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Political Marketing and the Marketing Concept

Article  in  European Journal of Marketing · October 1996

DOI: 10.1108/03090569610149782

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 The marketing
Political marketing and the concept
marketing concept
Aron O’Cass
Department of Marketing and Management, University of New 37
England, Armidale NSW, Australia
Received March 1996

Introduction
The application of marketing techniques by political parties in their electoral
campaigns has been discussed by Butler and Collins (1994); Glick (1967); Kotler
(1975); Kotler and Kotle, (1981); Mauser (1983); McGinniss (1969); Nimmo (1970);
Newman and Sheth (1985); Smith and Saunders (1990). Examining political
processes and electoral behaviour from a marketing perspective may offer new
insights into the behaviour and performance of political parties.
O’Shaughnessy (1990) proposes that research and debate should focus on the
marketing orientation of political parties. Significantly research on the actual
marketing orientation of political parties is not substantial at this stage and as
such this research focuses on this issue by addressing the marketing orientation
of a major political party. This paper examines issues related to the marketing
concept within a political party in Australia. The issues examined are the
expressed understanding of the marketing concept, attitudes towards it, and
influence and applicability of it within this political organization.

The marketing concept and marketing’s domain

The author accepts normative arguments and theory propositions for the
application of marketing in politics and marketing’s extended domain generally.
However, empirical research is needed to determine the extent that the
marketing concept has been adopted by political parties and whether they can
be said to be marketing oriented. This is the essential test of the generic concept
of marketing, and marketing’s delimited boundaries or domain. We must move
beyond theoretical arguments based on unsupported propositions of
marketing’s domain and application to empirical investigations which detail the
true domain and extent of the application of marketing.
The marketing concept is argued to be a useful philosophy which can be
applied to both profit and non-profit organizations (Brownlie and Saren, 1991;
Kotler and Zaltman, 1971). One of the earliest expressions of the marketing
concept as a general management philosophy was that of Drucker (1954) and
since this time there have been many definitions, arguments in favour of and
criticisms against the marketing concept (Drucker, 1954; Houston, 1986; Keith,
1960; Levitt, 1960, 1984; McKitterick, 1957; Webster, 1988). Overall the
marketing concept holds a position within marketing that sees it widely European Journal of Marketing,
Vol. 30 No. 10/11, 1996, pp. 37-53.
accepted as a foundation of the discipline (Kotler and Levy, 1969), and argued to © MCB University Press, 0309-0566
European be applicable in a wide range of contexts (Kotler, 1972; Kotler, 1986; Kotler and
Journal Levy, 1973; Wensley, 1990). Basically the marketing concept holds that the
of Marketing needs of consumers are of primary concern and should be identified, and
attempts made to satisfy the identified needs. The marketing concept in
30,10/11
commercial terms is based on the premiss that all company planning and
operations will be customer oriented and the goal is profitable sales volume and
38 that all marketing activities in organizations will be organizationally co-
ordinated. As such the philosophical basis of the marketing concept is that
customer want satisfaction is the economic and social justification for an
organization’s existence. When a political party or candidate applies this
concept to the political process, they must be in a position to adapt to and
satisfy voters’ needs (Mauser, 1983; Newman and Sheth, 1987; Reid, 1988).
Nimmo (1970) argued that candidates dispense information in order to produce
a shift in behaviour and maintain voter support. To do this effectively requires
a sufficient understanding of the values placed by voters on selected factors or
criteria when arriving at a choice (Newman and Sheth, 1987). Houston’s (1986)
interpretation of the marketing concept provides a linkage between the
marketing exchange process and the marketing concept as a means of creating
and facilitating effective exchanges. Marketing has been extended to include all
organizations and their relationships. Relationships are with any public not just
commercial customers and, therefore, include exchanges of value between any
social entities (Kotler, 1972). Politics falls within marketing’s extended domain
centrally because an exchange takes place when a voter casts his or her vote for
a particular candidate. They are engaged in a transaction and exchange time
and support (their vote) for the services the candidate offers after election
through better government. Marketing, then, is applicable to political processes
as a transaction occurs and is specifically concerned with how transactions are
created, stimulated and valued.
However Houston (1986) provides a very succinct outline of the marketing
concept and one that addresses such criticisms. Arguing that the marketing
concept is a managerial prescription relating to the attainment of an entity’s
goals. For certain, well-defined but restrictive market conditions and for
exchange-determined goals which are not product related, the marketing
concept is a prescription showing how an entity can achieve these goals most
efficiently (Houston, 1986).
Further:
the marketing concept follows that an entity achieves its own exchange determined goals
most efficiently through a thorough understanding of potential exchange partners and their
needs and wants, through a thorough understanding of the costs associated with satisfying
those needs and wants, and then designing, producing and offering products in light of this
understanding (Houston, 1986, p.85).

Essentially, the key task and objective of an organization is to determine the

needs, wants and values of its target markets and manage the organization to
deliver the consumer’s desired satisfaction more effectively and efficiently than The marketing
competitors. concept
This interpretation of the marketing concept dictates an understanding of
the market, and it does not suggest that products be designed to satisfy only a
market’s research-defined demand. Satisfaction of the market’s demand is
important to the extent which it yields profits. Houston (1986) contended that
an organization that has decided to offer a single, undifferentiated offering 39
instead of designing products to suit each perceived market segment, may have
arrived at this decision with a thorough understanding of the market’s response
and the accompanying costs, and is in fact an ideal user of the marketing
concept.
The marketing concept provides a means of focusing all departments
effectively and efficiently towards customer-need satisfaction and creating
exchanges at a profit. If a political party’s product is developed in relation to (or
in consideration of ) voters’ values and needs and the party delivers the proposed
product, voter satisfaction should be increased. Voters will have a sense of being
part of a politically responsive institution (Newman and Sheth, 1987).
The theoretical arguments for examining the incorporation of marketing into
politics is the generic concept of marketing (Kotler, 1972; Arndt, 1978; Kotler
and Levy, 1969).
The generic concept of marketing broadened marketing in two significant
ways, by extending it from the private sector into the non-commercial and
public sector and by broadening exchange from only economic exchanges to
any kind of exchanges (Kotler, 1972; Kotler and Levy, 1969). Marketing therefore
includes all organizations and their relationships with any public (Bagozzi,
1975; Kotler, 1972). Consistent with these views of broadening marketing’s
domain Kotler and Levy (1969, p. 15) proposed that:
the choice facing those who manage non-business organizations is not whether to market or
not to market, for no organization can avoid marketing. The choice is whether to do it well or
poorly.

This is the choice facing political parties. With such choices, to make an
important concept within marketing and one that raises fundamental issues for
parties, is the marketing concept.

Applying marketing to politics

Shama (1973) believes that many concepts and tools are shared by marketing of
goods and services and political marketing. Posner (1992) and Niffenegger
(1989) argue that politicians have become likened to consumer products,
complete with marketing strategies and promotion campaigns which enable
them to gain market share and increasingly election campaigns are being
compared to marketing campaigns (Kotler, 1975; Kotler and Kotler, 1981;
Mauser, 1983). It is argued that parties must understand the basic elements of
marketing to be successful not only in the short term but also in the long term
(Niffenegger, 1989; Reid, 1988). This marketing analogy is more than
European coincidental as Kotler (1975), Niffenegger (1989) and Shama (1973) believe the
Journal very essence of a candidate and political party’s interface with the electorate is
of Marketing a marketing one and marketing can not be avoided. Marketing is not a panacea
or cure all, but a process allowing a more effective and efficient method to design
30,10/11 and implement political campaigns. Marketing offers political parties the ability
to address diverse voter concerns and needs through marketing analyses,
40 planning, implementation and control of political and electoral campaigns.
Kotler and Andreasen (1991) propose that the difficulty in transposing
marketing into public and non-profit organizations (political parties) is a
function of how organization-centred such organizations are as opposed to
customer-centred. An organization-centred orientation counters the
organization’s ability to integrate marketing. Therefore marketing is viewed
currently as a marketing mindset of customer-centredness (Kotler and
Andreasen, 1991, p. 42), and is seen in organizations which exhibit: customer-
centredness, heavy reliance on research, are biased towards segmentation,
define competition broadly, and have strategies using all elements of the
marketing mix (Kotler and Andreasen, 1991, p. 53).
Foxall (1989) and Trustrom (1989) advocate that only a synergistic and
purposive application of the sum total of marketing tools and concept is
marketing. Further the marketing concept appears to provide the necessary
integrating mechanism and that the: implementation of one or indeed all of the
marketing functions without adoption of the marketing concept is not
marketing. However, having adopted the marketing concept it is not necessary
to implement all of the functions, merely those which are appropriate to
prevailing circumstances (Trustrom, 1989, p. 48). As such the marketing
concept appears to be both a philosophical and practical guide for the
management of marketing. However one important point missing from the
literature is the diversity of applications or situations the concept can be used in
or, more importantly, is used in, especially in relation to politics.

Research method
The methodology adopted in this paper consisted of a case study utilizing both
qualitative and quantitative data gathering phases within a political party in
Queensland, Australia. The data were collected through non-structured and
structured in-depth interviews in stage 1, followed by a mail survey in stage 2.
The case study method as used in this study is appropriate because it met three
essential criteria. These criteria are, when the case is regarded as a critical case,
a unique case and a revelatory case (Patton, 1990; Yin, 1989). The two stage
research design (qualitative and quantitative) used in this study allowed both
an exploratory stage to investigate phenomena and develop ideas and then a
descriptive stage to describe patterns of phenomena and quantify them within
the same study. This is especially practical if the field of study is in its
evolutionary or pre-paradigmatic phase (Parkhe, 1993).
Stage 1 consisted of non-structured and structured in-depth interviews with
seven state executives (executive management) within the party. All interviews
were tape recorded and transcribed to allow for a more superior case write up The marketing
and analysis. Interview data analysis consisted of prioritising data through the concept
process of developing categories and searching for similarities within
interviews (Yin, 1989; Eisenhardt, 1989). Interviewees were chosen on the basis
of proximity to key events and organizational position and experience. This
resulted in seven individuals being chosen, and as such is within the guide
established by Eisenhardt (1989) and a belief that there was minimal 41
contribution from further interviews with other executives.
Stage 2 provided quantitative measurement/data to supplement and
complement stage 1. Stage 2 consisted of developing and administering an
extensive 68-item questionnaire utilizing a Likert-type response format, which
covered issues related to the marketing concept, market orientation, the political
product, the party’s marketing activity and effectiveness. Essentially the goal of
the questionnaire was to identify characteristics, measure strengths of
attitudes, understanding and knowledge, and quantify information obtained in
stage 1. The questionnaire was used to examine the extent of consensus
throughout the organization on the issues related to the marketing orientation
of the party. Responses were rated from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
The questionnaire was administered by mail to the four key decision-making
categories within the organization identified during the interviews conducted in
stage 1. The sampling process followed, dealt with determining a definition of
units stable enough to sample and that lent itself to the possible application of
standardized codes. It required the informants of stage 1 assisting in the
enumeration of a sampling frame based on the formal activities which the case
was based around. The sample was based on purposeful stratified
disproportionate sampling procedure. The rationale being that while it helps to
estimate population parameters, there were identifiable subgroups within the
case population that were expected to have different parameters on variables or
dimensions of interest in the study. The case study interviews in stage 1 and the
mail survey in stage 2 are compatible in their adherence to purposeful
information rich samples (Patton, 1990). This sample design was more efficient
than the simple random sample design because, for the same sample size, more
representativeness was achieved and more valuable and differentiated
information with respect to each subgroup or strata was sought. Table I
identifies each strata and the enumeration of the sample for each group within
the case.

Subgroup Sample frame Sample size

State executive 29 29
State candidates 1992 105 58
State campaign director 1992 79 35
Branch chairman 105 28 Table I.
Total 318 150 Sample size
European The mail survey achieved an initial response of 44 per cent and a follow-up
Journal random sample of 20 per cent was drawn from non-respondents, this achieved
of Marketing a 100 per cent response rate and thus avoided a second order follow-up. The
difference between respondents and non-respondents was shown to be
30,10/11 statistically insignificant. Overall the study achieved a 54 per cent response
rate. The methodology and design of the study achieved results that were
42 congruent and convergent through the triangulation of methods. Together both
stages 1 and 2 of the research are congruent and the level of convergent validity
of results is high.

Findings
Understanding of the marketing concept
The depth of understanding of the marketing concept is examined first from the
results of the stage 1 interviews. The interview results indicate that those who
hold the highest positions within the party and who are responsible for political
marketing decision making and management have a minimal understanding of
the marketing concept. For example, interviewee 4 expressed a simplistic
understanding of the marketing concept, believing that the marketing concept
was: essentially finding out what people want and then telling them what they
want to get elected. Table II provides a summary assessment of the respondents
of stage 1’s understanding of the marketing concept.
In conclusion to the expressed understanding of the philosophy called the
marketing concept, six of the seven interviewees expressed no understanding of
the term or what it meant. The only interviewee who expressed a minimal
understanding of the term was incorrect when compared with those generally
expressed in the marketing literature. Interview findings imply that this
managerial body within this party do not have any understanding of the
“marketing concept”.

Interviewee attitude towards the marketing concept

During the interviews those respondents that expressed no understanding of
the marketing concept were provided with a brief definition and objectives of

Interviewee
number Large degree Minimal Had not heard of

1 ✓
2 ✓
3 ✓
4 ✓
5 ✓
Table II. 6 ✓
Expressed understanding 7 ✓
of the marketing concept Source: Analysis of interview data
the marketing concept in order to provide feedback on their attitude to it. The The marketing
findings from the interviews indicate neither a positive nor a negative attitude concept
towards the marketing concept and its applicability to politics and this political
party. Table III provides an overview of attitudes of interviewees.
The findings indicated a belief that the marketing concept may move the
party away from those philosophies which they espouse and as such is viewed
negatively for that reason, and that adopting such a philosophy would only 43
work short term. However, some interviewees expressed the view that if this
philosophy will get candidates elected, it is good. There is, in the comments
from one interviewee, a view that such philosophy would entail: that again it is
the flight to the middle ground, telling people what they want to hear to get
candidates elected. Another who expressed a mixed attitude towards the
marketing concept as a philosophy on which to base or guide political
marketing, commented that: “I think there is conflict between that approach and
politics…you are not going to govern well. I think probably you have to adapt it
a little in that you let them think you are giving them what they want or just tell
them what they want to hear, and a fair bit of that goes on”.
Generally those interviewed in stage 1, when exposed to a definition and
objectives of the marketing concept, had a somewhat negative attitude with
regard to its suitability and overall use within the party. However, the
implication from some interviewees is that if it can be used as a manipulative
tool or will aid in winning elections then it would be viewed more positively.

Analysis of marketing concept dimensions/adequacy and influence survey

results
Marketing concept dimensions and adequacy of the marketing concept were
addressed through the questionnaire administered in stage 2. This stage
provides an indication of the level of support for such a concept within this
party. The results are presented in frequency tables which provides a
combination of the results for all positions within the sample and then the
responses or breakdown of individual position categories.

Interviewee
number Positive Negative Mixed

1 –
2 –
3 –
4 –
5 +/–
Table III.
6 +
Expressed attitude
7 +/– toward the marketing
Source: Analysis of interview data concept
European Marketing concept dimensions and adequacy
Journal Part A of the survey questionnaire was administered to key decision-making
of Marketing categories within the case organization. Part A contained a number of questions
related to the marketing concept, its objectives, adequacy and influence. Table
30,10/11 IV displays summary statistics for part A of the questionnaire stage 2.

44 Summary of concept and adequacy dimensions

The findings for the marketing concept and its adequacy show a high level of
agreement for the objectives of the marketing concept. Further that when
phrased in political terms or terminology it still receives strong support.
However, there is a belief that there would be a level of conflict between voter
needs and political objectives which would impact on using such a philosophy.
This supports the similar findings from the interviews on this dimension.

Influence and applicability for the party

The following address the influence that the marketing concept has had on the
party, and its applicability for the party. The results indicate that the majority
(67 per cent) of respondents indicated that they believe the marketing concept
would be useful in this party. The respondents are approximately evenly split
between agreement and disagreement, believing political objectives would
override voter needs in the event of conflict between the two. The findings on
this dimension are consistent with those obtained in the interviews. It shows
that there is a level of conflict between some sections of the party on meeting
voters needs versus internal or political objectives. Interviewees also indicated
the marketing concept could create such conflicts.
There is general agreement by respondents that the marketing concept has
had little influence within the party. The extent of adoption and influence within
the party obtained from the survey results are consistent with those obtained in
the interviews. Both interviewees and survey respondents expressed a similar
level of agreement that the marketing concept has not been adopted and as such
has had little influence. However, the findings show that the majority (74 per
cent) of the stage 2 respondents believe that the marketing concept with its
voter orientation would work if adopted by the party. This contradicts some of
the statements made during the interviews in stage 1 as to the suitability of the
marketing concept to be used by the party. This contradiction between
interviewees and survey respondents is believed to result from two issues, first
the survey respondents were presented with the marketing concept expressed
in terms generally applied to commercial marketing and then in terms
expressed in political terms, and as such they to some extent received a more
appropriate and applicable definition of its use and objectives than the
interviewees. Second the interviewees may to some extent have a greater
understanding of party mechanisms and constraints than survey respondents.
Further, interviewees would be responsible for addressing implementation of
the marketing concept within the party and therefore may more clearly see the
potential conflict that could arise. With these issues in mind, interviewees may
PAQ1 Business organizations Strongly agree Agree Disagree Strongly disagree
activities should be devoted to 60.0 36.3% 1. 2.5
determining customers’ wants strongly disagree
and needs then satisfying them, Position agree/agree disagree/strongly
while making a profit over State executive 100.0 0.0
the long run Candidate 93.9 6.1
Branch chairman 100.0 0.0
Campaign director 90.9 9.1
PAQ2 Political parties activities strongly agree neither agree disagree strongly
should be devoted at determining agree nor disagree disagree
voters’ needs and wants and then 42.3 38.5 6.4 9.0 3.8
satisfying them to obtain strongly neither agree disagree/strongly
government and staying in Position agree/agree nor disagree disagree
government in the long run State executive 90.0 10.0 0.0
Candidate 81.3 3.1 15.6
Branch chairman 68.8 6.3 25.0
Campaign director 81.8 9.1 9.1
PAQ3 Political party decisions Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree
should be voter oriented to agree nor disagree
determine voter needs and wants 23.4 64.9 7.8 3.9
and attempt to satisfy them Strongly Neither agree Disagree/strongly
within ideological bounds and Position agree/agree nor disagree disagree
parliamentary numbers rather State executive 80.0 20.0 0.0
than percentage of vote be State candidate 93.5 3.2 3.2
the standard for evaluating Branch chairman 88.2 11.8 0.0
marketing performance Campaign director 100.0 0.0 0.0
PAQ4 The notion of being oriented Strongly neither agree Strongly
towards satisfying voter needs and agree Agree nor disagree Disagree disagree
wants is too vague and general to 2.6 28.2 2.6 51.3 15.4
be really useful in making decisions Atrongly Neither agree Disagree/strongly
within the…Party Position agree/agree nor disagree disagree
State executive 50.0 0.0 50.0
Candidate 25.0 0.0 75.0
(continued…)

Summary statistics
45
concept
The marketing

Table IV.
 46

Continued
Table IV.
Journal

30,10/11
European

of Marketing
Branch chairman 23.5 5.9 70.6
Campaign director 60.0 10.0 30.0
PAQ5 In reality there are basic Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly
conflicts between attempting to agree nor disagree disagree
satisfy voters’ needs and wants 11.5 51.3 7.7 23.1 6.4
and political party objectives Strongly Neither agree Disagree/strongly
Position agree/agree nor disagree disagree
State executive 50.0 20.0 30.0
Candidate 64.5 3.2 32.3
Branch chairman 76.5 0.0 23.5
Campaign director 63.6 18.2 18.2
PAQ6 In the event of conflict Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly
between voter needs and wants agree or disagree disagree
and political objectives, 2.6 42.3 9.0 41.0 5.1
political ones would be the Strongly Neither agree Disagree/strongly
overriding consideration within Position agree/agree nor disagree disagree
the…Party State executive 60.0 10.0 30.0
Candidate 37.5 12.5 50.0
Branch chairman 35.3 5.9 58.8
Campaign director 90.0 0.0 10.0
PAQ7 The concept of Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly
determining the needs and agree nor disagree disagree
wants of voters in order 1.3 21.5 13.9 55.7 7.6
to satisfy them to obtain Strongly Neither agree Disagree/strongly
office is a philosophy Position agree/agree nor disagree disagree
used by the…Party State executive 10.0 20.0 70.0
Candidate 25.0 15.6 59.4
Branch chairman 17.6 5.9 76.5
Campaign director 9.1 27.3 63.6
PAQ8 The… Party has given Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly
considerable lip service to agree nor disagree disagree
the marketing concept, but 15.0 61.3 6.3 15.0 2.5
in general it has had little Strongly Neither agree Disagree/strongly
(continued…)
influence on the management Position agree/agree nor disagree disagree
campaigns of the party State executive 60.0 10.0 30.0
Candidate 81.8 3.0 15.2
Branch chairman 76.5 11.8 11.8
Campaign director 81.8 0.0 18.2
PAQ9 The concept of Strongly Agree Neither agree Disagree
determining voters’ needs and agree nor disagree
wants and attempting to 21.8 69.2 2.6 6.4
satisfy them to obtain and Strongly Neither agree Disagree/strongly
maintain political office Position agree/agree nor disagree disagree
would increase the attention State executive 90.0 0.0 10.0
and effort devoted to Candidate 96.9 3.1 0.0
planning and controlling Branch chairman 82.4 5.9 11.8
political and campaign Campaign director 80.0 0.0 20.0
activities
PAQ10 The concept of Agree Neither agree Disagree Strongly
determining customer (voter) nor disagree disagree
needs and wants and then 19.0 6.3 53.2 21.5
attempting to satisfy them, Strongly Neither agree Disagree/strongly
would work within the Position agree/agree nor disagree disagree
business world but not State executive 40.0 0.0 60.0
the…Party Candidate 9.1 6.1 84.8
Branch chairman 17.6 11.8 70.6
Campaign director 30.0 10.0 60.0
Source: Analysis of survey data
Note: All figures are expressed as a percentage

Continued
47
concept
The marketing

Table IV.
European not want to consider implementing such a concept and, further, taking more
Journal notice of voters may be seen to be a loss of power and authority within the
of Marketing interviewees’ group.
Overall the findings related to the marketing concept’s influence and
30,10/11 applicability indicate that the marketing concept has had no influence on this
party. However there is a high level of support from survey respondents,
48 indicating that they see it as an appropriate concept and as such would prove
beneficial to this party. However, the major issue of concern appears to be that
party political objectives would override voter needs and as such would create
conflict with adopting the marketing concept.

Conclusion: concept dimensions and influence

The findings show that there is a satisfactory level of understanding and
positive attitude expressed by survey respondents towards the marketing
concept as a valid and meaningful philosophy in general. Interestingly, the
survey results contradict the interview results on some issues. However none of
the interviewees were respondents to the survey. When influence or
applicability for the party was addressed, the responses become more dispersed
and a higher number of respondents selected neither agree nor disagree. Also
those positions that would be believed to have a greater understanding of the
organization’s operations show that the marketing concept has had, or perhaps
would have, little influence within the party and would create some conflict in
its implementation. There appears to be a high level of support for the
marketing concept when it is expressed in terms that suits its application to
politics. This would tend to indicate that if the marketing concept is expressed
in normative terms which show political party management what they ought to
be doing, their acceptance of the basic principles of the marketing concept
increases, because it ceases to be relevant to commerce only and addresses their
specific political marketing environment.

Market orientation findings

Part C of the stage 2 questionnaire addressed the extent to which this party
could be described as having a market orientation and as such is the most
appropriate test of the extent that they have implemented the marketing
concept or follow principles consistent with the marketing concept. Within this
concept there are three central points of interest:
(1) the organization-wide generation of market intelligence;
(2) the dissemination of the intelligence across the organization; and
(3) organization-wide responsiveness to it.
Essentially; two aspects of the marketing concept that will be evident in a
market oriented political party are a voter focus and co-ordinated marketing.
The findings indicate that the party has a low voter focus and low research
emphasis. These two-dimension ratings appear consistent, as the voter focus is
derived basically from the philosophy adopted and is caused by the low The marketing
research emphasis. The results indicate that the party’s research is concept
fundamentally post hoc. Indications are that minimal marketing research is
performed and action taken after campaign strategy and tactical issues have
already been developed. Overall the results show that intelligence gathering by
the party is low, and that dissemination of and responsiveness to it are
negligible. 49
This is consistent with the view expressed by interviewee 7 that: (as is often
the case…when research is done), there was a very restricted circulation and
comments made on some questionnaire forms indicated that many believed the
party does disseminate information but added that this was minimal and only
at election time. Overall the findings indicate that the party does not have a
market orientation. It does not effectively gather information on the
marketplace, disseminate that information and respond to it effectively.

Conclusions and implications

This study addressed the marketing concept, its applicability, influence and
levels of understanding within a political party. It is important to note that just
because the philosophy of the marketing concept is not understood, it does not
necessarily mean such a philosophy has not been adopted. As such the
interviews addressed only the identified understanding of “the marketing
concept”.
Given that the marketing concept is so widely acclaimed and accepted within
the academic discipline of marketing, one may assume that it would be well
understood and followed by those who engage in marketing activity in
organizations . The findings of this study indicate that this may not be the case.
Those who would be responsible for adopting and implementing the marketing
concept within the party do not have any knowledge of the processes involved, or
its objectives. Attitudes towards the marketing concept and its applicability for
this party were generally positive, however, the highest position of management
in this organization had a negative attitude. Attitude of management towards the
marketing concept appears to be important and operational dimensions and
adequacy of such concept are key issues in addressing adoption and
implementation of the marketing concept by organizations .
The semantic redefinition of the marketing concept appeared more appropriate
for politics and received a high level of acceptance[1]. This may prove important
if the philosophy of the marketing concept is to be adopted by the party. As such
the indications are that the marketing concept as a philosophy needs to be
expressed in terms that party management and workers can understand from
their political perspectives, and shown that it can meet their objectives, before it
can be considered to be useful by them. That is, to be anything more than a
technical term in the marketing discipline, it requires industry specific
redefinitions so that those within various sectors such as politics can see the
relevance of the marketing concept through redefinition’s focusing on objectives
expressed in terminology specific to the political environment.
European The second issue addressed was that of the influence and applicability of the
Journal marketing concept for the party. The findings indicated a positive expression of
of Marketing the marketing concept’s applicability for politics and in particular this party.
The findings of both stages of the study indicate that the marketing concept has
30,10/11 had little influence on the party to date. It is believed that this lack of influence
and acceptance comes from the stage 1 interviewees, misconception regarding
50 its specific use and benefits in politics. The findings show applicability and
normative expressions are the first barrier to overcome in its implementation in
politics.
Market orientation dimensions provide evidence to determine the extent that
the organization has adopted the marketing concept ( Jaworski and Kohli, 1990;
1993) or a similar/comparable philosophy. Examining the party’s market
orientation is the ultimate test to see if the party has adopted the marketing
concept. The findings indicated that the party places a very low emphasis on
marketing research and it does not focus effectively on voters. As such one of
the key pillars of the marketing concept is missing, that is it does not have a
customer focus. The survey posed a number of statements relating to whether
the party surveyed voters to determine voters needs, the quality of the party
performance and the quality of the party’s product. The results indicated that
the respondents believed the party did not perform such market research
activities and that the dissemination of market information and responsiveness
to it are not performed within the party or are only addressed in a perfunctory
manner.
There appears to be no cognizance between the basic voter’s needs and
transient product offerings (leadership/policy/candidate) in the various
combinations and as such the party has not at this stage been led to redefine
and expand the nature of its operations to provide them with a sturdy political
operating base. Because the marketing concept has not been adopted the
various levels of political activity within the party have developed their own
political and campaign logic based on their particular perceptions and skills.
Each level is not focused on the satisfaction of voter needs and even perceives
these needs to be different.
A number of barriers to implementing the marketing concept and the
development of a market orientation have been identified. The first is an
incomplete or misinterpretation of the marketing concept. Second, internal
conflict between political objectives and voter needs. Third the management’s
own values and perception of the importance of voter needs and their input in
the development of the political product, and finally, the short-term focus of
politics and the percentage of the vote obtained in elections as the ultimate
measure of success.
Similar problems to those identified in this study have also been found in
research on marketing within the public sector by Foxall (1989) and Permut
(1980). The findings of this research indicate that the problems highlighted are
centrally about perception and understanding of what marketing is and its
applicability to politics. The managerial body of the party has the view that
marketing is essentially a selling technique used in election campaigns and The marketing
beyond this limited application has no appropriate or extra role in politics. concept
A similar concern was addressed by Kotler and Andreasen (1991) who
believed the difficulty of incorporating marketing into public and non-profit
enterprises relates directly to whether they are more organization-centred than
customer centred. An organization-centred orientation in a political party
opposes its ability to integrate marketing into its operations. To counter this 51
situation it is proposed that the essence of marketing is a marketing mindset of
customer centredness which is fundamentally a marketing orientation derived
from the organization having a marketing culture (Webster, 1992).
The argument raised here is that the party’s view and application of
marketing is essentially not marketing, because it relies on singular elements
which are often applied out of context or ineffectively. The findings of this study
are similar to that of Permut (1980) who examined performing arts
administrator’s use of marketing and concluded that marketing was seen
primarily as a promotional tool tied to advertising.
In conclusion, marketing has not been successfully extended into the party’s
political operations, even though the party argues it successfully uses
advertising and political polling. Contrary to the party’s belief, marketing is
characterized by an integrated and synergistic mix of product development and
design, distribution, pricing (or economic cost) and promotion. This set of
marketing activities is the twin-edge sword of marketing, the first edge is the
mix of these elements developed to meet the needs and wants of target
customers (voters) and the second is to meet the objectives of the organization.
Essentially this party starts with its pre-developed policy and platform
( products) and attempts to convince the voters of its merits over those of its
competitors. What is required is a marketing-oriented application that
considers not only the party’s capabilities and objectives but also the voters
needs and wants. As such the semantic redefinition of the marketing concept
used in this study is argued to be valuable as a guiding philosophy to meet such
political party objectives.
The issues raised that such a concept would only work short term or would
create a flight to the middle ground are, in fact, essentially derived from a
selling orientation and being internally oriented. A marketing orientation
driven by the marketing concept differs significantly from current orientation of
selling in that it seeks to sell political products which are sought by voters.
Thus the objective of meeting voter’s needs through the party offering is to
build brand loyalty and repeat voter exchanges by satisfying identified voter
needs better than the party’s political opponents. The notion of selling
orientation based on issues at elections will in fact create a confused brand
image as the party moves from one issue to another at various elections and
overtime lead to a lack of credibility. Political marketing cannot guarantee
winning at every election, however it does offer improved performance, and
more appropriate ways of making decisions and managing campaigns. A
European marketing orientation will lead parties and candidates to understand more fully
Journal voter’s needs, and how they can meet such needs.
of Marketing Many of the concepts explored in this research highlight significant
problems that marketing has yet to address, such as problems of perception and
30,10/11 understanding which conflict with traditional ideologies in politics. I argue that
the central purpose of political marketing is to enable political parties and
52 voters to make the most appropriate and satisfactory decisions. Thus the value
of marketing is that its concepts promote and enable parties and voters to
participate in a constructive dialogue for both specific and broader societal
development and utilization of social and economic goals.

Notes
1. Political party decisions should be voter oriented to determine voter needs and wants and
attempt to satisfy them within ideological bounds and parliamentary numbers rather than
the percentage of the vote be the standard for evaluating marketing performance.

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