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RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity is the spontaneous emissions from the nucleus of certain atoms, of

either alpha, beta or gamma radiation. These radiations are emitted when the nuclei of
the radioactive substance breaks down to form a new and more stable nuclei.

One of the early workers with this phenomenon was Marie Curie. She experimented
with uranium compounds and discovered new elements such as polonium and radium.
These substances emitted invisible radiation that eventually killed her in 1934 from
overexposure.

Nature of Radioactive Emissions

Alpha particles (α) are helium nuclei. They have 2 protons and 2 neutrons existing
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together. [ 2 He ]

Beta particles (β) are electrons moving at high speeds.

Gamma rays (γ) are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelengths.

Cloud Chamber

Radioactivity can be detected by using by using a device called the diffusion cloud
chamber. The device consists of a cylinder chamber under which dry ice is placed.
Inside the chamber is filled with alcohol vapour, which is cooled about –65 oC by
using dry ice.

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When the radioactive source is placed close to the base, the inside is illuminated with
white vapour trails, which can be seen shooting from the source. The vapour trails
formed, shows the paths taken by the radiation and can be used to distinguish the type

of radiation present.

The Effect of Magnetic Fields on Radioactive Emissions

Some radioactive emissions are deflected by both electric and magnetic fields; the
diagram below shows the effects of magnetic fields on α particles, β particles and
γ rays.

Gamma (γ) rays are not affected by magnetic fields since they have no charge, hence
they do not deflect.

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Alpha (α) particles show a slight deviation to the left as shown in the diagram above.
By using Fleming Left Hand Rule we can determine that the alpha particles are
positively charged.

Beta (β) particles deviate to the right, which shows that they have a negative charge.

Note that alpha particles deviate less than beta particles because they are massive
compared to beta particles.

Nuclear Reactions
There are several types of nuclear reactions. These are
(i) Radioactivity decay,
(ii) Fusion and
(iii) Fission.

Radioactive Decay
If an isotope is radioactive it has an unstable arrangement in its nuclei. The emission
of alpha or beta particles can make the isotope more stable. This type of reaction
however alters the number of protons or neutrons in the nucleus making the nucleus
of a different element. The original nucleus is called the parent nucleus and the new
nucleus is called the daughter nucleus. (N.B. Further decay can also produce a
granddaughter nucleus.) The daughter nucleus and the emitting products are called
decay products.

Alpha Particle Decay

When a nucleus decays by emitting alpha (α) particles, its atomic mass number (Z)
decreases by two and its mass number (A) decreases by four.

General Equation:

A A–4 4
Z X Z–2 Y + 2 He + ENERGY
parent daughter alpha
nuclide nuclide particle

Examples

α
4 4 4
2 Ra 2 Rn + 2 + energy

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4
2
U 4
2
Th + 4
2
α + energy
Beta Particle Decay

Beta emission causes the proton number (Z) to increase by 1, but the nucleon number
(A) does not change.

General Equation:

A 0
- 1β
A
Z X Z +1
Y + + ENERGY
parent daughter beta
nuclide nuclide particle

Examples

14 14 0
6 C 7 N + -1 β + energy

131
53
I 131
54
Xe + 0
-1
β + energy

Gamma Ray Emissions

With some isotopes the emission of alpha particles and/ or beta particles leaves the
neutrons and protons in an excited arrangement. As the protons and neutrons arrange
themselves into a more stable arrangement they lose energy. This energy is emitted as
a burst of gamma radiation. Gamma radiation does not cause changes in the mass
number (A) or the atomic number (Z) of the isotope.

Half-Life
The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time taken for half of the unstable atoms
to decay (decrease by half of its original mass).

N.B.

Radioactive decay occurs randomly, hence there is no way of predicting when a

particular nucleus will degrade.

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The radioactive process is not affected by temperature change, pressure change or

chemical change.

Table of Half-Life of Some Radioactive Isotopes

ISOTOPE HALF-LIFE

Boron-12 0.92 seconds

Radon-220 52 seconds

Iodine-128 25 minutes

Radon-222 3.8 days

Radium-226 1602 years

Carbon-14 5730 years

Plutonium-239 24400 years

Uranium-238 5.5*109 years

Examples

1. A radioactive source has a half-life of 3 minutes. At a given moment a

radiation detector records a count rate of 128 counts from it. What will be the
count rate after (i) 3 minutes, (ii) 6 minutes and (iii) 15 minutes?

2. A radioactive substance has a half-life of 20 minutes. Initially there were 8000

nuclei present. How long has lapsed until the number of nuclei falls to 1000?

3. Iodine-131 is a radioactive substance which is used as a medical treatment, has

a half-life of 8 days. A patient is given a dose of 10 mg of Iodine-131. How

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much of the isotope will remain in her body after 24 days assuming none is
expelled form the body?

Decay Curve

If a radioactive source has a short half-life, apparatus can be used to obtain data to
plot a decay curve. It is not easy to measure the number of nuclei in a sample of
radioactive material but the rate of decay can be used to indicate how much of the
nuclei is present.

To plot a radioactive decay curve we need to find the value for the background count,
this would be subtracted from each reading obtained. Readings are then taken at
regular intervals and the corrected count rate is plotted against the time. We can then
use the graph to find the half-life of the substance.

Fusion and Fission

Fusion
This occur when two small nuclei join together to form a larger one. Energy is
released in the process and Einstein’s formula can be used to calculate the energy
released.

In fusion:

two small particles  one large particle + Energy

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Fission
This occurs when a large nucleus splits into two roughly equal smaller ones with the
release of energy. This energy is the result of matter converting into energy. We can
therefore use Einstein’s equation to calculate the amount of energy to the quantity of
matter converted. (E = mc2)

In fission:

1 light particle + 1 heavy particle  2 less heavy particles about the same mass +
energy

235 1 144 90 1
92
U + 0
n 56
Ba + 36
Kr + 2 0
n

(energy appears as kinetic energy)

Read and make notes:

PFC Page 362 - 363
 Radioactive dating
 Radiation and people

PFC Page 375 - 385

 Nuclear energy
 Fission and Fusion

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