ENVIRONMENT AND ECOSYSTEM

Ecology-the scientific study of relationships between organisms and the components of the environment namely abiotic (non-
living) and biotic (living).
Biome- a large community, characterized by a major vegetation type and associated fauna, found in a specific climatic region. No
two biomes are alike.
Ecotone - Transitional area between two biomes (where two communities meet & integrate). Sometimes the number of species &
population density of some of the species is much greater in this zone than either community, Known as edge effect
Niche- Description of all the biological, physical & chemical factors that a species needs to survive, stay healthy & reproduce.
Niche is unique for every species which means no two species can have exact identical niche.
Ecosystem- A functional unit of nature encompassing complex interaction between its biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living)
components. For example- a pond, A tree.
Component of ecosystem: Abiotic-Physical (Temp, Humidity, Light, Atmospheric pressure), Inorganic substances (Water, O2,
CO2, N2), Organic Substances (Protein, Carbohydrate, Lipid), Biotic - (Producers - Green plants - Autotrophs), (Consumers
animals- Heterotrophs), (Decomposers-Microorganism- Detritus feeders)
Biosphere- Represents a highly integrated & interacting zone comprising of atmosphere, hydrosphere & lithosphere. Abundant
life between 200 meters below oceans surfaces till approx. 6000 meters above sea surfaces.
Ecological Succession: Primary succession -From a pioneer community (initiation) to a climax community (Final). Rare & takes
a long time to generate. Secondary succession- Development of a community which forms after the existing natural vegetation
that constitutes a community is removed, disturbed or destroyed by a natural event like hurricane or forest fire or by human
related events like tilling or harvesting land. A secondary succession is relatively fast as, the soil has the necessary nutrients as
well as a large pool of seeds and other dormant stages of organisms.
Food Chain : Plants are eaten by insects, which are eaten by frogs; these frogs are eaten by fish, which are eaten by human
beings. This sequence is known as Food chain. Plant > insect > frog > fish > human. Each step in the food chain is called a
“Trophic level” as in above food chain 5 trophic levels
Type of food Chain: Grazing : Starts with green plants e.g. Grass > Grasshoppers > Birds > Snakes > Hawks. Parasitic: Also
starts with green plants but here smaller organisms depending on larger organism . Grass > cow > lice. Detritus*/saprophytic:
Starts with dead plant/animal/ waste material > decomposers. *Detritus = dry leaves, dead plant, animal remains, dead skin cells,
other organic waste (urine, excreta)
Trophic level - Level to which an organism belongs, indicates how far it is away from plants in the food chain. Energy Flow in
food chain is unidirectional, means energy flow can never be from carnivores to herbivores or herbivores to producers. Energy
Flow in the Ecosystem - Generally, only 1/10th of the energy passes to next tropic level.
Productivity: Primary and secondary productivity: Every ecosystem has a level of productivity, which helps discover the
potential of an ecosystem for food production. Primary productivity: Plant productivity. Secondary productivity: Animal
productivity. Gross Primary Productivity: The measure of all photosynthesis that occurs in an ecosystem. Net productivity:
energy left after losses as a result of respiration, growth, excreta.
Mangroves>grassland>lakes>ocean
Net primary productivity (NPP): Amount of energy made available by plants to animals, only at the herbivore level, and is
expressed as kg/m2/yr.
This means that once the rate of primary productivity in an ecosystem is established it is possible to compare ecosystems, as a
figure for the potential of each ecosystem for food production can be found. The NPP of an ecosystem depends on the levels of
heat, moisture, nutrients available, competition, amount of sunlight, age and health of plants. In broad terms NPP increases
towards the equator and decreases away from it, towards the poles.
Tropical Rain Forest 37.4 billion tones/yr, Savannah-13.5 BT/yr, Temperate Grassland-5.4BT/yr, Tundra and Alpine-1.1 BT/yr
Biotic Potential- Unlimited food + ideal environmental conditions ? A species can produce offspring at maximum rate, known as
Biotic potential
INTERACTION-
Mutualism- Species A Enjoys, Species B Enjoys. Eg-Bees and flowers (pollination)
Commensalism (Epiphytic)- Species A Enjoys, Species B Neutral. Eg.- Orchid plant growing on a mango tree.
Predation- Species A Enjoys, Species B Harmed. EgTiger eating deer.
Parasitism- Species A Enjoys, Species B Harmed. Eg- Tapeworm in human digestive tract.
Competition- Species A Harmed, Species B Harmed. Eg-Jungle Deer vs domestic goats grazing in same area.
Amensalis- - Species A neutral, Species B Harmed. Eg-Bread mold Penicillium secretes penicillin and it destroys other bacteria.
 Food Web : Food chain assumes the isolated linear line. But in real life, frog could be eating other insects apart from
grasshopper. Fish could be eating smaller fishes apart from frog. So there exists an interconnected Network of Food Chains,
Which is known as food web.
Ecological pyramids - Ecological pyramids represent the trophic structure or trophic function of the ecosystem and and is
mainly of 3 types:
Pyramid of Number- Depicts the number of individual organisms at different trophic levels of food chain. May be inverted or
upright or spindle shaped
Pyramid of Biomass- Depicts total dry weight of all organisms at each tropic level at a particular time, measured in g/m2. May
be upright or inverted
Pyramid of Energy- a graphic representation of the amount of energy trapped per unit time and area in different trophic level of
a food chain with producers forming the base and the top carnivores at the tip. Always upright
Habitat: The physical environment in which an organism lives (it corresponds to address of an organism). It is an ecological
or environmental area inhabited by particular species of plants, animals, fungi, etc. Many habitats make up the environment.
Natural Ecosystem: Terrestrial ecosystem- Tundra, forest, Desert, Grassland etc. , Aquatic Ecosystem- Rivers, Lakes, ponds,
Oceans etc
Aquatic Ecosystems: Fresh water ecosystems Water on land which is continuously cycling and has low salt content (always less
than 5 ppt) is known as fresh water. Two types of fresh water ecosystems: (i) Static or still water (Lentic) ecosystems e.g. pond,
lake, bogs and swamps. (ii) Running water (Lotic) ecosystems e.g. springs, mountain brooks, streams and rivers. Marine
ecosystems the water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or above that of sea water (i.e., 35 ppt or above). Eg: shallow
seas and open ocean. Brackish water ecosystems these water bodies have salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt
marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.
Aquatic Organisms
Neuston: Organisms live at the air-water interface e.g. floating plants. Periphyton: Organisms which remain attached to stems
and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging above the bottom mud such as sessile algae. Plankton: Microscopic floating
organisms such as algae, diatoms, protozoans and larval forms are called plankton. Nekton: This group contains powerful
swimmers that can overcome the water currents. The animals range in size from the swimming insects to the largest blue whale.
Benthos: Organisms are those found living in the bottom of the water mass.
Factors Limiting the Productivity of Aquatic Habitats- Dissolved oxygen, Temperature, Sunlight:
Sunlight:- Photic zone Photic (or “euphotic”) zone is the portion that extends from the lake surface down to where the light level
is 1% of that at the surface. The depth of this zone depends on the transparency of water. Aphotic zone- The lower layers of the
aquatic ecosystems, where light penetration and plant growth are restricted (profundal zone). Only respiration activity takes place
in this zone. Aphotic zone extends from the end of the photic zones to bottom of the lake.
Wetlands - Areas intermediate in character between deep-water & terrestrial habitats, transitional in nature & often located in-
between them (Riparian - relating to or situated on the banks of a river). Experience periodic flooding, often contain water
logged & hydric soils (Not enough oxygen for plants) with Hydrophytes & halophytes plant types. Wetlands (usually less than 3
m deep over most of their area) are rich in nutrients & abundant in growth of aquatic macrophytes. Support high densities &
diversities of fauna & have high value of biodiversity conservation. K/a Kidneys of ecosysytem.
Ramsar Convention -an international treaty for the conservation & sustainable utilization of wetlands. Named after the city of
Ramsar in Iran, where the Convention was signed in 1971; Canada has the highest area under wetland and UK has highest
number of wetlands. List of Wetlands of International Importance included 2,231 Ramsar Sites in March 2016. Ramsar
philosophy is the “wise use” of wetlands.
Montreux Record-a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of International Importance.
Estuaries - located where river meets sea which means freshwater from river mixes with salt water of the oceans via tides. Most
productive water bodies in the world. Complete salinity range from 0 to 35 PPT. Populated with about 60 % of world population.
In India, major estuaries occur at bay of Bengal
Mangroves- Mangroves are the trees & bushes growing below the high water level of spring tides, which exhibits remarkable
capacity for salt water tolerance. Exhibits viviparity mode of reproduction e. seeds germinate in the trees itself, before falling to
ground (An adaptive mechanism to overcome problem of germination in saline water). Produces pneumatophores (Blind or arial
roots) to overcome respiration problem in anaerobic soil conditions as these aerial roots enable plants to breathe air through
waterlogged soil. Produce stilt/Prop roots, which emerged from main trunk of the tree above ground level i.e. aerial pitchfork-like
extensions from the trunk which grow downwards and anchor themselves in the soil trapping sediment which helps to stabilize
the tree, subjected to tides and flooding. Mangroves of sundarban are the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangroves of the
world, famous for Bengal tigers & crocodiles.
Mangrove in India- Sundarban, Gujrat, Goa & Ratnagiri, Mahandi, Krishna-Godavari, Cauvery, Andaman & Nicobar
 Coral Reefs- underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Colonies of tiny living animals like
calcareous algae, gastropods, green algae, sino bacteria, oyester, mollusca etc found in marine waters. Often called “rainforests of
the sea” as they form some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth. An individual coral is known as a polyp which ingests tiny
organisms called plankton & other small creatures. Thousands of identical polyps live together and form a coral colony. Each
polyp excretes a calcium carbonate exoskeleton beneath it and, over long periods of time, the skeletons of many coral colonies
add up to build the structure of a coral reef. Many other species fish, invertebrates, algae and microorganisms make their homes
on and around this reef.
Prominent Features of Coral Reefs-Coral lives a symbiotic life. Inside the sac of each coral polyp lives one-celled algae called
zooxanthellae. Algae gives off oxygen and other nutrients that the coral polyp needs to live and in return the polyp gives the
algae carbon dioxide and other substances the algae needs. That is why coral reefs grow so near the surface of the water where it
is the sunniestthe algae need sunshine for photosynthesis. Despite occupying less than 1% of the world's ocean surface, they
provide a home for 25% of all marine species. In addition to providing corals with essential nutrients, zooxanthellae are
responsible for the unique and beautiful colors of many stony corals.
Coral Bleaching- When water temperatures increase, the polyps expel their algal cells (zooxanthellae) and the colony takes on a
stark white appearance; commonly described as “coral bleaching. If the polyps go for too long without zooxanthellae, coral
bleaching can result in the coral's death.
Causes of Coral Bleaching- Global Warming (Rise of Water Temperature). Diseases : Coral Plague, Black Band Disease, White
Band Disease. Marine Pollution, Acidification,Oil Leakage. Frequent formation of El Nino, oxygen starvation, increased
sedimentation, changes in salinity
Types of Coral Reefs- Fringing reefs -Most common type. Project seaward directly from the shore. Forming borders along the
shoreline and surrounding islands. Barrier reefs- Grow at border shorelines, but at a greater distance. They are separated from
their adjacent land mass by a lagoon of open, often deep water. Atoll -Usually circular or oval, with a central lagoon. If a
fringing reef forms around a volcanic island that subsides completely below sea level while the coral continues to grow upward,
an atoll forms.
Lagoon- chilka, pulicate, periyar
Conditions required for coral reef formation- Clear tropical ocean water usually between 30N to 30S latitudes. Water
temperature must be between 20-25° C. Can form to depth of 90 meters since at this depth algae can form food through
photosynthesis. Not found near mouth of river where lots of sediments are unloaded into ocean. Formed only in saline water with
almost 27 PPT
Coral Profile India- Lakshadweep, Malvan Goa, Gulf of Kutch, Palk bay to Gulf of Mannar, Andaman & Nicobar
Eutrophic water body: (Eutrophication Algal Bloom) it is a a body of water rich in nutrients and so supporting a dense plant
population, the decomposition of which kills animal life by depriving it of oxygen. Eutrophication is the response to the addition
of nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates naturally or artificially, fertilizing the aquatic ecosystem.
Red Tide: phenomenon where certain phytoplankton species contain pigments and “bloom” such that the human eye perceives
the water to be discolored. Blooms can appear greenish, brown, and even reddish orange depending upon the type of organism,
the type of water, and the concentration of the organisms. The term “red tide” is a misnomer because blooms are not always red,
they are not associated with tides, they are usually not harmful, and some species can be harmful or dangerous at low cell
concentrations that do not discolor the water.
Pollution: Addition of undesirable material into the environment as a result of human activities. A pollutant may be defined as
a physical, chemical or biological. Pollution may be of the following types: Air pollution, Noise pollution, Water pollution, Soil
pollution, Thermal pollution and Radiation pollution.
Primary Pollutants: Persist in the form in which they are added to the environment for ex. DDT, Plastic
Secondary Pollutants: Formed by interaction among primary pollutants viz. PAN by interaction of NOx & Hydrocarbons
Biodegradable Pollutants: Waste products which are degraded by microbial action for ex. Sewage
Non-Biodegradable Pollutants: Not decomposed by microbial action for ex. Plastic, Glass, DDT, Radioactive substances
Quantitative Pollutants: Occur in nature & become pollutant when their concentration reaches beyond a threshold level for ex.
CO2, NOx
Qualitative Pollutants: Do not occur in nature & are man-made for ex. fungicides, herbicides, DDT
Air Pollution: Presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance in such concentration that may be directly and /or indirectly
injurious to humans or other living organisms, property or interferes with the normal environmental processes. An ever
increasing use of fossil fuels in power plants, industries, transportation, mining, construction of buildings, stone quarries had led
to air pollution. Fossil fuels contain small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur. Burning of fossil fuels like coal (thermal power
plants) and petroleum (petroleum refineries) release different oxides of nitrogen and sulphur into the atmosphere.
 Acid Rain: These gases react with the water vapour present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The acids
drop down with rain, making the rain acidic. This is called acid rain. Acid rain corrodes the marble monuments like Taj Mahal.
This phenomenon is called as “Marble cancer. Acid rain (Ph < 5.6) is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide,
which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids (H2SO4& HNO3). Acid rain is a popular term referring
to the deposition of wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog, cloudwater, and dew) and dry (acidifying particles and gases) acidic components
Harmful effects of acid rain: Effects on humans- bad smells, reduced visibility; irritation of the skin, eyes and the respiratory
tract, chronic bronchitis, pulmonary emphysema and cancer. An increase in the levels of toxic heavy-metals like manganese,
copper, cadmium and aluminium also contribute to the detrimental effects on human health. Effects on soil: The exchange
between hydrogen ions and the nutrient cautions like potassium and magnesium in the soil cause leaching of the nutrients,
making the soil infertile. This is accompanied by a decrease in the respiration of soil organisms. An increase in ammonia in the
soil due to a decrease in other nutrients decrease the rate of decomposition. The nitrate level of the soil is also found to decrease.
The impact of acid rain on soil is less in India; because Indian soils are mostly alkaline, with good buffering ability. Effects on
aquatic life: Eggs or sperms of fish, frogs and other aquatic organisms are sensitive to pH changes. Acid rain kills their gametes
affecting the life cycles and productivity. Death or their inability to increase in numbers causes severe ecosystem imbalances.
Acidic lake waters may kill bacteria/microbes/planktons and the acidic lakes become unproductive and life less.
Ozone Hole - Ozone Depletion: Polar vortex and ozone depletion are two distinct but related phenomena. Ozone gas is
continuously formed by the action of UV rays on molecular oxygen in the stratosphere. Also, ozone is simultaneously degraded
into molecular oxygen in the stratosphere. There should be a balance between production and degradation of ozone in the
stratosphere so that there is a continuous layer of ozone. Of late, the balance has been disrupted due to enhancement of ozone
degradation by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) [chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are halocarbons]. There is a steady decline of about 4%
in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere. Much larger decrease in stratospheric ozone is observed around Earth's Polar
Regions.
Ozone Hole Ozone Depletion: Halocarbon: a compound in which the hydrogen of a hydrocarbon is replaced by halogens like
chlorine, bromine, iodine etc. Halogen: group of reactive non-metallic elements like fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and
astatine. The thickness of it is measured in terms of Dobson units (DU).
Ozone depleting substances (ODS)- Scientific evidence indicates that stratospheric ozone is being destroyed by a group of
manufactured chemicals, containing mainly chlorine or bromine, called “ozone-depleting substances” (ODS). ODS are very
stable, nontoxic, non-flammable and environmentally safe in the lower atmosphere, which is why they became so popular in the
first place. However, their very stability allows them to float up, intact, to the stratosphere & once there, they are broken apart by
the intense ultraviolet light, releasing chlorine and bromine. Chlorine and bromine demolish ozone at an alarming rate, by
stripping an atom from the ozone molecule
Main ODS CFCs, HCFCs, Halons, CCl4, NOx, CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform). International ozone day on 16th September.
Major Sources: Solvent Cleansing products >Refrigeration & Air conditioners > Foam Products
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)- The most widely used ODS, accounting for over 80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion.
Used as coolants in refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners in buildings and cars manufactured before 1995. Also found in
industrial solvents, dry-cleaning agents and hospital sterilants. Also used in foam products such as soft-foam padding (e.g.
cushions and mattresses) and rigid foam (e.g. home insulation)
Impacts of Ozone Depletion- Skin cancers, sunburns and premature aging of the skin. UV radiation can damage several parts of
the eye, including the lens, cornea, retina and conjunctiva
Ozone hole mainly in Antarctica not in Arctic pole, because Southern polar region more colder & isolated than north, which
favor the formation of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) which in turn serve as platforms for catalytic ozone breakdown. As a
consequence of having less land, the circulation over the Antarctic is more persistent and vortex-like, which favours PSCs. Air
inside the vortex is prevented from mixing with warmer, ozone-rich air from lower latitudes (This vortex is not a feature of the
Arctic). Ozone is measured in Dobson units.
Harmful Effects: Effects on Humans- Increased susceptibility to skin-cancer. Increase cataract (a medical condition in which the
lens of the eye becomes progressively opaque, resulting in blurred vision). Damage DNA (DNA mutations), Damage to cornea
and causes retinal diseases. Suppresses human immune systems
Greenhouse Effect: A greenhouse is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material, such as glass, in
which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown. In a greenhouse, the incident solar radiation (the visible and
adjacent portions of the infrared and ultraviolet ranges of the spectrum) passes through the glass roof and walls and is absorbed
by the floor, earth, and contents, which become warmer and re- emit the energy as longer-wavelength infrared radiation (heat
radiation). Glass and other materials used for greenhouse walls do not transmit infrared radiation, so the infrared cannot escape
via radiative transfer. As the structure is not open to the atmosphere, heat also cannot escape via convection, so the temperature
inside the greenhouse rises. This is known as the 'greenhouse effect'.
Importance of Natural Greenhouse Effect: The green-house effect is a natural phenomenon and has been occurring for
millions of years on the earth. Life on the earth has been possible because of this natural greenhouse effect which is due to water
vapour and small particles of water present in the atmosphere. Together, these produce more than 95 percent of total greenhouse
warming. Average global temperatures is maintained at about 15°C due to natural greenhouse effect. Without this phenomenon,
average global temperatures might have been around 17°C and at such low temperature life would not be able to exist.
Major Contributors: CO2 (Fossil fuels -57%) > CO2 (Deforestation- 17%) > CH4 -14% > N2O 8%. Water vapor is the biggest
contributor to the greenhouse effect; However CO2 & other greenhouse gases are increasing the amount of water vapors in the air
by boosting the rate of evaporation
Major Sources: Electricity 32%>Transportation 28% > Industry 20% > Commercial & Residential 10%> Agriculture 10%
Global Warming Potential- GWP of Primary CHGs SF6 > PFCs > HFCs > N2O > CH4 > CO2
Global Warming Impacts: Melting of the ice caps, Extreme Climatic Events, Environmental Degradation, Rising Health
Related Issues, Biodiversity Loss, No Food SecurityBio-accumulation- Refers how pollutant enters a food chain means
concentration of pollutant from the environment to the first organism in a food chain. Occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic
substance at a rate greater than that at which he can digest.
Biomagnifcation: Pollutants, especially non-degradable ones move through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem. Non-
degradable pollutants mean. Materials, which cannot be metabolized by the living organisms. Example: Chlorinated
Hydrocarbons. Bio magnification refers to the tendency of pollutants to concentrate as they move from one trophic level to the
next. Thus in bio magnifcation there is an increase in concentration of a pollutant from one link in a food chain to another. In
order for bio magnifcation to occur, the pollutant must be: long-lived, mobile, soluble in fats, biologically active. E.g. DDT.
Major Air Pollutants
CO- By incomplete combustion of carbon based fuels, Automobile exhaust, Cigarette smoke. Combines with hemoglobin to
form carboxyhaemoglobin, which is highly stable & reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood. Slow our reflexes & make us
confused & sleepy

CO2- Major greenhouse gas formed by respiration, burning of fuels, decomposition of lime, volcanic eruption
CFCs-Released mainly from air conditioning systems & refrigeration. Detrimental to Ozone layer present in the stratosphere as
CFC + UV >> Cl (Chlorine radicals which causes breakdown of Ozone)
Lead- Present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products etc. (Affects children in particular). Damages nervous
system & cause digestive problems & in some cases causes cancer
O3- Formed when NOx particle from vehicle exhaust & volatile Hydrocarbons interact with each other in presence of sunlight
SO2- Produced from burning coal (60 %), mainly in thermal power plants + Petroleum products + in production of paper &
smelting of metals. Major contributor to smog causing lung diseases
CH4- Mainly CH4 burns in fossil fuels + produced by burning of vegetation / rotting
Acid Rain- Ph < 5.6 (Rain with oxides of sulphur & nitrogen (SO2 & NO2)) HNO3 + H2SO4
NOx- NO3- Acts as a fertilizer to the soil. Automobile exhaust produces NO2 which damages plant leaves & retard rate of
photosynthesis + also causes red haze & lung irritation
Classical Smog- Occurs in cool humid climate. Chemically reducing hence called reducing smog. Smoke + fog + SO2
Photochemical Smog - Occurs in warm, dry & sunny climate. Result from the action of sunlight on unsaturated HC & NOx
produced by factories & automobile
Chemically oxidising hence called oxidising smog. Ozone + Acrolein + Formaldehyde + Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) are
produced which cause serious health problems, severe plant damage, cracking of rubber & corrosion. Catalytic Converter
Prevent release of NO & HC to environment
Fly Ash- Residue produced whenever combustion of solid material takes place, which rises with the gases in atmosphere &
causes respiratory problems. Contains Aluminium silicates, SiO2 & Calcium oxide (CaO) + Toxic metals like lead, arsenic,
cobalt etc.
Diseases By Air Pollutants
Pneumoconiosis / Black Lung Disease- an occupational lung disease caused by inhalation of coal dust, often in mines
Asbestosis - a lung disease, which leads to long-term breathing complications, caused by exposure to asbestos (No cure)
Silicosis - a lung disease that is caused by inhaling tiny bits of silica mainly by the workers working in silica industries or sand
blasting sites
Emphysema - Breaking down of lung tissues due to air pollution & cigarette smoke leading to difficulty in expanding &
contracting of lungs
Water Pollution
Sources community waste water, Industrial waste, Agricultural chemicals waste, Thermal & nuclear pollution, Oil spills,
Radioactive dump waste, Groundwater seepage etc.
• Water hyacinth (an aquatic weed) can purify water by taking some toxic materials & a number of heavy metals from water.
Biochemical
oxygen demand- amount of dissolved oxygen needed by bacteria in decomposing the organic waste present in water. Actually a
measurement of pollution by organic wastes expressed as milligram of oxygen / liter water. Higher value of BOD indicates low
dissolved oxygen in water (BOD is only limited to biodegradable materials only)
• Diseases by Water Pollution
• Minamata - A crippling deformity caused by methyl mercury poisoning mainly by industrial waste water
• itai itai - Also known as ouch ouch disease (pain in bones & joints) caused by water contamination by cadmium
• Blue Baby Syndrome - Excess nitrates in drinking water reacts with hemoglobin to form nonfunctional methaemoglobin
which impairs oxygen transport
• Skeletal Fluorosis - Excess of fluorides in drinking water can cause neuromuscular disorders, teeth deformity, and
hardening of bones, painful joints & outward bending of legs from knees Knock knee syndrome
• Black foot disease- Caused by leaching of arsenic from soil & rocks to ground water used for drinking purposes
Sick building syndrome (SBS)- a situations in which building occupants experience acute health and comfort effects that appear
to be linked to time spent in a building, but no specific illness or cause can be identified. causes are frequently pinned down to
flaws in the heating, ventilation & air conditioning (HVAC) systems
Pollution in Leather Industry- As a result, Indian leather industry is REACH compliant (EU norms) and exported $4.5 bio in
2011-12 and the target is $14 bio by 2015-16
E waste : Electronic waste major pollutants Lead. Mercury, Chromium VI, Cadmium, Brominated Flame Retardant , Barium.
Beryllium
Sound- measured in decibels (db), an increase of about 10 db approximately double the loudness of sound. hearing can be
damaged if exposd to noise levels over 75 db over a prolonged period of time. WHO recommends that sound level indoors should
be less than 30 db
Bioremediation / Bioaugmentation- Use of microorganisms (fungi & bacteria) to degrade the environment contaminants into less
toxic forms. It can be in situ or ex situ
Stone Cancer- Taj Mahal is threatened by acid rain from Mathura refinery. This is called stone cancer.
Upwelling wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the
warmer, usually nutrient-depleted surface water. Oceans contain largest amount of C, mostly near their surface and as HCO3- .
The typhoons and storm bury lot of C as they wash away sediments. In regions of upwelling, C is released into the atmosphere
and in regions of downwelling, it is absorbed into the ocean.
Revelle factor: The level of carbon in oceans doesn't vary in unity with the partial pressure of atmospheric CO2. It varies by a
factor called Revelle factor which is ~10 i.e. for 10% increase in partial pressure of atmospheric CO2, oceanic carbon content
will increase by 1%. Towards the pole, water becomes cooler and hence more CO2 becomes soluble into the water and hence
more C absorption.
Carbon sink & source- A carbon sink is anything that absorbs more carbon that it releases, while a carbon source is
anything that releases more carbon than is absorb. Forests, soils, oceans and the atmosphere all store carbon and this carbon
moves between them in a continuous cycle. This constant movement of carbon means that forests act as sources or sinks at
different times.
Natural sinks Oceans (Largest on earth) + Photosynthesis by plants. Artificial sinks Landfills + Carbon capture and
storage proposals
Oceans are the largest active carbon sink on Earth, absorbing more than a quarter of the carbon dioxide that humans put into the
air
CO2 Sequestration- long-term storage of carbon dioxide to mitigate global warming & avoid dangerous climate change.
proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases. includes carbon capture and storage,
which refers to large-scale, permanent artificial capture & sequestration of industrially produced CO2 using Subsurface saline
aquifers, Reservoirs, Ocean water. Aging oil fields or other carbon sinks
Carbon credit- Any tradable certificate representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another
greenhouse gas equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide. Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and
international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs). One carbon credit is equal to one
tonne of carbon dioxide, or in some markets, carbon dioxide equivalent gases. Carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an
investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects. Buyers and sellers
can also use an exchange platform to trade, such as the Carbon Trade Exchange, which is like a stock exchange for carbon
credits. China is currently the largest seller of carbon credits controlling about 70% of the market share with India at second place
with 20% market share. MCX has become the first exchange in Asia to trade carbon credits
Biodiversity The variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of
ecosystems. Biological Diversity actually means number and variety of plants and animals. As you move from equator towards
the poles, biodiversity decreases. Biodiversity is normally greater in the lower latitudes as compared to the higher latitudes.
Biodiversity is normally greater in the lower altitudes as compared to the higher altitudes. Biodiversity is high in tropical forests
and coral reefs
Biodiversity can be subdivided into three levels
Genetic Diversity - It refers to the variation of genes within a species which enables a population to adapt to its environment and
to respond to natural selection. Genetic diversity within a species often increases with environmental variability. For ex:
Butterflies, Roses, Corals etc.
Species diversity- Refers to variety of species within a region
Community & ecosystem diversity- diversity of a place at the level of ecosystems i.e. variety of ecosystems present in a
biosphere. variety of species & ecological processes that occur in different physical settings. differs from biodiversity, which
refers to variation in species rather than ecosystems
Biodiversity is defined & measured on two components viz. richness & evenness
Richness: Expressed as the number of species found in a community. Evenness: Proportions of species or functional groups
present on a site. The more equal species are in proportion to each other the greater the evenness of the site. A site with low
evenness indicates that a few species dominate the site.
Alpha Diversity: richness and evenness of individuals within a habitat unit. For example in the figure above, Alpha Diversity of
Site A = 7 species, Site B = 5 species, Site C = 7 species.
Beta Diversity: expression of diversity between habitats. In the example above, the greatest Beta Diversity is observed between
Site A and C with 10 species that differ between them and only 2 species in common.
Gamma Diversity: landscape diversity or diversity of habitats within a landscape or region. In this example, the gamma diversity
is 3 habitats with 12 species total diversity.
Biodiversity hotspot: An area unusually rich in biodiversity under constant threat of overexploitation for ex. Eastern Himalayas
& Western Ghats. To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot-map, a region must meet two strict
criteria viz.. Must have at least 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics (> 0.5% of world's total). Has to have lost at least
70% of its primary vegetation habitat. Around the world, these sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal,
reptile, and amphibian species, with a very high share of endemic species.
Biodiversity Hotspots in India-Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, The Eastern Himalayas, Indo-Burma Region, Sundaland (South-
East Asia region India is represented by the Nicobar Islands
India has only 2.4% of world land area & 4% of fresh water, yet accounts for 7.3% of recorded species making it 3rd most mega
diverse country (after Brazil & Costa Rica) with highest concentration of species in Agasthymalai Hills in Western Ghats
Hope spots- A hope spot is an area of ocean that merits special protection because of its wildlife and significant underwater
habitats. Andaman and Nicobar & Lakshadweep Islands have been named as the new “hope spots” by IUCN & oceanographer
Sylvia Earle of Mission Blue, an organization involved in the study of oceans
Different types of Species
Keystone species- Species which determine the ability of a large number of other species to survive. Extinction of keystone
species has snowballing effect on extinction of other species. Examples of keystone species : Bees ? pollination of fruits and
flowers. Plankton ? food of many fishes
Flagship species- a species selected to act as an icon or symbol for a defined habitat campaign or environmental cause. By
focusing on, and achieving conservation of that species, the status of many other species which share its habitat or are vulnerable
to the same threats may also be improved
Umbrella species- species selected for making conservation related decisions, typically because protecting these species
indirectly protects the many other species that make up the ecological community of its habitat
Indicator species- a species or group of species chosen as an indicator of the state of an ecosystem or of certain processes within
that ecosystem. Can be among the most sensitive species in a region, and sometimes act as an early warning to monitoring
biologists
Sentinel species- Species which are sensitive indicator of environmental problems. For ex. frogs, toads, salamander, vultures.
Frogs breath through their moist skin, which is very sensitive to pollutants in environment. a rapid decline in the population of
frogs thus would indicate a looming environmental problem.
Non-native species- Non-native species have no predators or competitors to control their population in new area hence they
destroy a vast range of plants & reduced the forest area. Rats of several species were unintended stowaways on oceanic voyages,
and thus spread around the world. Infected humans took human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which caused aids from Africa to
the rest of the world.
Biofertilizers (a type of organic fertilizers)-Substance which contains living microorganisms ex. Azobacter, Rhizobium,
Bacillus, Nostac, Anabaena. when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, it promotes growth by increasing the supply or
availability of primary nutrients (nitrogen, Phosphorous etc.) to the host plant
Green Manure- a type of cover crop grown primarily to add nutrients and organic matter to the soil. a green manure crop is
grown for a specific period of time, and then ploughed under and incorporated into the soil while it is still green or shortly after
flowering. provides subsidy on purchase of seeds & on cost for production of seeds for green manure plants
Forest Ecosystem
Tundra-Ice frozen soil with severe climatic conditions. Tropical-Lying near the tropics or in equatorial region. Montane-
Pertaining to mountainous region. Temperate-Between Tropics & Arctic circles i.e. from 23.5* to 66.5* approx.. Evergreen-
Trees do not shed their leaves periodically & always looks filled. Deciduous-Trees which shed their leaves periodically.
Coniferous-Needle leaved trees.
Alpine-Relating to high mountains
Tundra-Word Tundra means barren land since they are found where environmental conditions are very severe. There are 2 types
of Tundra:
Arctic Tundra - Northern most region adjoining the ice bound poles. Region below polar ice caps & above the tree line in
northern hemisphere. On the South Pole tundra is very small as most of it is covered by oceans. Devoid of trees except stunted
scrubs which includes mainly lichens, Birches, mosses & sedges.
Alpine Tundra- Occurs at high mountains above the tree line at all the latitudes (because mountains are found at all latitudes with
variation in day & night temperature). Mammals of tundra have large body size covered with furs and small tail & ear to avoid
loss of heat. Found mostly at Canada, Alaska, Russia, Siberia & island group of Arctic Ocean.
Taiga or Boreal or coniferous Forests- Found mostly in Northern Europe, Asia, Northern America. Moderate temperature than
Tundra (Cold regions with high rainfall, long winters & short summers) with dominating vegetation being coniferous (needle-
leaved ) evergreen, mostly spruce with some pine & firs. Soil is deficient in humus content as litter derived from conifer leafs
decompose slowly & is not rich in nutrients and weathering of rocks in persisting cold climate also proceeds slowly. Soils are
mainly acidic & mineral deficient due to water logged area & without significant evaporation essential soluble nutrients leaches
deep down beyond the reach of roots.
Temperate deciduous forests - Extends over central & southern Europe, Eastern North America, Western China, Japan, New
Zealand etc. Moderate temperature & moderate rainfall, Shed their leaves during fall, are bare over winters & grow new foilage
in spring. Generally the most productive areas on the earth, Trees include mainly Beech, Oak, Maple & Cherry
Littoral & Swamps- Found along A & N islands & at deltas. Have roots which consist of soft tissues so that plant can breathe in
water
Tropical Rain Forests- Equatorial regions with high temperature & high rainfall. Covers approx 7 % of earth's surface & 40 %
of world's plant & animal species. Abundant in multiple story broad leaved evergreen trees with epiphytic plants concentrated in
canopy or trees top zones
Grassland: Two types of grasslands: temperate and tropical. Tropical grasslands- growing up to seven feet. Eg. Savannah
Temperate grasslands- shorter grass. North America prairies, Eurasia steppes, South America - pampas, South Africa -velds.
Australia, Newzland - downs, Hungary - Puszta
Environment movement in India
Chipko Movement, 1973- In the the Chamoli district of Uttranchal, shoved aside urban armchair naturalists. Led by Chandni
Prasad Bhatt and Sunderlal Bahuguna, it was a people's revolt against mindless deforestation. And they did it simply. By hugging
trees when the woodmen came to axe them
The Silent Valley Project, 1978-The Silent Valley hydroelectric project was to dam the Kunthipuzha River. It was a battlefield
of personal agendas, between the then prime minister Morarji Desai, the Kerala government and the environmentalists. The Silent
Valley hydroelectric project was to dam the Kunthipuzha River, submerging the entire biosphere reserve and destroying its four-
million-year-old rainforests. In 1980, the M.G.K. Menon Committee set up to review the project, came out with a
recommendation to scrap it.
Jungle Bachao Andolan, 1980s began in Bihar and later spread to states like Jharkhand and Orissa. The tribals of Singhbhum
district of Bihar bubbled up a protest when the government decided to replace the natural sal forests with highly-priced teak, a
move that was termed “a greed game, political populism”.
Navdanya Movement, 1982- Vandana Shiva . an organisation promoting biodiversity conservation and organic farming.
Narmada Bachao Andolan, 1985 - it is a movement against building multi-purpose dam over Narmada river which will
ultimately result in flood & water logging in large area covered by about 1,00,000 people. the movement is led by Medha
Potekar, Baba Amte & Arundhati Roy.
BISHNOI MOVEMENT : was started in 400 years ago by a Sage known as Sombaji. in Rajasthan, a large number of trees are
still worshiped by devotees. people resisted the cutting of such tree & advocated movement against deforestation.
CHIPKO MOVEMENT : It was started in 1973 is the Chamoli district of Uttranchal, Chipko movement was against
deforestation. Sunderlal Bahueguna , Gauri devi & Chandi Prasad Bhatt were prominent leaders of this movement.
BALIYAPAL MOVEMENT : It is a movement against testing of missiles on the land of Baliyal villagers which may lead to
interfertitlity of soil.
Appiko movement Pandurang Hegde in Karnatak in1983 to protect forest
Environment initiatives in the world
1961: World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization set up. The iconic panda logo
has made. From the organization's website: “We are committed to reversing the degradation of our planet's natural environment
and to building a future in which human needs are met in harmony with nature. We recognize the critical relevance of human
numbers, poverty and consumption patterns to meeting these goals.
1970: April 22 , Earth Day was first celebrated
1971:Green peace when a group of activists put themselves directly in harm's way in order to protest nuclear testing off the coast
of Alaska. Believing that concerted action from ordinary people is the best way according to their signature quote from Margaret
Mead, the only way the organization has helped to stop whaling, nuclear testing, as well as leading efforts to protect Antarctica.
1971: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance ("Ramsar Convention")- aims conservation and sustainable utilization
of wetlands. It was signed in Ramsar, Iran. In India 26 sites are Ramsar site, which are spread across India from Wular Lake in
Jammu and Kashmir to Ashtamudi Wetland in Kerala, and from Deepor Beel in Assam to Nal Sarovar in Gujarat.
1972: Stockholm Declaration. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants . United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP)- It coordinates UN's environmental activities, assisting developing countries in implementing
environmentally sound policies and practices.
1973: Convention on International Trade in Endangered species of Wild flora and fauna (CITES) - also known as Washington
Convention. legally binding on the Parties, but it does not take the place of national laws.
1982: Nairobi Declaration - Creation of a special commission to frame long term environment strategies for achieving
sustainable developments.
1985: Vienna convention for the protection of ozone layer
1987: Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. A protocol to Vienna Convention.
1987: Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development ("Brundtland Report"). Gave
concept of "sustainable development"
1990: Alliance of Small Island States - intergovernmental organisation of low lying coastal and small island nations. It has a
membership of 44 states
1992: Agenda 21- Related with sustainable development. Held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Product of Earth Summit. ? Non-
binding ? Voluntary ? It is an action plan of United Nation . Global Environment Facility ( GEF) was restructured and moved out
of the World Bank system to become a permanent, separate institution
1992: United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) - It is an international environment treaty. To
stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. Developing countries get money and technologies for low-carbon
investments from Industrialised countries.
1992: Convention on Biological Diversity - Convention has 3 main goals : a. Conservation of biological diversity b. Sustainable
use of its components; and c. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources
1992: Basel convention- Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal
1992: Convention to Combat Desertification - UN convention. legally binding framework set up to address the problem of
desertification
1997: Protocol to the UNFCCC ("Kyoto Protocol")- Came into force in 2005. To fight global warming by reducing
greenhouse gas concentrations. A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the
protocol.
1998: Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International
Trade ("Rotterdam Convention")
2000: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety ("Cartagena Protocol") - to protect biological diversity from the potential risks
posed by living modified organisms.
2001: Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants ("Stockholm Convention")
2005: Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) - negotiation under UNFCC.
2007: REDDD+ (Defined in Bali Action Plan, CoP13). REDD+ (or REDD-plus) = to "reducing emissions from deforestation
and forest degradation in developing countries, and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests, and
enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries"
2010: The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits arising from their
Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity ('Nagoya Protocol')
2012: United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development RIO +20 . CoP-18 ensured Green climate fund for climate
change.
2013: Minamata Convention on Mercury. To protect from mercury poisoning.
2015: Paris Agreement (To replace Kyoto Protocol) - Greenhouse gases emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance starting
in the year 2020. The contribution that each individual country should make in order to achieve the worldwide goal are
determined by all countries individually and called "nationally determined contributions" (NDCs) - These targets will not be
binding as it is not possible to enforce them. India has signed it. India's contribution in global greenhouse gas is 4.10% in 2105. ?
India's proposed targets: 1. Reduce emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35% by 2030 from 2005 level.
International Solar Alliance - was launched at the 2015 Paris Climate Change Summit by Narendra Modi and French President
Francois Hollande. To harness solar energy to generate the electricity.
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) - international organisation working in the field of nature
conservation and sustainable use of natural resources . HQ : Gland, Switzerland ? It is involved in data gathering and analysis,
research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying and education
IPCC: The neutral IPCC's recent conclusion that human activity is fueling global warming was both expected and stunning. Any
last vestiges of naysaying and doubt were effectively negated in the panel's deliberation which involved hundreds of leading
scientists and analysis of thousands of papers. The IPCC is an independent non-governmental international group of leading
respected scientists and, according to the official website: “The IPCC was established to provide the decision-makers and others
interested in climate change with an objective source of information about climate change. The IPCC does not conduct any
research nor does it monitor climate related data or parameters. Its role is to assess on a comprehensive, objective, open and
transparent basis the latest scientific, technical and socio-economic literature produced worldwide relevant to the understanding
of the risk of human-induced climate change, its observed and projected impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation.”
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is an agency of United Nations and coordinates its environmental
activities, assisting developing countries in implementing environmentally sound policies and practices. It was founded by
Maurice Strong, its first director, as a result of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm
Conference) in June 1972 and has its headquarters in the Gigiri neighborhood of Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP also has six regional
offices and various country offices.
Biosphere Reserves in India: The Indian government has established 18 Biosphere Reserves in India (categories roughly
corresponding to IUCN Category V Protected areas), which protect larger areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or
Animal Sanctuary), and often include one or more National Parks and/or preserves, along with buffer zones that are open to some
economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the poached herenon protected region, but also to the
human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life. Animals are protected and saved here. Nilgiri -Tamil
Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka, Nanda Devi -Uttarakhand, Gulf of Mannar-Tamil Nadu, Nokrek-Meghalaya, Sundarbans-WB,
Manas-Assam, Simlipal-Odisha, Dihang-Dibang-Arunachal Pradesh, Pachmarhi -MP, Achanakmar-Amarkantak -MP,
Chhattisgarh, Great Rann of Kutch-Gujarat, Cold Desert-HP, Khangchendzonga-Sikkim, Agasthyamalai -Kerala, Tamil Nadu.
Great Nicobar -Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Dibru-Saikhowa-Assam, Seshachalam Hills-Andhra Pradesh, Panna-MP (bolds
are in UNESCO MAB network)
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)- Environmental impact assessment is the formal process used to predict the
environmental consequences (positive or negative) of a plan, policy, program, or project prior to the decision to move forward
with the proposed action. An important management tool for ensuring optimal use of natural resources for sustainable
development. Aimed to ensure that decision makers consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed
with a project. A useful aid for decision making based on understanding of the environment implications including social,
cultural and aesthetic concerns which could be integrated with the analysis of the project costs and benefits.
Biogeocycles: Mineral nutrients are always in circulation, moving from non-living to living & then back to non-living
components of ecosystem in a more or less circular pattern. The Water Cycle, The Carbon Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle: The nitrogen cycle is the set of biogeochemical processes by which nitrogen undergoes chemical reactions,
changes form, and moves through difference reservoirs on earth, including living organisms.Nitrogen is required for all
organisms to live and grow because it is the essential component of DNA, RNA, and protein. However, most organisms cannot
use atmospheric nitrogen, the largest reservoir. The five processes in the nitrogen cycle
I. Nitrogen fixation: N2 -> NH4+. Rhizobium, are the only organisms that fix nitrogen through metabolic processes. Nitrogen
fixing bacteria often form symbiotic relationships with host plants. This symbiosis is well-known to occur in the legume family
of plants (e.g. beans, peas, and clover). In this relationship, nitrogen fixing bacteria inhabit legume root nodules and receive
carbohydrates and a favourable environment from their host plant in exchange for some of the nitrogen they fix.
II. Nitrogen uptake: NH4+ -> Organic N.
III. Nitrogen mineralization: Organic N ->NH4+
IV. Nitrification: NH4+ -> NO3. Ammonia to Nitrites. Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrococcus. Nitrites to Nitrates :
Nitrobacter
V. De-nitrification: NO3 -> N2+ N2O. Pseudomonas bacteria
Nitrogen fixation methods: By microorganisms (Bacteria, Blue green algae etc), By man-made fertilizers, By thunder &
lightening. By Cosmic Radiations. Microorganisms capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium ions are Azobacter,
Clostridium, Rhizobium, Blue green algae (Anabaena, Spirulina). Ammonium ions can be taken up as a source of nitrogen by
some plants & are oxidized to nitrites or nitrates by nitrifying bacteria viz. Nitrates synthesized by bacteria in the soil are taken
up by plants & are converted into amino acids, which are the building blocks of the proteins. Amount of nitrogen fixed by man
through industrial processes & through chemical fertilizers has far exceeded the amount fixed by natural cycle. As a result
nitrogen has become a pollutant which leads to acid rains, eutrophication & harmful algae blooms.
Carbon Cycle: The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere,
pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth. The Carbon Cycle is a complex series of processes through
which all of the carbon atoms in existence rotate.
Carbon is released into the atmosphere in several ways:
i. respiration performed by plants and animals. ii. Fungi and bacteria break down the carbon compounds in dead animals and
plants and convert the carbon to carbon dioxide if oxygen is present, or methane if not.
ii. Through combustion of organic material which oxidizes the carbon it contains, producing carbon dioxide (and other things,
like water vapour). Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products releases carbon dioxide. Burning agro fuels also releases
carbon dioxide
iv. Volcanic eruptions and metamorphism release gases into the atmosphere.
Circulation of carbon dioxide:
i. Plants absorbs the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. ii. During the process of photosynthesis, plants incorporates the carbon
atoms from carbon dioxide into sugars. iii. Animals, such as the rabbit eat the plants and use the carbon to build their own
tissues, chain the carbon content iv. Through the food chain, carbon is transferred into foxes, lions etc. v. The animals return
carbon dioxide into the air when they breathe, and when they die, since the carbon is returned to the soil during decomposition
In Case of Ocean:
In regions of oceanic upwelling, carbon is released to the atmosphere. Conversely, regions of down welling transfer carbon
(CO2) from the atmosphere to the ocean. When CO2 enters the ocean, it participates in a series of reactions which are locally in
equilibrium: Conversion of bicarbonate ion to carbonate ion. In the oceans, dissolved carbonate can combine with dissolved
calcium to precipitate solid calcium carbonate, CaCO3, mostly as the shells of microscopic organisms. When these organisms
die, their shells sink and accumulate on the ocean floor. Over time these carbonate sediments form limestone which is the largest
reservoir of carbon in the carbon cycle. The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world's oceans is influenced by the
presence of widespread viruses within ocean water that infect many species of bacteria. The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a
sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide, enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink.

NATIONAL PARK National Environmental Framework Bombay natural

Andaman and Nicobar Islands-Campbell Bay NP, Mount
Harriet NP, Rani Jhansi Marine NP, Saddle Peak NP
Andhra Pradesh-Papikonda NP
Arunachal Pradesh- Mouling NP, Namdapha NP
Assam-Kaziranga NP, Manas NP, Nameri NP, Orang NP
Bihar- Valmiki NP
Chhattisgarh- Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) NP, Indravati NP.
Kanger Ghati NP
Goa- Mollem NP
Gujarat-Gir Forest NP, Marine NP, Gulf of Kutch, Vansda NP
Haryana-Kalesar NP. Sultanpur NP
Himachal Pradesh-Pin Valley NP, Simbalbara NP
Jammu and Kashmir-Dachigam NP, Hemis NP. Kishtwar
NP, Salim Ali NP
history society NGO in1883 for conservation & biodiversity
research
Indian Forest Act, 1927, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, Project
Tiger -1973, Environment Protection Act, 1986.
Biological Diversity Act, 2002
Project Elephant -1992. MIKE stands for Monitoring of
Illegal Killing of Elephants (2003)
Vulture Conservation - Diclofenac (Pain killer of cattle)
killing it. The Supreme Court has also given instructions for
phasing out of Diclofenac
o 8 National Missions a. National Solar Mission b.
National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: c.
National Mission on Sustainable Habitat d. National
Water Mission e. National Mission for Sustaining the
Karnataka-Bandipur NP, Bannerghatta NP, Kudremukh NP.
Nagarhole NP, Rajiv Gandhi (Rameswaram) NP
Kerala-Periyar NP, Silent Valley NP
Madhya Pradesh-Bandhavgarh NP, Kanha NP, Mandla Plant
Fossils NP.Omkareshwar NP. Panna NP. Pench NP. Sanjay
NP2, Van Vihar NP
Maharashtra-Chandoli NP, Gugamal NP, Sanjay Gandhi NP.
Tadoba NP
Manipur-Keibul Lamjao NP, Sirohi NP
Meghalaya-Balphakram NP, Nokrek NP
Mizoram-Murlen NP, Phawngpui Blue Mountain NP
Odisha-Bhitarkanika NP, Simlipal NP
Rajasthan- Keoladeo NP, Sariska Tiger Reserve
Sikkim- Khangchendzonga NP
Tamil Nadu-Guindy NP, Indra Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and
NP, Mudumalai NP, Mukurthi NP
Telangana- Kasu Brahmananda Reddy NP, Mahavir Harina
Vanasthali NP, Mrugavani NP
Tripura- Clouded Leopard NP
Uttar Pradesh-Dudhwa NP
Uttarakhand-Gangotri NP, Govind Pashu Vihar Wildlife
Sanctuary, Jim Corbett NP(first in 1936), Nanda Devi NP,
Rajaji NP, Valley of Flowers NP
Extinct Species: no longer exist on earth. Dodo, Dinosaur
Threatened sp- critically endangered, vulnerable (exist in low
number, moves to be endangered)- musk deer, black buck.
Endangered (on verge of becoming extinct)-blue whale, tiger,
leopard, indian wild ass, dugong,
Rare sp: populations are very small. Indian elephant, Bengal
fox
Conservation: In situ- NP (forestry, grazing, cultivation not
permitted), Sanctuary (only for animals. Human activities are
allowed), Biosphere reserve (human population is part. It has
core, buffer, transition Zone),
Ex situ- Zoological park, botanical garden, gene bank
Himalayan Ecosystem: f. National Mission for a “Green
India”: g. National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture:
h. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate
Change:
CAMPA - Compensatory Afforestation Fund Bill seeks to
govern how forests will be raised, cut and resurrected across
India
Nilgai - largest Asian antelope. indigenous to the Indian
subcontinent.
Golden Mahseer - Golden mahseer is known as the tiger of
Indian rivers
White Cheeked Macaque - in Arunachal Pradesh's Anjaw
district
Black-necked Crane: found in Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh
Olive Ridley Turtles ? Conserve in the Krishna Wildlife
Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh.
Gangetic River Dolphin - National Aquatic Animal of India
Vermin animals - Vermin means wild animals which are
believed to be harmful ? if a species is declared vermin, that
particular species can be hunted or culled without restriction
Particulate Matter 2.5 found in the air, including dust, dirt,
soot, smoke, and liquid droplets. Can be absorbed in lungs and
pass in to blood, thus, is very dangerous. ? Air Quality Index
also measures PM 2.5
Fresh water only 2.5%. 2% frozen as glacier ice & snow.
0.75% inground & soil moisture. 0.01% in lakes, swamps,
rivers
CNG- 80-90% methane. Gobar gas/Biogas ( invented by SV
Desai in 1930)-
Bio-diesel crop-Jatropha, Pongamina. Bhopal gas tragedy
in……..
Non conventional energy coal bed methane pure methane
extracted from coal seams, shale gas- fine grained sedimentary
rocks. Has methane, eathen, propane, butane
Genetically modified food- Bt brinjal Bt cotton genetic
engineering approval committee under ministry of Env &
forest. Golden rice (Vit A rich)
Red data book- state documents for rare and endangered
animals, plants. IUCN red data list (1964) - species on verge
of extinction.
Forest area should be 33%. India has 21.23%. Mizoram-
90.38%, Laksadweep-84.56%
Green Muffler barrier of green plants for noise pollution
National environment engineering research institute Nagpur
(1958)
Green index developed by UNEP. It is index of economic
growth with environmental consequences.
Sound above 80dB cause noise pollution.
Eco mark- by BIS in 1991 to set standard aiming at least
impact on ecosystem.
Damodar river is called biological desert for massive coal
mining & pollution.
Biological indicator of pollution lichen (SO2 in air)
Ecological foot print-minimum area of land required to sustain
life by one person
BOD-dissolved O2 needed by organism in water body to break
down organic matters.