INTRODUCTION TO OPTICS Grant R. Fowles Ni ~ Second EditionINTRODUCTION TO MODERN OPTICS by Grant R. Fowles Professor of Physics University of Utah ‘Second Edition DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC., New YorkCopyright © 1968, 1975 by Grant R. Fowles All rights reserved under Pan Americas and loternational Copyright Con- Published in Canada by General Publishing Company, Ltd, 30 Lesmill Road, Don Mills, Toronto, This Dover edition, first published in 1989, is an unabridged, corrected fecpublication of the second eation (1975) of the work originally publshea BY Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Ine, New Yer, 1968, Manufactured inthe United States of America Dover Publications, In, 31 Fast 2nd Steet, Mineola, N.Y. 11501 Library of Congress Cataoging-in-Publiaton Data Fowles, Grant R Tntraduction to modern optic. Reprint. Originally published: 2nd ed, New York : Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1975 Bibliography: p. Includes index 1. Optics, Physical. 1. Tie. QCHS2FEE 1989 53°23 ISBN 0.486-65957-7Preface Although optics is an old science, in recent years there has been a remarkable upsurge in the importance of optics in both pure science and in technology. This was brought about, in part, by the develop- ‘ment of the laser with its rapidly growing list of applications. The ob- vious need for a modernized undergraduate-level textbook has been the primary reason for writing this book. This second edition incorporates a number of changes, some minor and some substantial. Part of the text material has been rearranged, and much new material has been added. This includes new problems, expansion of explanatory matter, and updating of certain sections, particularly those dealing with lasers. The sections on relativistic optics, formerly part of the first chapter, has been reordered in the form of an appendix. ‘The first half of the book deals with classical physical opties: the propagation and polarization of light, coherence and interference, diffraction, and the optical properties of matter. Most of the remainder of the book is devoted to the quantum nature of light: thermal radi tion, absorption and emission of light by atoms and molecules, and the theory of optical amplification, and lasers. Also, many applications ofthe laser to the study of optics are integrated throughout the regular text material Chapter 1 treats the propagation of light waves and includes the concepts of phase and group velocities, The vectorial nature of light is taken up in Chapter 2 which also includes the use of the Jones calculus in the study of polarization. Chapter 3 introduces the con- cepts of partial coherence and coherence length to the study of inter- ference, and includes a brief discussion of the Fourier transform as applied to optics. Chapter 4 (which was part of Chapter 3 in the first edition) presents 4 study of multiple-beam interference and includes Fabry-Perot inter ferometry and multilayer-film theory. Chapter $ comprises the study Of diffraction and includes holography as an application of the theory. Chapter 6 treats the propagation of light in material media and in- cludes crystal optics and a section on nonlinear optics, a subject which ‘was virtually unheard of until the advent of the laser. In order to do justice to the theory of light amplification and lasers, Ureated in Chapter 9, Chapters 7 and 8 offer a brief introduction to the quantum theory of light and elementsry optical spectra. These two chapters may be omitted in a short course if the student has already had a course in atomic physics. The last chapter, Chapter 10, isa brief outline of ray optics and is intended to introduce the student to the matrix method for treating optical systems. The main reason for ircluding this chapter is to apply the ray matrix to the study of laser resonators. A thorough discussion of ray optics is not intended, ‘The level of the book is such that the student is assumed to have been introduced t Maxwell's equations in an intermediate course in electricity and magnetism. It is further assumed that the student has taken some advanced mathematics beyond calculus so that he is acquainted with such things as elementary matnx algebra, Fourier transforms, and so forth, The level of mathematical proficiency is exemplified by such texts as Wylie's Advanced Engineering Math For classroom use, a lst of problems is included at the end of each chapter. Answers to selected problems are given at the end of the book. ‘The answers to the other problems will be available to teachers on request “The author wishes to thank all who helped in the preparation of the book. This includes those who used the first edition and submitted many constructive criticisms. Thanks are also due the editorial staff of the publisher and W. E. Wu for his relp in proofreading the manu- seript January, 1975 Grant R. FowlesContents Preface Chapter 1 The Propagation of Light Elementary Optical Phenomena and the Nature of Light Electrical Constants and the Speed of Light Plane Harmonic Waves. Phase Velocity Alternative Ways of Representing Hermonic Waves Group Velocity ‘The Doppler Effect Chapter 2 The Vectorial Nature of Light General Remarks Energy Flow. The Poynting Vector Linear Polarization Circular and Elliptic Polarization Matrix Representation of Polarization. The Jones Calculus Reflection and Refraction at a Plane Boundary Amplitudes of Reflected and Refracted Waves. Fresnel’s Equations ‘The Brewster Angle ‘The Evanescent Wave in Total Reflection 2.10 Phase Changes in Total Internal Reflection 241 Reflection Matrix a 2 24 25 28 33 40 47 48 30 32CONTENTS Chapter 3 Coherence and Interference 7 3.1 The Principle of Linear Superposition 58 3.2 Young's Experiment 59 3.3. The Michelson Interferometer 63 3.4 Theory of Partial Coherence. Visibility of Fringes 66. 3.5. Coherence Time and Coherence Length 68 3.6 Spectral Resolution of a Finite Wave Train, Coherence and Line Width m 3.7 Spatial Coherence m4 3.8 Intensity Interferometry 9 3.9 Fourier Transform Spectroscopy 80 Chapter 4 Multiple-Beam Interference as 4.1 Interference with Multiple Beams 86 4.2. The Fabry-Perot Interferometer 90 4.3 Resolution of Fabry-Perot Instruments 94 44° Theory of Multilayer Films 96 Chapter § Diffraction 10s 5.1 General Deseription of Diffraction 106 5.2. Fundamental Theory 106 5.3. Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction 112 5.4 Fraunhofer Diffraction Patterns 114 5.5 Fresnel Diffraction Patterns Rs 5.6 Applications of the Fourier Transform to Diffraction 135 5.7 Reconstruction of the Wave Froat by Diffraction. Holography 4a Chapter 6 Optics of Solids 151 6.1 General Remarks 132 6.2 Macroscopic Fields and Maxwells Equations 152 6.3 The General Wave Equation 134 64 Propagation of Light in Isotropic Dielectrics. Dispersion Iss 6.5 Propagation of Light in Conducting Media 160 6.6 Reflection and Refraction at the Boundary of an Absorbing Medium 164 6.7 Propagation of Light in Crystals 169 68 Double Refraction at a Boundary 180 69 Optical Activity 185 6.10 Faraday Rotation in Solids 189 6.11 Other Magneto-optic and Electro-optic Effects 192 6.12. Nonlinear Optics 195Chapter 7 Thermal Radiation and Light Quanta 7.1 Thermal Radiation 7.2 Kirchhoft’s Law. Blackbody Radiation 7.3. Modes of Electromagnetic Radiation in a Cavity 74 Classical Theory of Blackbody Radiation. The Rayleigh-Jeans Formula 7.5 Quantization of Cavity Radiation 7.6 Photon Statistics. Planck's Formula 7.7 The Photoelectric Effect and the Detection of Individual Photons 7.8 Momentum of a Photon. Light Pressure 7.9 Angular Momentum of @ Photon 7.10 Wavelength of a Material Particle. de Broglie’s Hypothesis 7.11 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle Chapter 8 Optical Spectra 8.1 General Remarks 82 Blementary Theory of Ato 8.3 Quantum Mechanies 84 The Schrodinger Equation 8.5 Quantum Mechanics of the Hydrogen Atom 8.6 Radiative Transitions and Selection Rules 8.7 Fine Structure of Spectrum Lines. Electron Spin 8.8 Multiplicity in the Spectra of Many-Blectron Atoms. Spectroscopic Notation 89 Molecular Spectra 8.10 Atomic-Energy Levels in Solids Spectra Chapter 9 Amplification of Light. Lasers 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Stimulated Emission and Thermal Radiation 9.3 Amplification in a Medium 9.4 Methods of Producing a Population Inversion 9.5 Laser Oscillation 9.6 Optical-Resonator Theory 9.7 Gas Lasers 9.8 Optically Pumped Solid-State Lasers 9.9 Dye Lasers 9.10 Semiconductor Diode Lasers 9.11 Q-Switching and Mode Locking 9.12 The Ring Laser CONTENTS 203 204 204 207 210 Qu 212 27 218 219 221 226 227 233 236 237 243 249 250 253 260. 264 265 267 2 22 275 281 283 286 288 288 290