External lighting

for historic buildings

cov1
CONTENTS

1 Introduction
1 6 Environment, security and dark skies 10

2 General considerations
2 Effects on the environment 10

Security 11

Should the building be lit?

2 Dark skies 11

Does the entire building need to be lit?

2

Is there a pattern or arrangement which should

7 Installation and maintenance issues 11

be featured?
2

Where can external lights be positioned? 3

Are there any adjoining properties? Is light spilling

from the surroundings?

4

8 Glossary 12

How big and how clean is the building? 4

Are there environmental matters to consider?

4

What is the most suitable light source?

5 9 Bibliography 12

How are illumination levels established?

5

Web-based reference material 13

Are trials necessary?

6

3 Types of lighting
7 10 Useful Addresses 13

Conventional external lighting schemes

7
Architectural lighting
7 11 Acknowledgments 13
Dynamic lighting
8

4 Types of light sources and levels to use

9

Lamp Data
9

Available lumen intensities and distributions

9

5 Types of control systems

10

The information in this publication is based on our current knowledge.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the advice given,
English Heritage does not accept liability for loss or damage arising from the use
of this information.This publication is intended as a general guide and should
not be used as a substitute for professional advice
The installation of an external lighting system implies in most cases the fixing of
equipment to the fabric of a building. English Heritage seeks to ensure that any
works to a historic building do not disturb or destroy historic fabric.
In deciding how best to illuminate a building, the principles of minimum
intervention and reversibility should be adopted whenever and wherever possible.

The inclusion in this publication of any company, group or individual, or any

product or service, should not be regarded as either a recommendation or
an endorsement by English Heritage or its agents.

FRONT COVER: Image showing a lit building situated along Grey Street, Newcastle
 INTRODUCTION

Our historic buildings and monuments are often amazing feats of architecture and engineering.
Many have been enhanced and brought to life at night-time with striking and subtle external
lighting schemes. Some, however, have produced far more negative results by highlighting flaws and
views of the structure never meant to be seen. Just because a building or structure happens to
be listed does not mean this is a good enough reason to proceed with external lighting.

1a There are a number of matters that should be examined

before progressing with a design.The most important of
these is the question, ‘Has a real need to install lighting
been established?’ The next must be the acceptance that
a simply technical approach is useless.

The main objectives of external lighting should be:

● to promote observation and experience of the site

against the night sky
● to give the building an added dimension which will
enhance its key architectural elements as well as its
social and historical significance
1b
● to improve the quality of the nocturnal environment
by promoting safety, ie avoidance of trip hazards
● to enhance night-time orientation and use, which
could potentially benefit the local economy

Therefore an aesthetic, as well as a technical, approach

is essential and will ultimately govern the result.
When external lighting is executed with a well-designed
and co-ordinated scheme using the correct choice
of equipment, the environmental impact, ie light
pollution and overspill, can be minimised and the energy
efficiency maximised.
1c
Subtle external lighting when designed with care and
sensitivity can bring added life and scope to some of
our most treasured landmarks. It becomes an extension
to the architecture, improving the quality of the view
and complementing the structure’s shape, colouration
and form. It gives an added dynamic by bringing the
‘soul’ back into a place, and can be likened to ‘painting
with light’.

1a Kingston upon Thames Bridge. (Photograph courtesy of Sill Lighting)

1b The Poseidon Fountain, Witley Court, Worcestershire.
(EH photo library K971385)
1c Concentration of light on a prime local site.

1
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Should the building be lit?
If a real demand for lighting has been established in
conjunction with the owners or custodians, then the
designer must look to limit the amount of light to that
strictly necessary to achieve the aims of the scheme.
2ab Night and day views of Government House in Guernsey. Only the
architecturally important sections of the front elevation have been
illuminated. (Lighting design by Sutton Vane Associates)
3a Backlighting used at Manchester Crematorium. (Photograph courtesy of
Lighting Architecture)
3b Uplighting used to illuminate Central Exchange Buildings, Grainger Town,
Newcastle upon Tyne. (Lighting design by Sutton Vane Associates)
2a

Does the entire building need to be lit?

It is rarely necessary to light all the elevations of a

building, some parts often being unsuitable or inaccessible
for viewing. It is usually better to concentrate on the
prime nearby and distant night-time viewpoints. As part
of the design process distance, angle and position of the
viewer should always be taken into account.

Is there a pattern or arrangement which should 2b

be featured?

It is often better to illuminate selected architectural and

sculptural features such as pediments, columns, porticos
or niches, rather than illuminating the whole building.
External lighting to reinforce a building’s patterns can
increase the appreciation of architectural details.
Crosslighting, uplighting and backlighting should all be
considered, although uplighting must be limited and
well controlled to avoid light pollution.

Designs can be refined by the use of tight beam

control; shutters or baffles can also help reduce 3b
night-time light spill. However, the latter solution is
rarely acceptable in appearance during the day unless
the fittings can be concealed.

This leads to the next question.

3a

2
4 Lighting to emphasise the pattern on a building. Where can external lights be positioned?
5abc Lights hidden from view in basement or lower pavement areas and
how they should be aimed. (Fig 5c courtesy of the Institution of It is essential that all luminaires are inconspicuous, easy
Lighting Engineers)
to install and maintain, and respectful of the historic
fabric. Even though a lighting design may give the
desired effect at night, if the floodlights cannot be
effectively hidden from view or disguised, the scheme
4 must be rethought.

One solution is to floodlight from a remote position.

Luminaires can be positioned on nearby buildings or
street furniture. Where there are trees and shrubs it
may be possible to disguise lighting poles.

5b

5a

5c

3
 Are there any adjoining properties? Is light spilling 6a Remote light on a pole hidden by foliage.

from the surroundings? 6bc Remote light disguised by a street lantern. (6b Lighting design by Sutton
Vane Associates)
Neighbouring properties and the surrounding area must 7 Wildlife considerations.
be taken into account. In rural areas, with lower ambient
light levels with which to compete, less light will be
needed to floodlight a building.This is often overlooked in
6a
lighting scheme designs.This will reduce both the initial
outlay costs and ongoing energy consumption.

How big and how clean is the building?

As well as the existing ambient lighting, the reflectivity of

the building surfaces must be taken into account.This will
be affected by the colour of the building materials, and
how clean they are.The more reflective a building, the
fewer luminaires will be needed and the less powerful
they will need to be.

Are there environmental matters to consider?

Lighting can affect some animals (for example bats and

owls) that make historic buildings their home. Some animals
and their habitats are protected by law. Where proposed 6b
external lighting may affect such animals an impact
assessment will need to be made, taking into account
breeding, hibernation and points of egress and ingress. As
well as the increase in light levels, the effects of installation
and maintenance must also be taken into account.

4
8a Soft lighting of a rural building.
8b Muncaster Castle, Cumbria. (Lighting design by Sutton Vane
Associates; photograph by Brian Sherwin)
8a
8b
What is the most suitable light source?
The choice of light source must take into account the
colour and reflectivity of the building surfaces, the desired
colour rendering, the colour or operating temperature
of the lamps, and their effect on the building materials.
Street lighting designers have begun to move away from
high-pressure sodium (SON) lamps to metal halide (HIT)
lamps, which is to say from warmer, red tones to cooler,
blue tones of the colour spectrum. When choosing
floodlamps the designer must take into account both the
colour and the level of the local street lighting.
To increase impact an interesting effect can usually be
achieved by using a lamp of a type different to that being
used for the existing lighting, and this can also reduce the
necessary number of luminaires and their power rating. If
there is any doubt as to which lamp should be chosen,
then a small field trial will usually be enough to determine
the correct type.
How are illumination levels established?
The following publications provide standards and guidance:
● British Standards 1996 Road Lighting. Code of
Practice for Lighting for Urban Centres and Public
Amenity Areas (British Standard BS 5489-9:1996).
With simple examples of the calculation process
● Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers (CIBSE) 1992 The Outdoor Environment
(Lighting Guide LG6). London:The Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers. Includes
various lighting techniques
● International Commission on Illumination (CIE) 1993
Guide for Floodlighting (Publication 94).Vienna:
International Commission on Illumination
● Electrical Contractors Association (ECA)
Decorative Exterior Lighting of Churches. London:
Electrical Contractors Association. Includes
procedures for defining the most suitable type of
lamp and location based upon the type of building
material and its condition
● Institution of Lighting Engineers (ILE) 1994 Lighting
and Crime. Rugby: Institution of Lighting Engineers
5
 Are trials necessary? 9 All Saints Church, Newcastle upon Tyne. A lighting scheme employing
metal halide lamps against a background of high-pressure sodium
lighting. (Lighting design by Sutton Vane Associates)
The technicalities of colour rendering can be difficult to
10 Wide wash of light onto a building.
visualise, so it is often very useful to arrange a site
11ab Remote lighting locations using street furniture or other buildings.
demonstration of the options being considered.
11c Light mounted on a lamp-post; compare the cluttered effect here with
Photographs taken during the trial can be very useful Fig 6b. (Photograph courtesy of Sutton Vane Associates)
when applying for planning permission. 12 Dynamic lighting of The Monument, City of London.
13ab Illumination of selected elements of buildings.
With general historic environment and building stock,
consultation of the government’s Planning Policy Guidance
Notes (PPGs) – Planning Policy Guidance 15 (PPG 1994)
in particular – and their replacements, Planning Policy 9
Statements (PPSs), should be made.These documents
provide a framework and a useful reference to the overall
principles and requirements of the planning system. In
addition a proposal to externally light a building may need
planning permission under the Town and Country Planning
Act 1990, so early involvement of the local planning
authority is recommended as many aspects of the design
have the potential to be affected.

When the building in question is a church that the parish

wishes to light, it is often worthwhile experimenting to
try and resolve as many problems as possible before
approaching the Diocesan Advisory Committee.The
committee will be concerned with all implications of
the design, including the financial costs (capital, running
and maintenance).

Where any historic property is within the environs of

an airport, development restrictions can apply, especially if
the building comes within the airport’s public safety zone,
in which case additional early consultation will
be required.

10 11a

6
11b
TYPES OF LIGHTING
We can break down most external lighting into three
basic types, each of which presents its own problems.

Conventional external lighting schemes

These schemes use large-wattage projectors, to give a

wide wash of light.

Conventional external lighting schemes are often awkward

because to get a good distribution, light fixtures have to
be located away from the building and positioned so that
the architectural features look as they would in daylight.
This means leaving space in front of the building, which in
turn means that the fittings will have to be very carefully
sited if they are not to appear obtrusive to people
11c entering and leaving the building.This arrangement can be
successful for major buildings but is less suitable in smaller,
more intimate locations, where fittings may have to be
disguised by being buried, placed in an enclosure or
located on neighbouring street furniture or buildings.

Architectural lighting

This option uses small, discreet lighting fixtures, mostly

located on the façade, to light details.

Architectural and detail lighting can take many forms,

from mini-floodlights to highly efficient light-emitting
diode (LED) linear fittings. As fittings are often located
12 on the building itself, installation must be handled
carefully to avoid damaging the fabric. Architectural
lighting is not intended to make the building appear as it
does during the day, but instead to offer a very different
and selective view.

13a 13b

7
 Dynamic lighting 14 Coloured lighting of a building.
15a Wellington Arch, London, for Breast Cancer Awareness Month, 2001.
(EH photo library K010791)
This choice makes use of theatre-style lighting fixtures
15b St Paul’s Cathedral for World Aids Day, 2002. (Lighting design by
to produce coloured light, moving patterns or Sutton Vane Associates)
projected images.

Dynamic lighting has limited use, but where the building

is very plain and unadorned it can be pleasing for 14
special occasions and celebrations. I should be stressed,
however, that a permanent dynamic display can quickly
become boring.

It is better to employ dynamic lighting for short periods of

time; good example are the pink floodlighting of London’s
Wellington Arch for Breast Cancer Awareness Month in
2001 (see Fig 15a) and its subsequent illumination with
images of falling poppies for the 80th anniversary of the
Royal British Legion. At Christmas time, the Amiens
Cathedral in France has a 45-minute light show which
colours the façade as it would have been in medieval
times, painted and gilded, only this time with light.

15a

15b

8
TYPES OF LIGHT SOURCES AND LEVELS TO USE
Listed below are the most commonly used light sources for external lighting.

Lamp data

Lamp type Colour appearance Colour Rendering Efficiency Rated life (hours)
Index Ra (sun=100) (lumens/watt)
Tubular fluorescent White 50–90 Good 15–70 Medium 6,000–10,000.
Compact fluorescent White 80 Good 25–80 Medium 10,000
Metal halide, warm White 65–80 Good 50–95 High 6,000–20,000
colour (also used in
fibre-optic systems)
Metal halide, cool White 65–90 Good 50–105 High 6,000–20,000
colour (also used in
fibre-optic systems)
High-pressure mercury White 40–50 Poor 25–55 Medium 12,000–24,000

High-pressure sodium Yellow 25–60 Poor–medium 55–130 High 14,000–24,000

Low-pressure sodium Orange Not applicable 70–180 High 16,000
(monochromatic)
Light-emitting diodes White (also 70 White Good 7–10 Poor 50,000–70,000 (but can
(in array form) blue, amber, (although colour varies at present but be limited by driver life
green and red) between manufacturing improving to 20,000–50,000)
batches)
CDM (ceramic White 80–90 Good 70–95 High 6,000–9,000
discharge metal halide)

Note: tungsten and tungsten halogen lamps have been excluded here: although these have excellent colour
rendering, lamp lives and efficiencies are very poor.

Available lumen intensities and distributions

Type of illumination Peak intensity Light distribution Comments

(lumens)
Symmetrical beam 1000–2000 Beam width Popular due to low initial costs, but little
(discharge lamps) real optical control
Symmetrical ‘projector’ 200–30,000 Beam width A useful tool if carefully applied
beam
Simple asymmetric 800–3,000 Beam width Popular due to light weight
beam
Asymmetric beam with 700–800 Beam width Gaining popularity due to good control
horizontal cut-off of upward light
Bulkhead lights 150 Light distribution Very wasteful unless used in confined space

9
 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS 16 Line drawings showing types of illumination
17 Useful light, spill light and light trespass. (Diagram courtesy of the
The control of an external lighting system does not Institution of Lighting Engineers)

necessarily require anything more complicated than a

simple time switch or a photoelectric cell. Many schemes
only operate for a few hours of darkness (for example 16
until 23.00) to prevent unnecessary energy use. Electricity
bills are kept low, and the lighting causes much less
interference with flora and fauna. Astronomers also
benefit from the reduced light pollution.

Round-pattern time switches (as they are often known)

come in a variety of ratings and types. Most provide
the user with on–off operation which tracks sunset
and sunrise times throughout the year, without the
need to sense light levels. An added facility allows the user
to select a fixed ‘off ’ time – say between 20.30
and 01.00 – and a fixed ‘on’ time. Switches can be
provided with a reserve battery, so that power outages do
not affect operation.

Round-pattern switches give greater control than photo-

sensing devices, which must rely on the level of natural
light to operate, usually coming on at dusk and switching
off at dawn. On dark and cloudy days photoelectric
switches would be activated unnecessarily.

Time clocks can be retro-fitted as surface-mounted units,

or designed to be DIN rail – or panel-mounted to suit
the site.They are provided with openings and seals for
security to prevent possible tampering with the settings.

If more sophisticated operation is required, there are

proprietary control systems available, but these can be
expensive. For most straightforward external lighting
schemes, complex systems are unnecessary.

ENVIRONMENT, SECURITY AND DARK SKIES

This section looks in more detail at some of the issues 17
mentioned previously. Environment, security and dark skies
(light pollution) are all important issues, each of concern
to different interest groups.

Effects on the environment

External lighting can be extremely disturbing to a variety

of plants and animals. Excessive light can have a dramatic
impact on the lives of nocturnal species such as bats, frogs,
lizards and birds by confusing their circadian rhythms

10
(natural patterns of living and breeding). Light can also
affect the feeding habitats of nocturnal hunting birds
(such as owls) and endanger other birds by disturbing
their sleep patterns (a false sunrise which confuses them
into singing).
As well as animals, trees and nocturnal insects are
also affected. Normal seasonal variations may be
disturbed, affecting their interdependency and
associated ecosystems. Any reduction in numbers of
insects such as moths reduces the food supply of higher
birds and animals.
Security
‘More light equals less crime’ is often cited as a reason for
external lighting, but there is little hard evidence to
support this statement. Despite the popularity of external
lighting, crime rates have soared and published Home
Office statistical evidence indicates that the presence or
absence of light is of little or no importance.The fear of
crime can certainly be alleviated with good external
lighting, but poorly positioned or misdirected lights can
dazzle passers-by and create deeply shadowed areas
which hide criminal and anti-social activity.
Well-positioned luminaires will do more to deter criminals
than over-lighting. Passive infra-red sensors can give an
element of surprise to deter intruders outside the normal
operating times of the lighting system.
Dark skies
Artificial lighting has enabled us to do much more during
the hours of darkness, but this freedom comes at a price.
‘Light pollution’ is another term for sky glow, the
brightening of the night sky caused by dust and aerosol
particles of water in the air, which scatter any artificial
light.This light comes from wasteful all-night shop
advertising and display illumination, and from poor
external lighting schemes.
Light pollution prevents much of the population from
being able to enjoy the night sky. Sky glow now pollutes
nearly all of Britain’s night skies, interfering with
professional as well as amateur sky-gazers.
Simple spillage from a badly designed external lighting
scheme can cause a major nuisance to others, for example
by trespassing into a window and keeping occupants
awake.This is in addition to the wasted electricity and its
contribution to emissions of greenhouse gases.
However it is not sky-gazers who are responsible for most
of the work that has been carried out to reduce light
pollution. It is, in the main, down to conservationists,
individual residents and local communities.
INSTALLATION AND
MAINTENANCE ISSUES
Care in the installation of external lighting is doubly
important when it is actually fixed to the building. Such an
installation may require listed-building consent. Without
thoughtful consideration, light fittings may not only
disfigure the façade but their installation may also leave
permanent scars on the fabric.
The location of any luminaire should always take into
consideration the material onto which it is going to be
fixed.To avoid unnecessary destruction, fixings should be
drilled into joints rather than into stone and brick. Where
this is not feasible, pattresses should be used.
Maintenance is also important; without it the output and
safety of the final installation will be seriously jeopardized.
However, it is too often viewed as an unnecessary
expenditure and neglected. Neglect will inevitably result in
system failure, and is uneconomic in the long run. Lighting
maintenance should be scheduled into the building’s repair
and upkeep. Regular inspections should be made
(generally every 3–6 months) during which fittings are
checked and cleaned and any faulty luminaires and lamps
replaced. Reactive maintenance should be kept to a
minimum where possible.
Maintenance is less likely to be regular if access is difficult
and expensive. If special equipment or personnel are
needed to reach the light fittings, even replacing lamps or
cleaning will be prohibitive. However, ease of maintenance
may need to be reconciled with the need to hide or
disguise the luminaires.
11
 GLOSSARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
Column A pillar consisting of a base, a shaft and a capital, Atkins, Stephen 1991 The Influence of Street Lighting on

used to support or adorn a building. Crime and Fear of Crime (Crime Prevention Unit paper No

28). London: Home Office Crime Prevention Unit

Colour (of lamps) This usually refers to a range from ‘warm’

(reddish) white to ‘cool’ (bluish) white, linked to the British Standards 1996 Road Lighting. Code of Practice for

operating temperature of the lamp: the higher the operating Lighting for Urban Centres and Public Amenity Areas (British

temperature, the ‘cooler’ the colour. Standard BS 5489-9:1996)

Colour Rendering Index (Ra) The quantitative index – Ra, Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)

used to score the ability of a light source to render colours 1992 The Outdoor Environment (Lighting Guide LG6). London:

of surfaces accurately. For example Ra > 90 = accurate The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

colour matching, Ra < 40 = marked distortion of colour.

Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)

Colour spectrum (also known as the visible spectrum) The 2002 Code for Lighting. Oxford:

portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to (ie Butterworth-Heinemann

detectable by) the human eye.

Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)

DIN rail (also known as Top-hat rail) A standardised, 2003 Environmental Considerations for External Lighting

35mm-wide metal rail with a hat-shaped cross section, used (Fact File No 7, Revision 1). London: CIBSE

commonly for mounting circuit breakers.

Diocese of Chelmsford 2000 Church Floodlighting:

Light-emitting diode (LED) A semiconductor device that Guidelines to Assist Parishes. Chelmsford: Diocesan Office

emits light when a voltage is applied across it.The colour of

the light depends on the semiconductor material used. Electrical Contractors Association (ECA) Decorative Exterior

Lighting of Churches. London: Electrical Contractors

Lumen The SI unit for luminous flux, a measure of the Association

perceived intensity of light.

Electrical Contractors Association (ECA) Guidance for

Luminaire A light fitting used to create artificial lighting or Electrical Contractors on Procedures Leading to the

illumination in architecture. Installation of Church Floodlighting (Ref P4169608). London:

Electrical Contractors Association

Operating temperature (See Colour)

English Heritage 2000 Streets for All. London:

Niche A recess in a wall for a statue, vase etc. English Heritage

Pattress A surface box or plate (in any shape to suit), with English Nature 2004 Bat Mitigation Guidelines: Working

fixing holes positioned to line up with architectural features, Today for Nature Tomorrow (Ref IN13.6). Peterborough:

allowing the fixing of a luminaire without permanent damage English Nature

to the historic fabric

Figueiredo, Peter de 2001 ‘The Waldram Lecture 2000:

Pediment A triangular element surmounting a portico, The role of lighting in the renaissance of historic urban areas’.

doorway or window Lighting Journal March/April 2001, 12–17

Portico A colonnade (roof supported by columns), or a Institution of Lighting Engineers (ILE) 1994 Lighting and

porch with columns. Crime. Rugby: Institution of Lighting Engineers

Projector A fitting capable of throwing a beam of light over International Commission on Illumination (CIE) 1993 Guide

relatively long distances. for Floodlighting (Publication 94).Vienna: International

Commission on Illumination

Reflectivity The reflectance of a material, ie the ratio of

reflected to incident (arriving) light intensity, at its surface.
Reflectance can be specular (‘shiny’), diffuse or a combination Jay, Peter and Crawforth, Bill 2001 Church Lighting. London:

of the two. Church House Publishing

Shutter, baffle An adjustable device attached to a light fitting PPG 1994 Planning Policy Guidance 15: Planning and the

to eliminate light spillage and prevent glare.This often takes Historic Environment. London:The Stationery Office

the form of a screen, panel or louvre.

12
Paterson, James and Mackness, Malcolm 2000 ‘How to do it Institution of Lighting Engineers
No 4: Church floodlighting’. Lighting Journal May/June 2000, Regent House
10–11 Regent Place
Rugby CV21 2PN
Ramsay, Malcolm 1991 The Effect of Better Street Lighting on Tel: 01788 576492
Crime and Fear: A Review (Crime Prevention Unit paper No www.ile.org.uk
29). London: Home Office Crime Prevention Unit
Natural England
Web-based reference material (Incorporating English Nature, the Countryside Agency and
the Rural Development Service)
Building Conservation Northminster House
www.buildingconservation.com
Peterborough PE1 1UA
Tel: 0845 600 3078
LightPollution.org
www.lightpollution.org.uk www.naturalengland.org.uk

Church Care (Church of England) www.churchcare.co.uk

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

USEFUL ADDRESSES English Heritage would like to acknowledge the help of the
following people in the production of this guide:
Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales
39 Eccleston Square Alan Anderson, Lighting Architecture
London SW1V 1BX
Tel: 020 7630 8220 Robert Bohannon, Sill Lighting UK
www.catholic-ew.org.uk
David Coatham, Institution of Lighting Engineers
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
222 Balham High Road Javis Gurr, English Heritage photo library
Balham
London SW12 9BS Steve Newbold, Electrical Contractors Association
Tel: 020 8675 5211
www.cibse.org Graham Smith, CES

The Church of England Mark Sutton Vane, Sutton Vane Associates

National Church Institutions Administrative Centre
Church House
Great Smith Street
Text by Geraldine O’Farrell, English Heritage Building services
Westminster
Engineering and Safety Team (BEST)
London SW1P 3AZ
Tel: 020 7898 1000
Figures 1c, 4, 5a, 5b, 6a, 7, 8a, 10, 11a, 11b, 12, 13a, 13b, 14
www.cofe.anglican.org
and 16 by Judith Dobie, Centre for Archaeology, English
Heritage
Electrical Contractors Association
ESCA House
Edited by John King
34 Palace Road
London W2 4HY
Design and Production by Creative Services,
Tel: 020 7221 7344
English Heritage, 04/07
www.eca.co.uk
Printed by Vitesse (1000)
English Heritage
1 Waterhouse Square
138–142 Holborn
London EC1N 2ST Product code 51330
Tel: 020 7973 3000
www.english-heritage.org.uk April 2007

BACK COVER: Hoover Building at night, Perrivale, London 13

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