Cement and Concrete Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Cement and Concrete Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cemconres

Admixtures and sustainability

Josephine Cheunga,⁎, Lawrence Robertsb, Jiaping Liuc,d
a
GCP Applied Technologies, Cambridge, MA, USA
b
Roberts Consulting Group, Acton, MA, USA
c
Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China
d
Southeast University, Nanjing, China

A B S T R A C T

Cement additives and concrete admixtures are construction chemicals that reliably improve the sustainability of
a broad range of cement-based systems. This improvement can be derived from enhancing durability and
strength through water reduction, and catalyzing the cement hydration process to enable replacement of clinker
with supplementary cementitious materials. Through current best practices, incorporation of these potent
chemicals at a fraction of a percent of the entire concrete mix affords a clinker replacement of about 20% by
weight. This replacement amount can be more than doubled with correct mix proportioning. Innovative
technologies such as pre-test tools and smart concrete management systems further improve the effectiveness of
admixtures applied in both current and new cementitious materials. Provided longer set times, a consequence of
SCM incorporations, can be tolerated, further reduction in CO2 emissions can be attained. Making trade-offs such
as this will be essential to optimizing the sustainability of cement-based materials.

1. Introduction discovery of calcium lignin sulfonate and triethanolamine, which was

Admixtures are formulated chemicals, often in liquid form, added at
very low quantities (typically < 0.5% by weight of cementitious) to
concrete either before or during the mixing process. Their primary
function is to improve the properties of concrete, in either its plastic or
hardened stages, or both. For the purpose of this paper, admixtures are
divided into four categories: (1) dispersant-based water reducers or
superplasticizers, (2) air entraining agents (AEAs), (3) accelerators, and
(4) other chemicals, including set retarders and durability products.
Among these, superplasticizers are the most popular. The China
Building Material Federation reported that in 2013, about 75% of the
admixtures produced in China were superplasticizers. The production
distribution of admixtures made in China is depicted in Fig. 1.
The first use of a superplasticizer in concrete systems dates back to
1931. Naphthalene sulfonate formaldehyde condensate (NSFC) was
applied during the construction of a road in Massachusetts to darken
the center passing lane. Dr. George Tucker of the Dewey and Almy
Chemical Company of Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, discovered that
NSFC, a chemical dispersant used in can sealants, effectively dispersed
carbon black particles, the coloring agent for the darkening, in a
mixture of concrete [1,2]. During the introduction of this carbon black
dispersant technology, it was also observed that the strength of concrete
had increased considerably. Subsequent research [3] led to the
found to enable the production of cement with higher fineness.
Concrete made from this cement was also found to exhibit good
workability, negligible bleeding, high strength and low permeability.
This revolutionary discovery meant that, with chemicals added at only
a fraction of a percent by weight of the total concrete mix, taller, more
durable, more cost-effective, in other words, more sustainable struc-
tures could be made.
In the eighty years since NSFC was first introduced, the industry has
seen a number of advances. Today, different admixture technologies are
often used in combination, especially in concrete systems that incorpo-
rate secondary cementitious materials (SCMs), where not only water
reduction but also chemistries that catalyze the cement hydration
reaction are used to allow for more inclusion of SCMs while maintain-
ing the specified strength [4–6].
The increase in use of various raw materials in the production of
concrete, whether as cementitious materials, aggregates or admixtures,
can inevitably create complex interaction effects. In the most severe
cases, these negative interactions may lead to production of green
concrete which will not set, or weak concrete, which has a poor
microstructure and short life span. Provided that these obstacles are
circumvented, sustainable concrete production, which, in the context of
this paper, is primarily defined as a net reduction in CO2 emissions over
the life-cycle of a structure, can be achieved by (1) a reduction of

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: josephine.h.cheung@gcpat.com (J. Cheung), roberts_consulting_group@verizon.net (L. Roberts), ljp@cnjsjk.cn (J. Liu).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.04.011
Received 10 December 2016; Received in revised form 8 April 2017; Accepted 18 April 2017
0008-8846/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Cheung, J., Cement and Concrete Research (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.04.011
J. Cheung et al.
Fig. 1. 2013 distribution of admixture production in China reported by the China
Building Material Federation.
cement used, (2) a reduction of mixing and/or placement energy, and
(3) an increase in longevity of the concrete structure.
The process for making good concrete is generally similar through-
out the world. However, to make the most sustainable concrete, some of
the procedures need to be tailored to the specific locations of use, and
this depends on the infrastructure and the available transport capabil-
ities to and from the job site. In locations where bulk cement is used, for
example in urban ready mix concrete plants, chemicals are added in
both the cement grinding and concrete mixing processes. It is, there-
fore, important to take all of the chemicals entering the final concrete
into account. Conversely, in locations where bagged cements are
typically supplied, for example in manual mixing concrete sites, the
use of cement additives in their maximum dosage levels is critical to the
production of high-quality concrete that incorporates a significant
portion of SCMs.
Precast concrete produced in a factory setting is also widely used.
Quality modular concrete structures, featuring admixtures, can then be
produced in a controlled factory environment, where training can be
focused. These modular units can then be delivered to the job site,
requiring only a foundation slab and elevator shafts to be built on site.
Furthermore, precast concrete can be combined with embedded
insulation technologies to reduce energy for delivering the products
and to reduce the overall energy use of the structure.
Cement additives and concrete admixtures have become an integral
component in today's best-in-class sustainable concrete systems.
However, on-going research and development efforts are required to
achieve more ambitious sustainability targets. These needs are enum-
erated at the end of this paper with a focus on the development of (1)
new admixtures for current and new cement-based construction
materials, (2) easy-to-use laboratory and field tools to ensure proper
design, placement and production of durable and sustainable concrete,
and (3) improved understanding on how admixtures work in the
various cementitious systems and development of portable and scalable
training programs to facilitate technology transfer.
2. Technology presentation
2.1. Description
2.1.1. Dispersant-based water reducers and superplasticizers
Dispersant-based water reducers are one of the most effective
concrete enhancing technologies developed. These dispersing agents
have the ability to deflocculate cement grains and other fine particles,
thereby releasing the water that is otherwise bound in the cement flocs.
This action leads to an increase in the bulk flow of the concrete system.
The original lignin-based technologies, which took the general name of
water reducers or plasticizers, achieved 5–10% water reduction before
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Cement and Concrete Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
undesirable side effects such as set time extension developed and
limited their use. However, NSFC-based or polycarboxylate-based
technologies, referred to as high-range water reducers or superplasti-
cizers, have since been developed to achieve much higher levels of
water reduction of up to 30% [7,8].
Application of these powerful water reducing chemistries has
enabled production of concrete with favorable rheological properties.
More specifically, they enable the making of very high-strength
concrete systems that flow easily and hence minimize the labor costs
for placement considerably. Furthermore, due to the reduced water
demand, the concrete has a lower porosity, and therefore a higher load-
carrying-capacity per unit cement used. Lastly, the admixtures' ability
to disperse cement particles helps to refine the microstructure of the
cement paste, increasing its resistance to aggressive salt and liquid
penetration, thus improving durability. Another way that water re-
ducers can be employed to increase sustainability is by using less
cement content or more SCMs in the concrete. As described in another
paper published in this special issue entitled “Filler as supplementary
cementitious material – experience and recent advances” by John et al.,
concrete with up to 40% water reduction and 50% binder reduction can
be achieved without strength loss. This is by far the most significant
contribution of superplasticizers to the reduction of CO2 emissions.
Generally, water reducer technologies are seldom applied at suffi-
cient quantities to reach the maximum possible reduction in CO2
emissions. Rather, a balance is struck between the economic cost of
their application, the convenience of use, the predictability of action,
and the reduction in cement achievable. Therefore, superplasticizers
are typically used at dosages that would achieve 10–15% water
reduction, only half of the maximum achievable level.
Fig. 2 depicts a generalized response curve of a NSFC-based super-
plasticizer to water reduction. The incremental effectiveness diminishes
as the dosage of the superplasticizer increases. Normal superplasticizer
doses lead to water reduction levels in the portion of the curve within
the orange colored oval, while doses depicted in the green oval region
are technically possible, but often not pursued. At higher doses the
efficiency per unit dose decreases as the particle surface becomes
saturated. Note that the curve in this figure is only an illustrative
example. The inflection point of this relationship will change according
to the type of water reducers used and the amount of paste present in
the concrete.
The following strategies may bring concrete producers one step
closer to achieving optimal concrete sustainability through the use of
superplasticizers:
1. Introduction of economic incentives to incorporate superplasticizers
at higher dosages – Although cement savings alone should be
adequate to drive manufacturers towards the use of higher super-
plasticizer dosage, local costs, such as a high tax imposed for import
of admixtures, could actually cause the more sustainable high dose
mix to be more expensive. Additional provisions such as carbon
Fig. 2. Generalized response of water reduction to superplasticizer dosage.
J. Cheung et al.
taxes could incentivize concrete producers to incorporate higher
levels of water reducers into their existing systems by achieving
greater sustainability.
2. Controlled evaluation of concrete systems under job-site conditions
– The interaction of the high dose products with local cements must
be pre-tested and understood at temperatures used in the field as
various undesirable interactions between superplasticizers, cement
and SCMs can occur [8–10]. This interaction is further accelerated
at higher temperatures [11–13]. Fortunately as long as adequate
pre-testing is performed under the application conditions, high
quality concrete can be produced.
3. Development and use of appropriate admixtures and processes to
work with various SCM and aggregate composition, fineness and
gradation – Clays, for example, are known to absorb many
polycarboxylate-based dispersants [14], rendering the application
of such concrete admixtures less effective. Angular aggregates and
aggregates containing fines are also known to reduce the flow of
concrete.
4. Improvements in training and monitoring tools will enable concrete
producers to develop robust mix designs that reap the benefits of
optimal chemical admixture dosages.
In some cases, the flowability of concrete systems afforded by water
reducers may be prolonged through the incorporation of set retarders.
Unfortunately, at high doses, retardation may be too severe for the
specification. Fortunately, product reformulation has been proven to be
a reliable method to circumvent this issue.
2.1.2. Air entraining agents
Air entraining agents (AEAs) are surface active agents which
function by stabilizing small air bubbles in the concrete to provide
pressure relief when entrained water expands during freezing. For this
reason, AEAs are required by building codes in many freeze-thaw
susceptible regions in the world, and have been successfully used for
75 years. These agents come from a variety of sources including natural
sources, such as rosins, tall oils and fatty acids, as well as various
hydrocarbon-derived surfactants. Since AEAs are generally used at
lower dosages than water reducers, the carbon loading impact of
differing sources is negligible.
AEAs can also play a significant role in the reduction of CO2 derived
from mortar production, an application which accounts for 40% of the
cement used in the developing world or about one third of the world
cement production. Through incorporation of AEAs, mortar manufac-
turers can achieve comparable flow, via the lubricating effect of the air
bubbles, to the more common methods of adding more cement or water
to the system. While AEAs are critical to the production of dry mortars
in industrialized settings, their use in the more popular site-mix
environment, which accounts for > 90% of mortar cement, has yet to
be realized. As described in the paper by Miller et al. in this issue
entitled “Carbon Dioxide Reduction Potential in the Global Cement
Industry by 2050”, industrialization of the mortar industry and the
incorporation of AEAs in site-mixing are essential to fulfil future
sustainability objectives.
AEAs are also useful in the production of low strength concrete.
Klieger had shown that it is possible to achieve needed strength with
paste contents of < 25% of the volume of the concrete when AEAs are
used [15]. This application has been used, for instance, for interior
flatwork for homes in Florida in the U.S. where strength requirements
are not high, but workability and finishability are key.
2.1.3. Accelerators
Set and hardening accelerators have been known and used for well
over a century. Their ability to catalyze the hydration of cement and
compensate for the low early strength development with SCMs make
them indispensable to the production of cement-based products. They
are generally soluble calcium salts of chloride, nitrate and nitrite. Other
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Cement and Concrete Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
classes of accelerators include sodium thiocyanates and amines.
Although very effective, chloride salts are frequently excluded from
use by specification, due to their potential to encourage corrosion of
reinforcement components. As a result, greater application of non-
chloride and non-corrosive accelerators provides another promising
alternative to enable development of sustainable concrete.
2.1.4. Durability products
Durability products are developed to slow down the deterioration of
concrete. Although the primary focus of the paper is on reducing the
environmental load of initial concrete production, we would be remiss
if we did not cover the potential impact of admixtures which can
improve the durability of concrete. Quite obviously if replacement
during service life can be avoided, the impact on sustainability is large.
In addition to the previously discussed AEAs, which protect the
concrete from freeze-thaw damage, admixtures to reduce the rate of
corrosion of steel reinforcement bars and shrinkage of concrete have
also been developed, which would be expected to have potential
application in many places in the developing world.
Corrosion inhibiting admixtures function to raise the chloride
concentration threshold for corrosion initiation. They are usually used
in conjunction with mixture proportioning techniques to reduce the
rate of chloride ingress, including limiting the water content with
superplasticizing admixtures, and inclusion of SCMs that refine pore
structure and in turn reduce chloride intrusion. These may be critical to
the production of durable concrete in the many marine environments in
the developing world.
Shrinkage management is very important for preventing harmful
materials from gaining entry into the concrete through cracks. For
concrete with internal relative humidity in excess of 40%, when the
small pores in the size range of 2.5 to 50 nm lose moisture, curved
menisci are formed. The surface tension of water can create sufficient
contractive force that pulls the walls of the pores causing the concrete
to shrink. Shrinkage Reducing Admixtures (SRAs) are surface active
chemicals that can reduce the surface tension of water without creating
a strong air entraining effect. Their ability to reduce the surface tension
of water reduces the pulling force and hence reduces the shrinkage of
the concrete.
2.1.5. Aggregates
In addition to cementitious materials, aggregates can also play an
important role in determining the performance of concrete. Some clay
minerals, for example, can absorb water and swell. This can lead to a
concrete with higher viscosity [16–18]. The clays can also absorb
polycarboxylate superplasticizers, making them less available to dis-
perse cement particles. Different types of clay minerals have completely
different effects on the performance of PCEs with respect to their
physical and chemical properties. Montmorillonite is found to be more
harmful than other clays due to its expanding lattices which promote
intercalation, swelling and cation exchange. The most efficient and
practical way to test the impact of clay minerals on superplasticizers is
the methylene blue test [19]. However, due to the lack of training and
available testing, this may not be practical for producers lacking
sufficient resources.
River sand has been used as a fine aggregate in concrete. However,
the depletion of river sand, along with environmental restrictions
imposed for preventing its further exploitation, spurred a search for
suitable alternatives, such as manufactured sand, recycled concrete and
tailings. Among these, manufactured sand, which is produced by
crushing rocks, has attracted attention as a replacement [20–23].
Manufactured sands usually contain high levels of fines. The presence
of these fine powders will have a significant impact on the water
demand and the workability of the concrete. This, in turn, will lead to
an increased demand for admixtures to produce concrete that can be
easily placed. New processes to crushing and reducing fines of
aggregates have been developed more recently to produce aggregate.
J. Cheung et al.
2.1.6. Curing
Concrete matures and develops hardened properties over time. This
process is a result of the continued hydration of the cement in the
presence of sufficient water and heat [24]. It has long been recognized
that adequate curing – providing extra water or at least means to
prevent loss of water in the concrete - is essential to attain the desired
structural properties and durability of concrete. However, a survey in
the United States shows that in over 70% of projects the concrete has
not been cured in accordance with construction specifications. In >
20% of the projects, construction proceeded with a total absence of
curing [25]. Unfortunately, the need for more rapid construction over
the last half century has resulted in the practice of shortened curing
cycles [26,27]. When curing is not properly conducted, water-loss,
cracking and insufficient hydration will lead to concrete susceptible to
problems with stripping and surface abrasion. Degradation of concrete,
particularly in harsh environments, will then be more prevalent. In
recent times, many large-scale construction projects in developed
countries have suffered from economic, social and environmental
problems, caused by poor concrete durability. This has renewed focus
on the curing process. In the U.S., detailed guide to external curing is
provided by ACI 308R-16.
A large number of studies have shown that the durability of concrete
can be promoted by a reasonable addition of SCMs. However, due to the
lower activation and reaction rates of these materials, such concrete
requires longer curing times to achieve the expected performance. In
many places in the developing world, the weather is usually hot, dry,
and windy. Furthermore, many of these regions suffer from water
shortages. Under these harsh environmental conditions, concrete is
more prone to cracking due to rapid water evaporation and other
reasons [28,29]. Although extension of curing time would remedy this
adverse effect, this option is usually discouraged by the modern
construction industry, for which the speed of construction progress is
a key priority [30]. Evaporation retarding agents that can significantly
reduce the water evaporation of concrete before initial setting are
available, but are required to be sprayed on, and are subject to over-use.
An integral admixture which could serve this purpose is therefore
needed, but to date none is available. This technology would help
inhibit plastic cracking and the formation of surface crust, issues that
are particularly prominent in developing countries with hot, windy and
low humidity conditions [31]. Attention to the appropriate curing of
concrete is critical to sustainable production.
2.1.7. Admixture adaptation to new cementitious systems
Innovative use of cementitious materials, for example limestone
calcined clay and development of new clinker are important technol-
ogies for reaching the sustainability goal for cement-based materials. To
achieve maximum sustainability, their use needs to be accompanied by
admixtures, particularly in cases where minimization of water usage is
required. Zabarif et al. [32] showed that the dosage of various water
reducing chemicals will need to increase approximately two to four-
fold, for example, when the SCM metakaolin is used at 30% addition by
weight. Sui et al. [33] showed a similar impact, where the slump
attained after 90 min was reduced to less than half when the metakaolin
content was increased to 15%. This calls for adjustment with water
reducers or superplasticizers; otherwise strength loss due to the higher
water content will largely negate any sustainability improvement by
this type of cement system. Due to the dependence of strength on water
to cement ratio [34], a 1% increase in cement content is needed for
every 1% increase of water content to maintain strength equivalence. If
the environmental loading of a new cement system is 20% lower than
conventional, but has a 10% higher water content, then 10% more
cement is needed to reach the original strength level, resulting in the
loss of half of the benefit. It is therefore vital to test such systems with
available superplasticizers. If current technologies are not able to meet
the requirements, due to for instance setting time requirements,
development of new superplasticizers will be required.
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Similarly, new cementitious systems, may also have variations in
the rate and timing of shrinkage, which could limit the extent to which
they improve sustainability. In such an instance, the use of shrinkage
reducing technology, in the form of either a concrete admixture or
cement additive, could overcome this limitation on sustainability
improvement.
2.1.8. Delivering the technology
For more than eighty years, cement additives, many including
dispersants for some level of water reduction, have proven to be an
attractive way to deploy the chemical admixture technology. However,
once the cement additives are incorporated into the cement, they
cannot be adjusted for different site conditions. This is one reason for
the growth of its alternative, concrete admixtures, which, in sophisti-
cated environments, can be fine-tuned both in type and dosage to adjust
for fluctuations in conditions, even as frequently as daily. Optimization
of admixture usage is less practical in environments where bagged
cement is used to produce site-mix concrete. These situations are
present today in some developing countries, where bagged cement is
produced for rural site mixing and bulk cement in only supplied to the
urban regions in which ready-mix operations have become established.
For maximizing sustainability, bagged cement can be optimized with
the highest possible levels of additives and SCMs because admixtures
will not be added at the concrete production stage; whereas bulk
cement typically receives application of additives and SCMs at low to
moderate dosages because there is an option to use admixtures and
more SCMs during the concrete production stage. It is important to
ensure that the use of additives or dispersants during the cement
production stage does not conflict with the use of admixtures in the
concrete. Calorimetry is a simple tool that can be used to verify proper
concrete mixture design.
A key constraint for the use of ready mix concrete is the time
required for transport. Traffic congestion and the unpredictability
associated with traveling on under-developed road systems can make
off-site production risky, especially in hot climates. Various chemical
and process control solutions have been devised to mitigate this. For
example, “hydration stabilizing admixtures” (HSAs) are used to retard
the hydration of cement, making delivery times of over 12 h possible
even in high temperature environments. HSAs improve sustainability
by (1) preventing the possible loss of whole truckloads of concrete and
(2) allowing returned concrete to be recycled. In the latter case, HSA is
added to the water used for washing the truck to separate the
aggregates from the water. This grey water is then reused to make
concrete [35]. This technology was successfully employed in Japan for
many years in locations to limit excessive water use, prevent waste
water discharge, and conserve aggregate. This approach may be
difficult to introduce to developing regions as it requires both focus
and acceptance within standards. Regardless, the opportunity to
immediately save 2–5% of the carbon loading should not be over-
looked.
Another solution to combat mediocre reliability and predictability
for transport is automation. Verifi® [36] is an example of a smart
concrete management system, which collects and measures critical data
related to the concrete in the truck, such as slump and temperature,
throughout the entire transportation process. As these parameters
change, the system automatically supplies either water or admixture
to maintain the target slump required at the delivery site. This newly
developed smart concrete management system represents an important
breakthrough that enables production of high-quality sustainable
concrete, even by an untrained workforce.
2.1.9. Training
The interaction between various combinations of chemical admix-
tures and cementitious raw materials can be complex; therefore the mix
design and the dosage of chemical admixtures need to be tailored to the
specific situation of each construction project [37,38]. On many
J. Cheung et al. Cement and Concrete Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

occasions, a combination of different chemical admixtures is applied to
satisfy the demands of various concrete properties [39]. This highlights
the demand for trained technicians to monitor performance and
recognize problems. In regions, where the educational resources are
not sufficient for providing training to the work force to make quality
ready-mix concrete, precast concrete can be a solution, because this will
allow training to be conducted only in factory environments. The
efficiency of construction with precast concrete was demonstrated as
early as 1968 in San Antonio, Texas, during the construction of a 21
story, 500 unit building. This building, now the Hilton Placio del Rio
Hotel, was constructed in 202 working days [40]. Each unit was
supplied fully furnished, with weldments connecting the structure
together. The modular approach is also used today in Singapore where
labor is at a premium [41]. In the case of a developing region, it is
possible to start with the local construction workforce focusing only on
site preparation and base slab placement, while units are supplied from
offshore. As the workforce becomes proficient, concrete can be
produced locally. This approach could be especially useful in disaster
remediation efforts.
2.2. Robustness of the technology
Admixture technologies are currently used worldwide in developed
and developing areas with great success. However, as more SCMs,
especially aluminum-rich types, are used, appropriate application of
admixtures will be more challenging. Therefore, a better understanding
of the interaction between admixtures and both cements and SCMs will
be helpful. These are ongoing areas of research [10,42–43]. In many
cases, a simple upward adjustment of the sulfate content will be
adequate [44]. The development of easy-to-apply test methods and
smart concrete management systems will further enable robustness of
admixture technologies.
Is the technology suitable Unknown Proved Needs Not
Admixtures - A possible further possible
Cement additives - C dev.
1) Use in poor and C A
remote regions
2) By/for illiterate C A
worker
3) Lack or poor control of A, C
aggregates
4) Poor control of water A, C
content
5) Possible to use C Admixtures have already been adopted and used in every continent.
without admixtures
6) Hot climates A, C
7) Stability of A C
workability (at high
temperatures)
8) High strength at early A C
ages (precast)
9) Sensitivity to common A, C
contamination
3. Influence of admixtures on durability of concrete
As described in Sections 2.1.4 and 2.1.6, admixtures can enhance
and extend the life of concrete either directly or indirectly. The most
commonly used dispersant-based water-reducers or superplasticizers
allow reduction in porosity of mortar and concrete by enabling the use
of less water. AEAs help reduce the elastic modulus and capillary
suction in mortars. In cold climates, AEAs help control freeze-thaw
damage and extend the life of concrete by many years. Accelerators
enable higher additions of SCMs. Concrete made with SCMs typically
have lower porosities and serve to enhance the durability of concrete.
Other admixtures with capabilities such as corrosion inhibiting and
shrinkage reducing can increase the durability of concrete: in the first
case, by making the reinforcing steel less susceptible to corrosion at
given levels of chloride ingress, and in the second case by reducing
chloride ingress to the reinforcing steel through crack reduction with
the added overall benefit of fewer cracks. Adequate curing is also
essential. The total environmental contribution by admixtures can be
considered as follows: provided the life of a structure is doubled by the
incorporation of an admixture, CO2 emission is reduced by > 50%,
because only one structure is built instead of two and the energy needed
to demolish the first structure is eliminated, thus admixtures should be
used to extend life wherever possible.
4. Stage of development and research needs
The chart below summarizes the current state of admixture devel-
opment. While innovation is ongoing, the basic technologies needed to
attain higher levels of sustainability in developing regions are in place.
Some newer technologies remain under patent protection, but the
global interests of additive and admixture producers insure that the
technologies will become available wherever economically viable.
Innovation phase 1) Conceptual phase
2) Laboratory evidence
a) Unanimous
b) Some debate
c) Important debate on fundamental
issues
Demonstration 3) Pilot plant
Public policy 4) Standardization
a) One country
b) Some countries
c) International X
Market 5) Commercial
penetration a) One company, one site
b) One company, many countries
c) Few companies, several countries
d) Widely known X
5. Scale-up potential
They are typically sold and used as aqueous solutions, which can be
easily pumped and accurately dosed. Admixtures are also effective at
impressively low dosage rates (typically < 0.5% by weight of cementi-
tious material). They can be formulated in relatively simple blending
facilities in close proximity of the application. The raw materials
required are available on a world-wide basis and are commonly listed
on chemical inventory lists. This means the raw materials can be
sourced and formulations can be manufactured at the most economic-
ally advantageous locations. While all these factors remain true in the
short term, some challenges do remain, such as dissemination of the
technology and training. Shipping, while not a major constraint, will
decrease sustainability if the raw materials need to travel to far away
locations. As with any commodity, import duties can also limit
availability. Overcoming these obstacles should be a near-term goal.
6. Investment and cost of production range
Currently, in developed countries, the fixed and operational costs
associated with the use of cement additives and concrete admixtures are

5
J. Cheung et al.
low when compared to the overall costs. For an average cement or
concrete made in the USA with a selling price of $100/ton for cement or
$100/yd3 ($132/m3) for concrete, the installation of tanks and pumps
required to dispense additives or admixtures would typically add a
fixed cost over 10 years of < 0.01% of the selling price to the
consumer, and the chemical admixtures themselves would add an
additional 0.2–5%. The cost of additives and admixtures used in
concretes today are more than compensated for by operational and
materials savings to the cement and concrete producers. Sources of
these savings include (1) energy savings from more efficient grinding,
(2) material savings from lower cement usage, (3) energy savings from
less heat needed for steam and high-temperature curing for precast
concrete (4) labor savings from easier placement and finishing, and (5)
material savings from avoidance of out-of-specification concrete and
from recycling of residual concrete. Furthermore, it is possible for
producers to realize more reduction in CO2 emissions if the producers
can allow longer times for the concrete to set or to develop strength.
In developing countries, however, this analysis does not necessarily
hold true. In places where the relative costs of admixtures and the
overall concrete are vastly different from the above examples, it might
not make economic sense for manufacturers to make sustainability a
priority. Even in developed countries, the economic rationale for using
admixture technology to improve sustainability may not be present
beyond current usage levels. While more cutting-edge technologies can
be developed, the potential higher cost of these new technologies will
require economic incentives to encourage usage.
7. Simplified environmental assessment
The impact of admixtures on sustainability is complex, and this
complexity increases by an order of magnitude when the analysis
covers the concrete “from cradle to grave.” In this section, six examples
are constructed with environmental assessment comparisons of the
concrete made on either a per volume or a per volume-strength basis. In
all the examples, the concrete systems studied are based on previous
laboratory or commercial mixes. Sometimes hypothetical extrapolation
of the data is made by following Abrams' water-to-cement ratio law
[34]. All mixes were made with appropriate re-proportioning of
aggregate.
For assessment of CO2 emissions reduction, values from Hammond
and Jones are used for the powder materials and water [45]. For
admixtures, an average reported admixture value of 0.2 kg CO2/kg
admixture [46] and the highest CO2 emission values found from
literature are used [47–49]. The highest values came from the 2015
European Federation of Concrete Admixtures Associations Ltd. Envir-
onmental Product Declaration reports on concrete admixtures. These
figures are stated to represent “the product with the highest environ-
mental impact (worst-case scenario)” [47–49]. Gao et al. reported PCE
to have a CO2 emission impact of 0.028 kg CO2/kg PCE [46]. Even with
an assumed 100 times difference in CO2 emission value of PCE, the
eventual difference in CO2 emission reduction of the concrete is
minimal (Table 1).
Table 1
Carbon loading impact of raw materials.
Material Impact on CO2 (kg CO2/kg materials) Reference
Cement 0.83 [45]
Fly ash 0.01 [45]
Slag 0.07 [45]
Aggregate 0.005 [45]
Water 0.001 [45]
Water reducer 1.88 [46]
Superplasticizer 1.88 [46]
Accelerator 2.38 [47]
AEA 0.527 [48]
6
Cement and Concrete Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
In these examples, admixtures are used to reduce cement content,
increase SCM content, and increase the ultimate load and/or the life
cycle of a structure. When admixtures are used properly, CO2 emissions
can be reduced by up to 64% on an equal volume-strength basis, as
shown in the example in Section 7.2. In Section 7.3, another example is
given to illustrate a 12% CO2/m3 reduction and a 10% cost savings by
accepting a longer set time (from 4 h to 7 h). In many situations, the
extended set time will be a small sacrifice to make for higher
sustainability.
7.1. Impact of admixtures on sustainability on a per volume basis
7.1.1. Superplasticizers alone
The first example is summarized in Table 2. It shows the reduction
in CO2 emissions when superplasticizers are used at various dosage
levels to reduce water and replace cement with fly ash. The reference
concrete mix design contains 350 kg of cement and subsequent mixes
follows the general practice of polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer
dosages as well as Abrams' water-to-cement ratio law [34] to reach
equivalent strengths at the different water reduction levels. The weight
of fly ash used in this design is higher than the weight of the cement
replaced as that is frequently the practice, and it is a more conservative
comparison. Sand is reduced in the design to produce equivalent yield.
Benefits resulting from easier placement and longer lifespan are not
accounted for in this environmental assessment. Current practice
accepts 20% water reduction as a target, while the higher 30% water
reduction target is frequently not attainable due to adverse effects in
pumpability and finishing. This is especially true in mixes made with
harsh sand. Nevertheless, it is clear that higher sustainability can be
achieved with higher water reduction, and that there is room for
improvement in this direction.
7.1.2. Superplasticizers + accelerators in SCM mixes
In the second example, the reduction in CO2 emissions is illustrated
by replacing cement with fly ash under the application of super-
plasticizers and accelerators, following similar methods as Example 1.
A higher dosage of superplasticizer is suggested in this case to
accommodate the increased water demand, which may not be needed
for the case of fly ash. This is included here as a conservative case. The
results showed a net reduction of ~22% in CO2 emission for the 25%
fly ash replacement case and ~34% for the 50% cement replacement
case. In the latter case, a hardening accelerator is used to partially
overcome the lower early strengths associated with this high cement
replacement level. The later-age strength is typically not an issue for fly
ash mixes as fly ash reacts to contribute to strength at the later ages,
and if allowance for slower strength development were possible
allowing less accelerator use, the CO2 emissions would be further
reduced. The use of fly ash or other SCMs for replacement together with
admixtures help make sustainable concrete. However, prolonged set
times and slower early strength development may result. These can be
accepted in many situations and should be taken into account (Table 3).
7.1.3. Air entraining agents
The third example (in Table 4) illustrates the potential reduction in
CO2 emission by using AEAs to provide water reduction in low-strength
mixes with low-paste volumes where aggregate-aggregate friction is a
major obstacle to slump development. The reported data for the first
two mixes is from a PCA publication over a half century old [15], while
the third is interpolated assuming a cement cut could be taken to create
a concrete at equal strength. The example showed a modest 3%
reduction in CO2 emissions when the concrete is made with less cement
and sand but with the addition of a fraction of a percent of AEA.
However, when factors such as improved durability resulting from
reduced bleeding, lower air and better compaction are accounted for,
the environmental impact over the entire life cycle of the concrete is
considerable. AEAs have also been used in North America and Germany
J. Cheung et al. Cement and Concrete Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Table 2
Carbon dioxide reduction from water reduction and moderate fly ash substitution.

Water reduction Material loading (kg/m3) Carbon loading (kg CO2/m3) Reduction in CO2 emissions

Cement Fly ash Coarse agg Fine agg Water Super Cement Fly ash Coarse agg Fine agg Water Super Total

0 350 0 975 835 200 0.0 291 0 5 4 0 0 300 0%

10% 315 42 975 859 180 1.3 261 0 5 4 0 2 274 10%
20% 280 84 975 881 160 2.6 232 1 5 4 0 5 248 19%
30% 245 126 975 927 140 4.6 203 1 5 5 0 9 223 28%

Table 3
Carbon dioxide reductions from use of fly ash, accelerators, and water reduction.

Mix Material loading (kg/m3) Carbon loading (kg/m3) Reduction in

CO2
Cement Fly ash Coarse agg Fine agg Water Super Accel Cement Fly ash Coarse agg Fine agg Water Super Accel Total emissions

Reference (w/ 350 0 975 835 200 0 0 291 0 5 4 0 0 0 300 0%

cm = 0.57)
25% cement 263 105 1020 780 180 3 0 218 1 5 4 0 6 0 234 22%
reduction with
fly ash (w/
cm = 0.49)
50% cement 175 210 1020 730 169 3 15 145 2 5 4 0 6 37 199 34%
reduction with
fly ash, super
and accel (w/
cm = 0.44)

Table 4
Carbon dioxide savings using air entraining agents.

Mix Air (%) Material loading (kg/m3) Carbon loading (kg CO2/m3) Reduction in CO2
emissions
Cement Coarse agg Fine agg Water AEA Cement Coarse agg Fine agg Water AEA Total

Reference (20.7 MPa, w/cm = 0.72) 3.1 220 985 985 161 0.00 183 5 5 0 0.00 193 0%
High air, no cement cut (22.1 MPa, 7.3 220 1045 865 142 0.10 183 5 4 0 0.05 192 0%
w/cm = 0.62)
Moderate air, equal strength, 5.9 213 1025 915 146 0.05 177 5 5 0 0.03 187 3%
interpolated from data

in mortar applications for > 80 years. Later on, additives to provide
workability, water retention and water repellence have also been
applied to reap more benefits. It is also important to note that
significant levels of ground limestone are typically used to replace
cement in these systems, representing even more carbon reduction.
The reduction in CO2 emission is believed to be more significant in
site-mixing mortar applications that are typically made without ad-
mixtures or AEAs. With at least a third of the world cement being used
in site-mixing mortar applications, the use of admixtures in this
segment will clearly lead to a significant improvement in sustainability.
7.2. Impact of admixtures on sustainability beyond a per volume basis
In the previous subsections, analysis is simply focused on the initial
embodied energy and the reduction in net CO2 emission. However,
concrete should be considered over its entire lifetime. There are large
research programs at a number of universities devoted solely to this
subject. Here we will confine ourselves to a single example, with a focus
on initial environmental impact.
High dosages of superplasticizers are crucial to the production of
sustainable high-strength concrete. An increase in strength-loading
level allows for a reduction in concrete used in the design of structures.
Reductions in CO2 emission come not only from the inherent environ-
mental load of the materials, but also from the delivery of the
structures. Furthermore, lower mass in upper structures reduces the
load carrying requirement for substructures, and the improvement in
sustainability multiplies. For this reason, analyzing sustainability using
metrics purely on a per cubic metre basis is inaccurate. Any effort to
increase sustainability must take into consideration the potential of
admixtures to allow more efficient concrete structural design.
In the fourth example, summarized in Table 5, an actual high-rise
column design with silica fume made in Seattle in the mid-1980s is
studied. This mix achieved 120 MPa, allowing the use of much more
slender columns than the typical 60 MPa design commonly used at the
time. The total effective carbon loading at equal load-bearing capacity
is reduced by ~46%. Based on today's knowledge to further reduce
carbon loading by replacing cement with slag, as shown in the “Modern
High Strength” sample, a reduction of ~66% in carbon loading would
be achieved. This much higher level of sustainability can certainly be
realized if one is willing to wait for the development of set and strength
with the addition of slag. Therefore, research on developing faster
strength enhancing SCM systems with highly compatible and effective
admixtures is critical to reach the sustainability goal for the cement and
concrete industry.
7.3. Ready-mix concrete
In the fifth example, a design-of-experiments (DOE) approach [50]
is used as a tool to help the concrete mix designer make informed
decisions accounting for performance and sustainability. In a three-
variable design, 15 trial mixes can yield sufficient data to derive the
general response of the different materials. This example uses a design

7
J. Cheung et al. Cement and Concrete Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

with 250–350 kg/m3 cement, 0–100 kg/m3 ASTM Type F fly ash, and
Reduction in CO2 0.8–2.4 L/m3 normal water reducing admixture.
emissions
Fig. 3a shows the 28-day strength response curve, taken from
merging a number of data sets with a normal water reducing admixture

45%

65%
at dosage of 1.6 L/m3. At a fixed 50 kg/m3 fly ash level, the initial set
0% time (see Fig. 3b) decreases as cement content increases, and increases
CO2 loading at equal

sharply with the amount of water reducer leading to set time limita-
capacity (kg/m3-

tions. The carbon loading per m3 (see Fig. 3c) is seen to increase
significantly with cement, but little with admixture.
On further examination of the 28-day strength response curve (see
MPa)

Fig. 4a), the strength increases sharply with both water reducer
7.3

4.0

2.5

addition and fly ash addition up to about 65 kg/m3, after which

additional fly ash has little beneficial effect. This behavior is frequently
Total

437

480

306

observed with some cement-ash combinations, as the ash exhausts the

cement's ability to supply needed alkali. The 28-day strength enhance-
WR

ment effect is greater at the higher admixture dose or lower water

7

5
Super

content. This means the water in this concrete would have an

21

21

effectively higher alkali content than that in a concrete with higher

7

water content. The elevation in alkali content could help activate more
Water

ash. This interaction relationship would be difficult to see without the

0

use of DOE.
Fine agg

Fig. 4b shows that the most sustainable concrete is, surprisingly, the
one with the most cement. Furthermore, this effect is more significant
4

at a higher dosage of admixture. Thus, the most environmentally

Coarse agg

efficient concrete can be the strongest, and with the most cement in
it. While this seems strange at first, it makes sense, as concrete which is
5

twice as strong needs only half as many cubic meters, reducing more
than half the aggregate and much of the cement CO2 loading. Of course
Silica
fume

this only can be effective if the strength can be used, as for instance in
Carbon loading (kg/m3)

properly designed columns and walls. This is a perfect illustration of the

FA/Slag

need to marry design with the knowledge of where the sustainability

optima lie, in order to get the most efficient structure.
21
0

The use of a DOE approach can also be helpful in making ordinary

Cement

strength concrete. Using the previous DOE data, one can design a
415

444

249

structure with a 25 MPa strength requirement at 28 days. Allowing for

margins that would be used in a typical structure, a 30 MPa strength is
WR

3.6

2.9

2.9

selected. Previously, it was demonstrated that the use of an SCM is an

important way to achieve sustainability. Accordingly, fly ash at its
Super

11.4

11.4
3.6

optimal content was selected. This is shown in Fig. 4a to be at about

65 kg of fly ash for this design.
Water

160

124

124

The next example compares mix designs, using the above para-
meters, at three different set times: 4, 5.5 and 7 h. These are possible
Fine agg

set-time targets for finished floors, columns or walls, and footings, with
740

620

620

later times for less time-critical applications. While most DOE programs
can mathematically select optima, the process is depicted graphically in
Coarse agg

Fig. 5, to show the derivation of the relationships. Carbon loading levels

at the three set times can be determined by first extending the 30 MPa
1020

1035
990

strength response taken from Fig. 5a via blue lines onto the initial set
response plot in Fig. 5b, as blue points. Following these blue points and
Silica
Material loading (kg/m3)

fume

the set-time lines, the three target set-time mixes at 4, 5.5 and 7 h are
40

30
0

indicated as the three red dots in Fig. 5b.We can now determine the
Carbon dioxide reductions on equal load capacity basis.

FA/Slag

admixture dose needed for the three special cases. For the investigation
300

into the reduction in carbon loading for these three cases, the red points
60
0

are plotted on the kg CO2/m3 chart in Fig. 5c, at the same cement
Cement

content and admixture dosage values as shown in Fig. 5b. Not

500

535

300

surprisingly, higher reduction in CO2 emissions is seen in mixes with

longer set times and higher amounts of water reducers.
Slag + CSF (120 MPa, w/
(120 MPa, w/cm = 0.20)

The use of DOE should be used as guides only. Once the mix designs
Modern High Strength Mix –

are chosen, confirmatory mixes at these proportions are necessary to

Seattle Mix - FA + CSF
Reference (60 MPa, w/

affirm the performances before the actual construction.

Following the above process and U.S. raw materials cost, results of
cm = 0.32)

cm = 0.20)

strength sustainability efficiency and cost of the three mixes can be

determined (Fig. 6).
Finally, the plot of the cost as a function of CO2 emission (Fig. 7)
Table 5

Mix

reveals that it is more economical to be more environmentally

conscious. By sacrificing faster set times when they are unnecessary,

8
J. Cheung et al. Cement and Concrete Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

a b c
8 300

7 280

6 260

5 240

E CH I P
H IP
4 2 2 0EC

0
2.

3
35

/m
35 0 0

L
ix,
R A 1. 5
Ce 30

dm
m 0 2. 0
30 0 en 1. 5
Cem t .K /m3
1. 0 mix ,L

0
g 25
ent /m WRAd

W
1.
. Kg 3 0
/m3 25 0

Fig. 3. [a] 28-day strength (MPa), [b] initial set time (hr), and [c] carbon loading (kg/m3) response curves of design of experiment illustration.

a b

0.16
40

35 0.14

30 0.12

0
35
25
ECHIP
IP
ECH

0 0.10
10

m3
m 300
g/
80

t.K
2. 0

en
2. 0 60
m3 WR 1. 5
WR g/ Adm

Ce
40
Adm 1. 5 h,K ix,L 1. 0
0
/m3 25
ix,L 20 As
/m3 1. 0
0
Fly

Fig. 4. [a] 28-day strength (MPa) at 300 kg/m cement factor, and (b) 28-day strength per carbon loading (MPa/kgCO2/m3) an index combining strength and sustainability response
3

curves of design of experiment illustration.

a b c

Fig. 5. [a] 28-day strength (MPa), [b] initial set (hr), [c] carbon loading (kg CO2/m3). Blue dots represent the 30 MPa points. Red dots illustrate mixes at the three target set times (4, 5.5
and 7 h). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

a reduction of 37 kg CO2/m3 (14% reduction) can lead to about a 6%
cost savings. This is not surprising, but the difference is enough that it
may help support the technical focus required to use this technique to
drive CO2 emission downward. It is important to note here that without
using new technology – these results are based on mixes originally done
over 25 years ago – a 14% reduction in CO2 emission for certain
applications can be achieved just by allowing set performance to
change within constraints acceptable to those applications. It is further
important to note that by running a DOE with 15 mixes, the concrete
mixture designer can get information on various mix designs with
strengths varying from 20 MPa to 45 MPa and set times varying from 4
to 8 h. It is evident that the flexibility this traditional admixture
imparted could already lead to significantly enhanced sustainability.
Using a similar approach with today's more powerful materials may
provide substantially more impact.

9
J. Cheung et al. Cement and Concrete Research xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

Fig. 6. [a] Strength sustainability efficiency (28 day MPa/kg CO2/m3 × 10− 3), and [b] cost ($/m3) response curves of design at 65 kg fly ash. Red dots illustrate mixes at the three target
set times (4, 5.5 and 7 h). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

9. Further research priorities

While the research needed for developing baseline technology is in

place, achieving maximum positive impact on sustainability in devel-
oping regions will require more focus in the following areas:

1. Admixture technologies
Fig. 7. Cost/m3 as a function of carbon loading/m3 for designs with various initial set
levels.
8. Barriers and incentives
Admixtures have been successfully used for more than a century to
make strong and durable cement-based products. The barriers to
adoption are low as the chemicals are used in small amounts and the
capital investment required to implement is modest. The use of
different raw materials can add complications to the concrete making
process, but an astute mix design will result in cement-based product
with a lower net material, cost and better overall sustainability. Of
course attention must be paid to sufficient sulfate supply, proper
proportioning, mixing, and curing of the material. Proper training of
workers is also a critical element.
The state of the environment alone is not a sufficient incentive for
increasing sustainability. It has already been noted that sustainability
needs to be accompanied by a clear and immediate economic advan-
tage. In the developed world, there is good alignment between the use
of admixtures and improved sustainability. However, this is not
necessarily the case in the developing world, or, even the case in the
developed world as the sustainability goals become more stringent. The
political challenge is to promote sustainability in the cement and
concrete industry while minimizing negative impacts on the economics.
Monetary incentives from the government for sustainable concrete will
be part of the equation.
2. Tools
a. Water reducing and superplasticizing admixtures even less
sensitive to cement and SCM chemistries, as discussed in
Section 2.1.1.
b. Water reducing and superplasticizing admixtures more resilient
to the negative effect of clay in aggregates, as discussed in Section
2.1.5.
c. Low-cost integral curing admixtures/cement additives with im-
proved strength development and cracking resistance (where
proper curing is difficult), as discussed in Section 2.1.6. Future
research should focus on improving the stability of evaporation
retardant in high salt concentration and high-alkalinity environ-
ments and improving the inhibition efficiency of water evapora-
tion.
d. Admixtures specially designed for new alternative cement sys-
tems – detailed discussion of these alternative cement systems are
discussed in Section 2.1.7 of this paper and in several other
papers in this publication. All new materials will require admix-
tures that will address water demand regulation, air entrainment
for freeze-thaw environments and shrinkage control.
e. Low-cost, long slump life admixtures for long delivery times in
developing ready mix markets with infrastructure constraints, as
discussed in Section 2.1.8.
f. Admixtures for sustainable precast – Precast concrete plays an
important role in the construction of infrastructure as discussed
in Sections 1 and 2.10. The existing production process of precast
concrete units presents several challenges. First, the high early
age strength requirement means that high temperature and steam
curing are necessary, which can consume large amounts of
energy and increase CO2 emissions. In addition, if in the effort
to promote early age strength, excessive temperatures are
reached, this can create durability problems. Recent development
of self-consolidating concrete based on such admixtures and
special mixture designs have enabled great reduction in the labor
of placement. While significant progress has been made, the
precast industry still needs more advanced early strength admix-
tures in order to further reduce energy consumption and speed up
turnover of the forms.

10
J. Cheung et al.
a. Easy-to-use DOE and mix proportioning software to help design
of concrete mixes with optimal cost, performance and sustain-
ability.
b. Easy-to-use laboratory test methods such as calorimetry, to
ensure compatibility between cement, SCM and admixtures –
optimization of the sulfate level according to real-world ambient
temperatures and additive loadings, and not only to standard
laboratory conditions, will be an essential requirement to achieve
maximum sustainability. These tools must be easy to apply with
minimal sophisticated training. They can be used to avoid
problems with excessive setting times, and other potential
adverse interactions between high dosages of admixtures and
SCMs. As an example, efforts in this direction have been under-
way at ASTM, leading recently to ASTM C 1753-15 Standard
Practice for Evaluating Early Hydration of Hydraulic
Cementitious Mixtures Using Thermal Measurements.
c. Field application tools such as smart concrete management
systems to reduce defects and ensure the quality of the concrete
produced, as discussed in Section 2.1.9.
3. Understanding and training
a. Better mechanistic understanding on how admixtures work and
interact with cement, SCMs, sand and, aggregates.
b. User-friendly, scalable and portable educational tools to facilitate
technology transfer. (See discussion in the Education for
Sustainable Use of Cement Based Materials by Schmidt et al.)
The authors would like to thank David Myers, Larry Gibson and
Cheng Yu for their insightful suggestions.
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