Log Evaluation and QA/QC Seminar

Basic Geological Concepts

Lukas Wihardjo
April - 2014
HYDROCARBON FORMATION
Hydrocarbon Formation
 Hydrocarbon Movement

Hydrocarbon are less dense than the formation water. It will then
migrate up through the rock until it is trapped or seeps out onto the
surface. Geologists look for these traps to find commercial amounts
of petroleum.
GEOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
 What is a Mineral?
• There are many definitions of the word "mineral." -- "a naturally
occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly internal
structure and characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, and
physical properties."

What is a Rock?
• Rocks are naturally occurring solids composed of one or more
minerals. Rocks are identified by the minerals they contain and are
grouped according to their origin into three major classes:
sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Each group is
subdivided on the basis of texture and mineral composition
(lithology).
 What is lithology?

The gross physical character of a

rock or rock formation.

The microscopic study, description,

and classification of rock.
ROCKS
 Three Types of Rocks

• Metamorphic

• Igneous

• Sedimentary
 Metamorphic Rocks
• Pressure, heat, directed pressure, and catalytic action act to change
parent rock into new rock with different texture and compositions
• This type of rock has no source potential but if fractured and or
weathered can be a source for reservoir rock
 Igneous Rocks

• Rocks that resulted from the

cooling and crystallization of
magma.

• Igneous Rocks have no source

potential. They can provide
reservoir potential in porous
and permeable weathered
igneous rock.
Sedimentary Rocks

• Formed from the cementation of individual sediments

• Good source potential
• Good reservoir potential
 Two Main Classes of Sedimentary Rocks

• Clastic – Sediments consisting of broken fragments

derived from preexisting rocks and transported
elsewhere and redeposited.
• Non-Clastic – Sedimentary rocks that are created
either from chemical precipitation, crystallization,
lithification of once living organic matter.
 Clastic Rocks

• Sandstone – usually made

up of quartz and feldspar.
Grain size is 2-1/16 mm.

• Shale – made up of clay and

silt. Grain size is <
1/256 mm
Non-Clastic / Clastic Rocks

• Limestone – Made from the

mineral calcite which comes
from the beds of evaporated
seas and lakes and from
animal shells. CaCo3
• Depending how the
limestone is formed, it could
also be classified as either a
clastic or non-clastic rock
Non-Clastic Rock

• Dolomite – Forms when calcite, CaCO3 interacts with

Magnesium rich ground waters. CaMg(CO3)2
Non-Clastic Rock

• Anhydrite – Formed
by the dewatering of
Gypsum (CaSO4-
2H2O). CaSO4
SHALES
Why Study Shales?

• The most important rock type to the Oil and Gas industry is sedimentary rock
• Shales form some 60% of the sedimentary rocks found in the world
• Some shales form hydrocarbon reservoirs (shale gas and shale oil)
• Shales are not only abundant but they also affect :
– Petrophysical Analysis
– Reservoir Modeling
– Geology
– Drilling/Completion
Shale Definition

• A general class of fine grained, detrital sedimentary rocks

with a grain size < 0.031 mm that consists dominantly of
a mixture of clay minerals (>35%) and silt grains.
Silt

• Silt refers to soil or rock particles of a certain very small

size range (see grain size). On the Wentworth scale, silt
particles fall between 0.004 and 0.063 mm (4 - 62.5
μm), larger than clay but smaller than a sand.
 Clay

• Clay minerals (Grimm, 1962): a group of fine grained hydrous

alumino-silicate minerals with the general formula X(Al2O3)
Y(SiO2) Z(OH) which contain minor but important amounts of
other elements such as Mg, Fe, Na, Ca, K.

Kaolinite – Al2O3 2SiO2 2H20

Illite – KAl2(OH)2[AlSi(O,OH)]10
Smectite – (MgCa) Al2O3 5 SIO2 nH20
Chlorite – (MgFe)5 Al(AlSiO3) O10 (OH)5
FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The Rock Cycle
Weathering – Breakdown of Rock

• Mechanical Weathering – rocks are physically reduced

to fragments.
• Chemical Weathering – rock alterations and breakdown
caused by exposure with chemical agents.
Erosion – Removal of Rock Material

• Downslope Movement – Gravity forces all weathered

rock material downhill with or without the aid of flowing
water

• Stream Erosion – Running water moves weathered rock.

Depends on stream patterns, slope gradient, velocity,
bed load, base level
Deposition – Depositing of rock material

• Stream Deposits

• Delta Deposits
Life Cycle
• At the same time as the rock cycle happens so is the life cycle. Plants and
animals are born, live and die
• The dead organic matter is washed away just like the weathered rock
• It is deposited on the sea floor and cemented into the rock matrix
Cementation

• The individual sediments are cemented together as

precipitates form between the grains from the pore fluids.
• Calcite and Quartz are common cement forming minerals
Decomposition
Most of organic debris is destroyed and digested by bacteria, some is
deposited in oceans, lagoons, lakes and river beds protected from
bacterial action.
Sedimentation
Organic debris mix with sediments (sand, salt, etc..) and accumulates in
beds for million of years, oldest beds been buried by newest beds.
Sediments are Sorted

• Marine Currents
• Depth
• Waves
• Marine Life
Grain Sorting

• The deposition of the grains

may be :
– Well sorted with similar grain
sizes
– Poorly sorted with differing
grain sizes

• These can affect both the

permeability and porosity
Porosity
Porosity is defined as the void space in the rock matrix
Porosity Types

• Porosity can be
classified in two main
types according to their
origin
• Primary
• Secondary
What is in the Void Space?

• Oil
• Gas
• Water
Permeability
• Is defined as the
interconnectivity of the pores.
• Represented by Darcy’s Law

K = Permeability
Q = Flow Rate
A = Cross Sectional Area
L = Length of Sample

Q
u = Viscosity
L
P1 = Exit Pressure
K 
P2 = Entrance Pressure
A P2  P1
THE RESERVOIR
The Reservoir
The Reservoir

•To form a reservoir you need

– Organic material source (terrestrial or marine)
– Appropriate combination of heat, pressure
and time.
– Oxygen free environment
– A suitable basin
The Reservoir

The main elements of a reservoir are:

• Permeable Rock (stores hydrocarbon)

• Source Rock (produces hydrocarbon)
• Impermeable Rock (retains hydrocarbon)
• Trap (captures fluids)
Tectonics

41
Maturation

42
Migration

43
Trapping

44
HISTORIC FRAME
First Oil Well

• The history of the oil business as we

know it began in 1859 in Pennsylvania,
thanks to Edwin L. Drake, a career
railroad conductor who devised a way
to drill a practical oil well.

• On august 27, 1859 a well drilled by

Drake in Oil Creek, Titusville, found oil
at 69 ft.
 Oil Exploration in Iraq

• First successful well in Iraq

found oil on October 14, 1927

• The well at Baba Gurgur was

located by geologist J.M. Muir
just north of Kirkuk.

• It was drilled by TPC (Turkish

Petroleum Corporation).
First Electric Log
Recorded by
Schlumberger in
1927
ADDITIONAL SLIDES FOR BACKUP
Hydrocarbon Formation
• Diagenesis
– Immature stage and is associated with no new hydrocarbon
generation. The only hydrocarbons were present when the
organisms died

• Catagenesis
– Second stage of kerogen degradation and the start of thermal
degradation. Brought on by the increase of temperature and
pressure as burial depth increases. Main stage of oil
generation

• Metagenesis
– Thermal Cracking of previously generated hydrocarbons and
additional generation of methane directly from kerogen. Oil is
thermally cracked into dry gas.
Compositional States of Petroleum

• Natural Gas – Gases that do not condense at 20 C and

at atmospheric pressure (methane, ethane, propane, n-
butane)
• Liquid States – “Crude Oil” a mixture of hydrocarbons
that occur as a liquid in underground reservoirs and
remains liquid on surface
• Plastic States – Very high molecular weights ( asphalts,
bitumen, resins)
 What is a Mineral?

• There are many definitions of the word

"mineral." The Glossary of Geology
(Bates and Jackson, 1980, p. 401)
defines a mineral as "a naturally occurring
inorganic element or compound having
an orderly internal structure and
characteristic chemical composition,
crystal form, and physical properties."
Minerals differ from rocks, which are
naturally occurring solids composed of
one or more minerals. Rocks do not have
a distinctive chemical composition or
crystal structure. The earth science
definition, however, is not always used to
define minerals.
 What is a Rock?

• Rocks are naturally occurring solids composed of one or more

minerals. Rocks are identified by the minerals they contain and are
grouped according to their origin into three major classes:
sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Each group is subdivided
on the basis of texture and mineral composition (lithology).
 What is lithology?

The gross physical character of a rock or

rock formation.

The microscopic study, description, and

classification of rock.