. wolves, dogs, etc.
Carnivores which feed on both primary and secondary consumers are called tertiary
consumers e.g. lion which can eat wolves, snakes etc.
Omnivores are organisms which consume both plants and animals e.g. man, bear, etc.
They are bacteria and fungi which obtain energy and nutrients from dead organic
substances (detritus) of plant and animals.
The products of decomposition such as inorganic nutrients which are released in the
ecosystem are reused by producers and thus recycled.
Earthworm and certain soil organisms (such as nematodes, and arthropods) are
detritus feeders and help in the decomposition of organic matter and are called detrivores.
Ecology
The term ecology was derived from two Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning home and
‘logos’ meaning study.
Ecology is the branch of biology concerned with the relations of organisms to one
another (energy flow and mineral cycling) and to their physical surroundings
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(environment).
Ecology encompasses study of individual, organisms, population, community,
ecosystem, biome and biosphere which form the various levels of ecological organization.
Ecology not only deals with the study of the relationship of individual organisms with
their environment, but also with the study of populations, communities, ecosystems,
biomes, and biosphere as a whole.
Individual: Organism is an individual living being that has the ability to act or function
independently. It may be any organism.
Species: Species are a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals
capable of exchanging genes or of interbreeding, considered as the basic unit of taxonomy
and denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g. Homo sapiens.
Population: Population is a community of interbreeding organisms [same species],
occupying a defined area during a specific time.
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Population growth rate is the percentage variation between the number of individuals in a
population at two different times. It can be positive due to birth and/or immigration or
negative due to death and/or emigration
Ecotone
Ecological Niche
Niche refers to the unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or
ecosystem.
In nature, many species occupy the same habitat but they perform different functions.
Functions Of Ecosystem
Biotic communities are dynamic in nature and change over a period of time. The
process by which communities of plant and animal species in an area are replaced or
changed into another over a period of time is known as ecological succession.
Succession is a universal process of directional change in vegetation, on an ecological
time scale.
Succession occurs when a series of communities replace one another due to large
scale destruction (natural or manmade). This process continues with one community
replacing another, until a stable, mature community develops.
Succession is a progressive series of changes which leads to the establishment of a
relatively stable climax community.
The first plant to colonize an area is called the pioneer community. The final stage of
succession is called the climax community. The stage leading to the climax community are
called successional stages or seres. Each transitional (temporary) community that is formed
and replaced during succession is called a stage in succession or a seral community.
Succession is characterized by the following: increased productivity, the shift of
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nutrients from' the reservoirs, increased diversity of organisms with increased niche
development, and a gradual increase in the complexity of food webs.
Succession would occur faster in area existing in the middle of the large continent.
This is because, here seeds of plants belonging to the different seres would reach much
faster, establish and ultimately result in climax community.
The terminal (final) stage of succession forms the community which is called
as climax community. A climax community is stable, mature, more complex and long
lasting.
The entire sequence of communities in a given area, succeeding each other, during the
course of succession is termed sere. Succession that occurs on land where moisture content
is low for e.g. on bare rock is known as xerarch. Succession that takes place in a water body,
like ponds or lake is called hydrarch.
Primary Succession
Primary succession takes place an over a bare or unoccupied areas such as rocks
outcrop, newly formed deltas and sand dunes, emerging volcano islands and lava flows as
well as glacial moraines (muddy area exposed by a retreating glacier) where no community
has existed previously.
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In primary succession on a terrestrial site the new site is first colonized by a few hardy
pioneer species that are often microbes, lichens and mosses. The pioneers over a few
generations alter the habitat conditions by their growth and development
Secondary succession occurs when plants recognize an area in which the climax
community has been disturbed.
Secondary succession is the sequential development of biotic communities after
the complete or partial destruction of the existing community.
The flow of energy from producer to top consumers is called energy flow which
is unidirectional.
To understand the energy flow through the ecosystem we need to study about the
trophic levels [tropical level interaction].
Trophic level is the representation of energy flow in an ecosystem. The trophic level of
an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain.
Trophic level interaction deals with how the members of an ecosystem are connected
based on nutritional needs.
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Energy flows through the trophic levels from producers to subsequent trophic levels
is unidirectional.
Energy level decreases from the first trophic level upwards due to loss of energy in
the form of heat at each trophic level.
This energy loss at each tropic level is quite significant. Hence there are usually not
more than four-five trophic levels [beyond this the energy available is negligible to support
an organism].
The trophic level interaction involves three concepts namely
1. Food Chain
2. Food Web
3. Ecological Pyramids
Food Chain
Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms
with repeated eating and being eaten link is called a food chain. E.g. Grasses → Grasshopper
→ Frog → Snake → Hawk/Eagle.
Each step in the food chain is called trophic level. A food chain starts with producers
and ends with top carnivores.
The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain.
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The consumers which start the food chain, utilizing the plant or plant part as their
food, constitute the grazing food chain. This food chain begins from green plants at the base
and the primary consumer is herbivore.
For example, In terrestrial ecosystem, grass is eaten by caterpillar, which is eaten by
lizard and lizard is eaten by snake.
In Aquatic ecosystem phytoplankton (primary producers) are eaten by zoo planktons
which are eaten by fishes and fishes are eaten by pelicans.
This type of food chain starts from dead organic matter of decaying animals and plant
bodies.
Dead organic matter or detritus feeding organisms are called detrivores or
decomposer. The detrivores are eaten by predators.
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The two food chains are linked. The initial energy source for detritus food chain is the
waste materials and dead organic matter from the grazing food chain.
In an aquatic ecosystem, grazing food chain is the major conduit for energy flow. As
against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the
detritus food chain than through the grazing food chain.
Food Web
Multiple interlinked food chains make a food web. Food web represents all the
possible paths of energy flow in an ecosystem.
If any of the intermediate food chain is removed, the succeeding links of the chain will
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be affected largely.
The food web provides more than one alternative for food to most of the organisms in
an ecosystem and therefore increases their chance of survival.
Pollutants, especially non-degradable ones move through the various trophic levels in
an ecosystem. Non-degradable pollutants mean materials, which cannot be metabolized by
the living organisms. Example: Chlorinated Hydrocarbons.
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons or Organochloride or CHC are hydrocarbons whose some
or most hydrogen atoms have been replaced by chlorine E.g. DDT, endosulfan etc.).
A variety of simple chlorinated hydrocarbons including dichloromethane,
chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride.
Applications of CHC
Production of vinyl chloride almost all of which was converted into polyvinylchloride
(PVC) [PVC pipes].
Chloroform, dichloromethane, dichloroethene, and trichloroethane are useful
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solvents. These solvents are immiscible with water and effective in cleaning applications
such as degreasing and dry cleaning.
Pesticides and insecticides such as DDT, heptachlor, and endosulfan are CHCs.
Effects of CHC
potential for bioaccumulation, and role as an endocrine disruptor (enhances the effect of
estrogens causing reproductive and developmental damage in both animals and humans).
1. Bioaccumulation.
2. Biomagnification.
Bioaccumulation
Biomagnification
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If it is not mobile, it will stay in one place and is unlikely to be taken up by organisms.
If the pollutant is soluble in water, it will be excreted by the organism. Pollutants
that dissolve in fats, however, may be retained for a long time.
It is traditional to measure the amount of pollutants in fatty tissues of organisms such
as fish.
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In mammals, we often test the milk produced by females, since the milk has a lot of fat
in it and is often more susceptible to damage from toxins (poisons).
Apart from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen is the most prevalent element in
living organisms.
Nitrogen is a constituent of amino acids, proteins, hormones, chlorophylls and many of
the vitamins.
Plants compete with microbes for the limited nitrogen that is available in soil. Thus,
nitrogen is a limiting nutrient for both natural and agricultural ecosystems.
Nitrogen exists as two nitrogen atoms (N2) joined by a very strong triple covalent
bond (N ≡ N).
In nature, lightning and ultraviolet radiation provide enough energy to convert
nitrogen to nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, N2O).
Industrial combustions, forest fires, automobile exhausts and power-generating
stations are also sources of atmospheric nitrogen oxides.
Eutrophication – Algal Bloom
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Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) are the product of the Millennium Summit of
September 2000. At this summit world leaders adopted the UN Millennium Declaration,
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The MDGs consists of eight goals, all these goals target various developmental and
human rights issues. The eight (8) Goals are as under:
Key points
The number of people now living in extreme poverty has declined by more
than half, falling from 1.9 billion in 1990 to 836 million in 2015.
The number of people in the working middle class—living on more than $4 a
day—nearly tripled between 1991 and 2015.
The proportion of undernourished people in the developing regions dropped
by almost half since 1990.
The number of out-of-school children of primary school age worldwide fell by
almost half, to an estimated 57 million in 2015, down from 100 million in 2000.
Gender parity in primary school has been achieved in the majority of
countries.
The mortality rate of children under-five was cut by more than half since
1990.
Since 1990, maternal mortality fell by 45 percent worldwide.
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Over 6.2 million malaria deaths have been averted between 2000 and 2015.
New HIV infections fell by approximately 40 percent between 2000 and 2013.
By June 2014, 13.6 million people living with HIV were receiving
antiretroviral therapy (ART) globally, an immense increase from just 800,000 in
2003.
Between 2000 and 2013, tuberculosis prevention, diagnosis and treatment
interventions saved an estimated 37 million lives.
Worldwide 2.1 billion people have gained access to improved sanitation.
Globally, 147 countries have met the MDG drinking water target, 95 countries
have met the MDG sanitation target and 77 countries have met both.
Official development assistance from developed countries increased 66
percent in real terms from 2000 and 2014, reaching $135.2 billion.
The Sustainable Development Goals are a set of 17 universal goals that United
Nations members states had adopted to frame the global development agenda for the
next 15 years.
On September 25, 2015, the world leaders gathered at the United Nations
Headquarters in New York and adopted an outcome document which marked the
culmination of the negotiations on sustainable development called ‘Transforming
our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’.
This is a truly universal and transformative global development agenda for the next
15 years that aims to guide the international community and national governments
on a pathway towards sustainable development, taking everyone on board.
This historic agenda calls upon countries at all development stages -poor, rich
and middle-income -to join the efforts in realizing economic growth, social inclusion,
environmental protection, all underpinned by good governance.
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