CHAPTER 2: Climate - Difference between incoming SW & reflected
SW is the net SW absorbed by the surface
 CLIMATE
- the long term average pattern of weather & it
may be local, regional or global
- different from Weather
= the combination of temperature, humidity,
precipitation, wind, cloudiness and other
atmospheric conditions occurring at a specific
place & time
- a prevailing physical environment condition
that largely defines dominant plants in the
structure of terrestrial ecosystem
- governs the large-scale distribution of plants &
therefore the nature of terrestrial ecosystem
through temperature & precipitation in
geographical variations
 SOLAR RADIATION
- electromagnetic energy emanating from the
Sun travels more or less unimpeded through the
vacuum of space until it reaches Earth’s surface
- conceptualize as stream of photons or packets
of energy
- waves of energy are characterized by:
o wavelength (λ)
o physical distance between successive
crests and their frequency (v)
o the number of crest that pass a given
point per second
- all object emit radiant energy (the nature of
energy depends on the objects temperature
= hot surface (Sun ~5800°C) shortwave
(solar) radiation
= cooler surface (Earth ~15°C)  longwave
(terrestrial) radiation
 SHORTWAVE RADIATION
- some shortwave radiatonthat reaches the
planet’s surface is reflected back to space
measure by Albedo
= function of the radiation’s reflectivity
= expressed as propotion (0-1.0) of the
shortwave radiation striking a surface that is
reflected & differs for different surfaces
= e.g. ICE & SNOW (0.8-0.9) with 80-90 %
reflectance
FOREST (0.05) with 5 % reflectance
GLOBAL ANNUAL AVE. ALBEDO (0.30)
with 30 % ref
 LONGWAVE RADIATION
- some of the energy absorbed by Earth’s
surface is emitted back out into space as
terrestrial longwave radiation
- the amount of energy emitted is dependent on
the surface’s temperature
= the hotter the surface, the more radiant
energy it will emit
- most of the emitted energy are absorbed by
water vapor & carbon dioxide (greenhouse
gases) in the atmosphere
= emitted downward toward the surface as
longw. atmospheric rad.
=keeps the near surface temperatures warmer
than they would be without this blanket of gas
Greenhouse Effect
 NET RADIATION
- difference between the incoming SW &
outgoing LW
- determines surface temperature
Net Radiation = (Incoming SW - Reflected SW)
-
(Emitted LW - Downward LW)
- incoming SW > outgoing LW  temp
INCREASES
- outgoing LW > incoming SW  temp
DECREASES
- ~15°C = approximately the amount of
incoming SW intercepted by Earth & emitted
LW; the average surface temperature of the
planet remains
 GLOBAL MAP
- distinct latitudinal gradient of decreasing net
surface radiation from the equator toward the
poles  direct function of the variation with
latitude in the amount of incoming SW
- Factors influencing the variation:
o at higher latitudes, solar radiation hits
the surface steeper angle, spreading
sunlight over a larger area
o solar radiation that penetrates the
atmosphere at a steep angle must travel
through a deeper layer of air
 = encounters more particles in the o on the day of the Summer Solstice
atmosphere, which reflects more of the the Sun never sets
SW back into space  GEORGRAPHIC DIFFERENCE IN SURFACE NET
RADIATION
 EARTH AND ITS SEASONS - Surplus: (+) NR
- Earth tilts to its side causing seasons = between 35.5° N & S (from the equator to
- the planet is subject to 2 distinct motions, midlaltitudes)
while it orbits the Sun, it rotates about an axis  SW > LW
that passes through North & South Poles - Deficit: (-) NR
= giving rise to the brightness of the day = from 35.5° N & S latitude to the poles (90° N
followed by the darkness of night Diurnal & S)
Cycle  LW > SW
- Earth travels about the Sun in an Ecliptic - This imbalance in NR sets into motion a global
Plane scale pattern of the redistribution of thermal
= By chance, its axis of spin is not energy (heat) from the equator to the poles
perpendicular to the EP but is titled at angle of = Convection
23.5° -> the location on the surface where the ~ the energy flows from higher conc to lower
Sun is directly overhead at midday migrates conc
between 23.5° N & 23.5° S latitude over the ~ planetary transfer of heat from Tropics
year (region of Surplus NR) to the Poles (region of
PHENOMENA LOCATION EFFECT Deficit NR)
Vernal Equinox directly hits - Equatorial ~ transfer of heat through circulation of
(~ March 21) & the Region = fluids (air & water)
Autumnal EQUATOR highest - Air warmed at the surface rises  less dense
Equinox ( ~ input of SW than the cooler air above it
September 22) - equal 12 = air heated at the equatorial region rises to
hours of
the top of the troposphere, establishing a zone
daylight &
of low pressure at the surface
night
~ causes air from the north & south to flow
Summer hits the - longer
toward the eq.
Solstice TROPIC of days in the
(~ June 22) CANCER NORTHERN ~ the resulting convergence of winds from
hemisphere the north & south in the equatorial region
Winter Solstice hits the - longer Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
TROPIC of days in the - RISING AIR at the Equator  Moves Poleward
CAPRICORN SOUTHER  Cool & become more dense  Sink
hemisphere = Sinking Air at the poles raises surface air
- Seasonality systematically increases from pressure, forming a high-pressure zone&
the Equator to Poles creating a Pressure Gradient from the poles to
= In the Equatorial Region, there is little the equator
seasonality in net radiation, temperature, or -Cooled heavier air flows toward the Low-
day length Pressure Zone at the equator, replacing the warm
= At the Artic & Antarctic circles (66.5° N & air rising over the tropics and closing the pattern
S, respectively) of air circulation
o day length varies from 0 to 24 hours - Earth spins on it axis from WEST to EAST and
over the year the speed of rotation varies with latitude and
o the days shorten until the Winter circumference (high circumf = slow spin)
Solstice a day of continuous - Law of Angular Motion: the momentum of the
darkness object moving from a greater circumference to a
o the days lengthen with Spring lesser circumference will deflect in the direction
of the spin, and an object moving from a lesser
circumference to a greater one will deflect in the
direction of opposite of the spin
(1) Coriolis Effect
= named after G.C Coriolis
= air masses & all moving objects in the N.
Hemisphere are deflected to the right (clockwise
motion) & in the S. Hemisphere to the left
(counterclockwise motion)
(2) Air moving poleward is subject to
Longitudinal Compression
= poleward moving air is forced into a smaller
space
= density of air increases
= creates belts & cells  break the simple flow
of surface air toward the equator and north and
south toward the equator (ITCZ)
= Rising Warm Air  Spread &Diverges north-
&southward  Cool
o Hadley Cells
~ named after George Hadley
~ In the N. Hemisphere, the Coriolis
Effect forces air in an easterly direction,
slowing its progress north
~ at about 30°N, the now cool air sink,
closing this cell
o Subtropical High
~ the descending air forms a
semipermanent high pressure belt at the
surface that encircles Earth
~ this air splits into 2 currents flowing
over the surface:
1. Westerlies
- air directed to the right by the C.
effect
2. other current moves southward
toward the equator
o Trade Winds
~ southward-flowing stream that
became strong, reliable winds which are
also deflected the right like westerlies
~ N. Hemisphers = Northeast trades
~ S. Hemisphere = Southeast trades
o Polar front
~ boundary that separates the two air
masses of contrasting temperature
which do not mix  mild air of the
westerlies moves poleward and cold air
moving down to the pole (~60°N)
~ a zone of low pressure (Subpolar
Low) where surface air converges and
rises
o Ferrel Cell
~ named after William Ferrel
~ region were some of the rising air moves
southward until it reaches 30° latitude (region
of subtropical high) sinks back to the surface
and closes
o Polar Cell
~ region where the northward-moving air that
reaches the pole sinks and flows back
(southward) toward the P. front
~ the southward-moving air is deflected to the
right by the C. effect giving rise to Polar
Easterlies
 CURRENTS
- major systematic patterns of water movement
- Ocean currents mimic the movement of the
surface winds
- each ocean is dominated by 2 great circular
water motions = Gyres
= function to redistribute heat from the tropics
northward and southward toward the poles
= Within each gyres, the ocean current moves
clockwise in N.H. and counterclockwise in S.H.
- trade winds push waters westward along the
equator where it encounters the eastern margins
of continents splitting into north- &south-flowing
current along the coast, forming the north &
south gyres
- As the current moves farther from the equator,
water cools and encounter the westerly wings at
higher latitudes (30-60° N & S) which produce
eastward-moving currents
 = when it meets the western margins of the
continents, they form cool currents that flows
along the coastline toward the equator
 AIR TEMPERATURE
- influence the moisture content of air
- plays a crucial role in the exchange of water
between the atmosphere and Earth’s surface
- Latent Heat
= form Latin latens - “hidden”
= amount of energy released or absorbed per
gram during a change of state
= more ordered state to a less ordered state =
energy’s Absorbed
= less ordered state to a more ordered state =
energy’s Released
~ Evaporation (L  G) = energy is absorbed
- requires 2260 J same energy needed for
Condensation
- Saturated: Evaporation rate = Conden
rate
- When air comes in contact with liquid water,
water molecules are freely exchanged between
the air and the water’s surface
- Water Vapor: acts an independent gas that
has weight and exerts pressure
- Vapor Pressure: the amount of pressure that
water vapor exerts independent of the pressure
of dry air; defined in pascals (Pa)
- Saturation Vapor Pressure
= the water vapor content of air at saturation
which cannot be exceeded
= also known as water vapor capacity of air
= varies with temperature, increasing as air
temperature increases
= Warm Air > Cold Air (due to greater quantity
of thermal energy to support evaporation)
- Relative Humidity
= measure of water content of the air
= amount of water vapor in the air expressed
as a percentage of the saturation vapor pressure
 If air cools while the actual moisture content
(WVP) remains constant, the RH increase as the
value of SVP declines
 If the air cools to a point where the actual
vapor pressure is equal to the SVP, moisture in
the air will condense
 When RH reaches 100%, WV condenses &
forms clouds
= Precipitation falls as soon as particles of
water or ice in the become too heavy to remain
suspended
Relative Humidity = 𝑥 100
- Dew Point Temperature
= the temperature for a given water content of
a parcel of air (VP) to achieve SVP
= As temp drops, RH rises
 At night when temp reaches dew point, water
condenses& dew forms, lowering the amount of
water in the air,
 As the sun rises, air temp warms & SVP
increases which results to dew evaporation and
an increases in VP in the air
 Distinctive Global Pattern for Precipitation
1. Precipitation is highest in the region of the
equator, declining as one moves north &
south
- Decline is not continuous due to 2 troughs in
the midlatitudes
peaks & troughs: pattern of rising & falling air
associate with the belts of prevailing winds
o Tropical regions of Eastern Asia, Africa and S &
Central America
= warm trade winds move across the tropical
ocean  gather moisture  ITCZ (NTW meet the
STW)  air piles up & warm humid air rises &
cools  dew point reached  clouds forms 
precipitation falls as rain
o Deserts
= (lost much of its moisture) ascending air mass
continues to cool as it splits and moves northward &
southward  cool air descend to subtropical high  2
belts (troughs) of dry climate encircle the globe
descending air warms  SVP rises  air draws water
from the surface through evaporation  arid
conditions
o Precipitation Restriction
= as air masses continue to move north & south 
draws moisture from the surface (lesser degree due to
cooler surface conditions)  encounter cold air as it
moves poleward  surface air masses converge & rise
 ascending air mass cools and precipitation occurs
 (peaks) (from this point to the pole) cold
temperature & associated low-SVP restrict
precipitation
2. Rainfall is greater in Southern Hemisphere
than in Northern Hemisphere
- oceans cover a greater proportion of the Southern
Hemisphere and water evaporates more readily from the
water’s surface than from the soil & vegetation
3. Temporal variation of Precipitation over Earth
- directly linked to the seasonal changes in the surface
radiation balance of Earth & its effect on the movement
of global pressure systems & air masses
- seasonal movement north & south of the ITCZ which
follows the apparent migration of the direct rays of the
Sun
4. ITCZ Migration
- migration occurs toward the regions with warmest
surface temperature
- ITCS moves poleward & it moves southward leaving
clear dry weather behind  as it migrate southward 
bring rain to the Southern summer
- As ITCZ shifts north & south, it brings on the wet &
dry seasons in the tropics
 Coastline Proximity
- Land surfaces heat & cool more rapidly than
water resulting to differences of its specific heat
- Specific Heat
= amount of thermal energy necessary to raise
the temperature of one gram of a substance by
1°C
= the specific heat of water is much higher than
that of air or land
 land areas farther from the coast experience a
greater seasonal variation in temperature than
those in coastal areas (Continentiality)
- Maritime Influence
= locations have smaller temperature ranges as a
result of the concept
= movement on shore of prevailing westerly
wind systems from the ocean moderates the
summer & winter extremes
= Ocean currents minimize seasonal variations in
the surface temperature of the water
- Proximity to Large Bodies of Water
= the interior of continents generally experience
less precipitation than the coastal regions do
 as air masses move inland from the coast,
water vapor lost from the atmosphere through
precipitation is not recharged (from surface
evaporation) as readily as it is over the open
waters of the ocean
= Exception: Southern California & Artic Coastline
of Alaska
 Topography
o Relationship between elevation & Temperature
- in the lower regions of the atmosphere,
temperature decreases with altitude at a fairly
uniform rate due to declining air density & pressure
- atmosphere is warmed by conduction (transfer of
heat through direct contact) from Earth’s surface 
temp decline with increasing distance from the
conductive source
- Lapse Rate: the rate of decline in temperature
with altitude
- for same latitude & proximity to the coast, higher
elevation will have consistently lower
temperatures than those of lower elevation
o Patterns of Precipitation
- as air masses reaches a mountain, it ascends,
cools, RH rises (due to lower SVP)
- as temp cools to its dew point temp, precipitation
occurs at upper altitudes of the windward side  as
the cool air descends the leeward (shielded) side, it
warms again & RH relatively declines
- As a result, the windward side of the mountain
support denser, more vigorous vegetation &
different species of plants & associated animals
than does the leeward side, where in some areas
dry, desert like conditions exists (Rain Shadow
Phenomenon)
 e.g. Hawaiian Islands
= plant cover ranges from scrubby
vegetation on the leeward side of an island to
moist, forested slopes on the windward side
 IRREGULAR VARIATIONS IN CLIMATE OCCUR AT
THE REGIONAL SCALE
- Patterns of temporal variation in climate
= seasonal change in temperature with the
variation of Earth around the Sun
= migration of ITCZ with the resultant
seasonality of rainfall in the tropics and
monsoons in Southeast Asia
- Earth’s Climate System- variability at both the
regional and global states
= Little Ice Age (14th- 19th Century) -
cold winters to many parts of North
 MOST ORGANISMS LIVE IN MICROCLIMATE
Hemisphere
= Glaciers in the Swiss Alps (mid- 17th
century) - engulfing farms and crushing entire
villages
= New York Harbor froze (1780) - driven
by the changes in the input of energy to Earth’s
surface
- Earth’s orbit is not permanent
= changes occur in the tilt of the axis and
the shape of the yearly path about the sun
= variation affect slimate by altering
seasonal inputs of solar radiation
- Sunspot activity- huge magnetic storm of Sun
= also affect the variations in the level of
solar radiation to Earth’s surface
= associated with strong solar emissions
and occur in cycles
- Two components of climate system: Ocean and
Atmosphere
= connected to some major climatic
variations that occur at regional scale
o 1525 the coast of Peru recorded
periods of unusual warm water “El
Nino”
o El Nino- Sothern Oscillation (ENSO)-
global event arising from large-scale
interaction between ocean and
atmosphere
o Southern Oscillation – oscillation in
the surface pressure (atmospheric
mass) between SEAsian tropical Pacific
are abnormally warm (El Nino) sea level
pressure drops in eastern Pacific and
rises in the West.
o El Nino- trade winds slacken, reducing
the westward flow of the surface
current result is a reduced upwelling
and warming of the surfacewater in the
east Pacific followed by rainfall in warm
water eastward following the drought
in Indonesia and flooding in Australia
o La Nina- injection of cold water
becomes more intense than usual,
causing the surface of Eastern pacific to
cool results in droughts in South
America and heavy rainfall in Australia
o Warmer water: More Moisture;
Cooler water: More Drought
oEl Nino: Drought in Australia and Flood
in Peru
o La Nina: Drought in America and Flood
in Australia
- Most organisms live in local conditions that do
not match the general surrounding them
- Actual conditions of specific environments will
be quite different depending on whether they
are underground or surface
- Light, heat, moisture and air movement all vary
greatly from one part of the landscape to
another influencing the transfer of heat energy
and creating wide range of localized climates
- Microclimates define the conditions organisms
live in
= areas shaded by plants have lower
temperature than places exposed to sunlight
= TOPOGRAPHY – direction of the slope
o Influences the local climatic condition
o South facing slopes have more solar
energy than north facing slopes
o Energy received varies between
extremes depending on compass
direction
o Effect of amount of moisture and heat
present: Different exposure to solar
radiation at South- North facing sites
o Driest on top of South with great air
movement: Dampest on bottoms of
North facing slopes
= Same microclimatic conditions on
smaller-scale on North and South facing
slopes of large ant hills, mounds of soil,
dunes and small ground ridges
= microclimatic extremes also occur in
depression in the ground and on the
valley’s concave surface
o Heated by sunlight at day and cooled
terrestrial vegetation at night air often
becomes stagnant
= although the global and regional
patterns of climate discussed constrain
the large-scale distribution and
abundance of plants and animals
= localized microclimate determines the
distribution and activities of organisms
in a particular region
 ECOLOGICAL ISSUES AND APPLICATIONS = Increase in global mean surface
- Rising atmospheric concentrations of temperature has not been the same ate
greenhouse gases are altering Earth’s Climate every location
= THERMOMETER- instrumental record for = Changes in mean surface temperature
direct measurements of surface temperature have been partitioned by season:
= Earth observing satellites have been o Net result of winter warming is a
providing records of global observations for reduction in seasonal variations in
wide variety of climate variables temperature
= Earth has been warming over the past = Patterns of increasing surface
150 years temperature have major influence on
= Since the early 20th century, the global functioning of ecological system
average surface temperature increased by
0.74(+/- 0.2) degrees Celsius
o Global ocean heat content has
increased significantly since late
1950
o Upper 300m of the ocean:
temperature has increased at a rate
about 0.04 degrees C per decade
o Humidity, sea-ice extent, snow cover
indicates pattern of warming over
the past centuries
o Warming is in large part a result of
rising atmospheric concentrations of
greenhouse gases
 Human activities
 Carbon Dioxide
o Industrial revolution- value
increased steadily, rising
exponentially by mid 19th century
 Reflects the combustion of
fossil fuels
 Increased clearing and
burning of forests
o Correlation between rising
atmospheric concentrations of CO2
and observed increases in global
temperature
 Shift from surplus to deficit
that results in the decline in
the surface temperature from
day-night (diurnal cycle) and
summer-winter (seasonal
cycle)
 Temperature are declining as
a result of negative net
radiation balance