Teaching English

Teaching English is a general term describing the work of teachers of English with children,
adolescents and adults. The language can be taught as a first, second, foreign, or additional
language. When using the term English, often the teaching and study of both language and
literature is understood. To reduce the level of ambiguity the terms English Language and
English Literature are preferred. The process of teaching English language is structured in
five main categories — teaching English as a native language, second language, foreign
language, international language and second dialect.

Teaching English as a native language, or mother tongue, is a process of teaching children,

adolescents and adults during their primary, secondary, and tertiary education in the English-
speaking world. It could be also a process of teaching adults in continuing education
programmes. For countries such as Australia, Anglophone Canada, Britain, the Irish
Republic, New Zealand and the United States the term ENL countries is used to describe
territories in which English is the first language.

Teaching English as a second language is a term, which covers two different meaning; the
teaching of English in countries where the language is not a mother tongue but is official or
co-official language; or teaching English as a second language, which also refers to teaching
non-English-speaking immigrants to ENL countries, as happens, for example, with the
immigrants in the United States.

The first meaning is usually when the language has a significant place in the local society due
to imperial and colonial reasons and common history. The language, however, is not
preferred by the citizens when they speak in their own home as they use their mother tongue.
Those countries are called ESL countries.

Teaching English as a foreign language also goes in two directions. The term refers to the
process of teaching English in countries where it is of interest and importance. Those
countries are called EFL countries. The second meaning is related with giving courses in
ENL countries for visiting students from EFL countries.

Teaching English as an international language is a term which has become widespread since
World War II. It is the process of teaching English as a global language used in a growing
number of international institutions. The term also covers the need learners and users have to
understand the worldwide role of the language and the problems that role causes. Both native
users and those who learn it as a second or foreign language need to understand the important
role of the language as a tool of international communication.
 Teaching Reading

reading (mental process)

reading, process of mentally interpreting written symbols. Facility in reading is an essential

factor in educational progress, and instruction in this basic skill is a primary purpose of
elementary education. The ability to read was not considered important for most laymen until
sometime after Johann Gutenberg's invention of the printing press (c.1450) and the Protestant
Reformation, with its emphasis on individual interpretation of the Bible. Until that time
reading was generally restricted to the clergy and certain members of the nobility. Although
illiteracy is still a problem in many areas of the world, compulsory childhood education laws
have assured that most citizens of advanced industrial nations can read.

Physiological and psychological studies suggest that the process of reading is based on a
succession of quick eye movements, known as fixations, across the written line, each of
which lasts for about a quarter of a second. In each fixation more than one word is perceived
and interpreted, so that a skilled reader may take in more than three words per fixation when
reading easy material. Depending on the rate of fixations and the difficulty of the material, an
adult can read and understand anywhere from 200 to 1,000 words per minute.

There has been considerable difference of opinion about the best method of teaching children
to read. By the end of the 20th cent. the educational concensus was largely that a combination
of phonics, which emphasizes sound, and the whole-language method, which emphasizes
meaning, is the most effective way to teach the skill. Most educators also agree on the
importance of remedial work for students whose progress is impeded by impaired vision,
faulty eye movements, developmental disabilities such as dyslexia, or personal handicaps
resulting from poor teaching.
 How to Teach English – the 10 Most Helpful Pieces of Advice

If you have studied an ESL teaching course you were probably given a lot of advice on how
to teach English by tutors, and by well-meaning friends, colleagues or strangers. Sometimes
it's too much to take in so here is what I have found useful.

The 10 most helpful "How to teach English" pieces of advice:

1. You don't need to stick to a lesson plan.
This may come as a shock, but things will happen in your classes that you don't expect!
Students will finish some activities too soon and take longer on others. Some things will be
easy for them, and others that you expect them to understand quickly will be tougher. It is
more important to be flexible than stick rigidly to something that isn't working.

2. You don't need to know all the answers.

Another shock? I taught some classes where they asked me questions I couldn't answer right
then. I told them I would find out for them, and I did. As long as you are honest, say you
don't know, and then give the answers later, that's fine.

3. Every student is different.

Now, that may be obvious, but so many teachers forget this when they are teaching and treat
each student in the same way. That won't work. Get to know your students, their learning
styles and their strengths and weaknesses. If possible, create a variety of tasks to suit different
students in the class.

4. You can't force students to learn, nor should you.

Teachers often feel responsible if their students don't progress. You can give them the tools
for learning and inspire them to want to learn, but then it becomes the individual student's
responsibility to learn, not only yours.

5. Have a personality.
Be yourself. Let the students see you're a human being and not a teaching machine. Laugh at
yourself if you make mistakes. Bring humor into the classroom.

6. Be encouraging.
Error correction is essential in the right circumstances, but if you correct every mistake then
you can easily destroy a student's confidence. Praise good work and never tell students they
are stupid. Students who think they are stupid lose motivation.

7. Balance your lessons between different skills.

A teacher who teaches 90% grammar is not helping the students. Communication skills,
reading, writing, and vocabulary building are all as important as grammar. Possibly even
more important than grammar!

8. Keep an emergency resources box.

Include games, paper, colored pencils, extra worksheets, magazines etc. This will be
invaluable if you need to add a new activity into the lesson or to extend something the
students are working on.

9. Give homework. This is controversial! You can't force students to do homework, but if
you give them the choice then they will feel encouraged and they can take responsibility for
their learning. It is really important to mark the homework if you do give it, and not leave it
on your desk for weeks.
10. Have fun!
If you enjoy your lessons, then your students will too. These are the pieces of advice that
helped me learn how to teach English and I'm sure they will help you too!
 Becoming Fluent in Speaking and Writing English

Becoming Fluent in Speaking and Writing English is The Matter of right amount of
enthusiasm and hard Work.

By: Alireza Zarea

If you want to become a fluent English speaker you should take some advice:There
are four skills in learning English which are reading, listening, speaking, and writing.
The most important thing you must bear in mind is that reading and listening are inputs
whereas speaking and writing are outputs. In other words, if you want to improve your
speaking and writing skills you should first master the skills of reading and listening. There
are some ways that you can do so, which I will try to summarize.

1) Reading

Read as much as you can. But your reading must be active. It means that you must think
about the structure, unfamiliar words etc as you read. There is no need that you stick to some
complicated grammar structures or try to understand all the unfamiliar words you come
across, but the fact that you see them for the first time and recognize them whenever you see
them for example in other passages or books is enough. It would be better to prepare yourself
a notebook so you can write down the important words or structures in it. To begin reading, I
recommend the Penguin Readers books. They are classified by level of difficulty.

2) Listening

As for listening, there are two options:

• Aside from reading, you can listen every day for about 30 minutes.

• You can only concentrate on your reading and become skillful at your reading, then you can
catch up on your listening.

I myself prefer the latter because when you are skillful and native-like at reading, your
listening skill grows automatically. Since you have lots of inputs in your mind, you can easily
guess what the speaker is going to say. This never means that you should not practice
listening.

For listening I recommend cartoons or some movies that are specially made for children and
adults. Their languages are easy and do not contain complicated phrases or slang terms. Or if
you are good at listening you can listen to VOA or BBC programs broad casted every day.
Again the thing to remember is being active in listening and preferably taking some notes.
Becoming Fluent in Speaking and Writing English is The Matter of right amount of
enthusiasm and hard Work.

If you follow these pieces of advice, your speaking and writing will improve automatically
and you can be sure that with a little effort they will become perfect.
 How to Master English Language?

Here I have explained the method which I adopted to Master English Language.
By: Dilshad Abdulla

I truly hope that at the end of this short essay I will be able to convey you some
pertinent information to point you in the right direction on how to learn the English. I trust
that you will all bear with me while I will try to describe you how I, as a foreigner, did learn
the English language and where I struggled most, and by doing this I hope it will stimulate
those who would like to improve their language skills.

Having been born in Somalia, with Asian background and with Italian as my mother
tongue, I have to admit that I have always been more prone to learn languages rather than
being dragooned into doing so. Learning English, however, has been anything but easy or
predictable, for when I arrived in London my knowledge of the language was, to say the
least, a bit thin. Luckily enough, soon after my arrival, I was able to enroll in a Sixth Form
college where I found highly motivated and caring teachers, who patiently taught me English.
This, I think, was a significantly important factor that allowed me to learn the language.
Nonetheless, those of you who are not fortunate enough in this regard should not despair,
because, if enrolling in the right college or being taught by a caring teacher are very
important and practical issues in learning a language, even more important, however, is to
work hard and to be committed to doing well. I was committed to learning English; more
precisely, I desperately wanted to go to university, and mastering the language was the means
to achieve my goal.

Now that I have completed my Master’s Degree from Oxford University, and looking back in
retrospect, I realize I was quite naïve, for I never imagined learning English was going to be
so much work, and the more fluent I became the harder the language became too. English
Language is indeed a very peculiar language: not only does it have so many grammatical
rules, but, irritatingly enough, there are also hundreds of exceptions to those rules, which one
can master only through years of persistence, dedication, and indefatigable energy, and
earnestly speaking I have yet to reach such flawlessness in the use of English.
 Some basic recommendations, which I would give to those who were interested in
learning the language, are:

• Firstly, buy a good English dictionary, for this is the most important thing that you will need
when learning English. Successful English learners use their dictionaries all the time.

• Secondly, if you want to improve your speaking/writing ability, read the newspaper, and
while doing that highlights the words you do not know, and then go and check them on your
new dictionary.

• Thirdly, instead of watching TV, listen to the radio.

• Fourthly, talk, talk and talk to anyone at anytime and anywhere.

• And finally, learn to go with the flow while enjoying the many benefits of learning a new
language.
And even though, at times it may be frustrating and embarrassing to make mistakes,
you will eventually learn to accept them, and only when you will focus more on
understanding your mistakes rather than judging yourself, then you will start to become
fluent.
 English as Language of Global Education
By DOREEN CARVAJALAPRIL 11, 2007

PARIS, April 7 — When economics students returned this winter to the elite École Normale
Supérieure here, copies of a simple one-page petition were posted in the corridors demanding
an unlikely privilege: French as a teaching language.

“We understand that economics is a discipline, like most scientific fields, where the research
is published in English,” the petition read, in apologetic tones. But it declared that it was
unacceptable for a native French professor to teach standard courses to French-speaking
students in the adopted tongue of English.

In the shifting universe of global academia, English is becoming as commonplace as creeping

ivy and mortarboards. In the last five years, the world’s top business schools and universities
have been pushing to make English the teaching tongue in a calculated strategy to raise
revenues by attracting more international students and as a way to respond to globalization.

At the beginning, “teaching courses in English may have less efficiency or effectiveness in
terms of knowledge transfer than those courses taught in Korean,” said Anna Suh, program
manager for the university’s office of global affairs, who said that students eventually see the
benefits. “Our aim for this kind of program is to prepare and equip our students to be global
leaders in this new era of internationalization.”

The Lille management school is planning to open a satellite business school program next fall
in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, where the working language will also be in English.

“Internationally, the competition is everywhere,” Dr. Bredillet said. “For a master’s in

management, I’m competing with George Washington University. I’m competing with some
programs in Germany, Norway and the U.K. That’s why we’re delivering the curriculum in
English.”
 What's new in English language teaching?

By Rachael Roberts

Rachael Roberts looks at the latest trends ahead of the ELTons Awards for innovation in
English language teaching resources, live-streamed on 4 June 2015.We are accepting
applications for the ELTons 2016 until 6 November 2015.

This is an article about new trends in English language teaching (ELT) resources, but none of
the trends that follow are, strictly speaking, new.

Take, for example, the idea of spaced repetition, which is a buzzword at the moment. Back in
1885 (I told you it wasn’t a new idea), Hermann Ebbinghaus carried out an experiment
designed to measure how quickly we forget. He discovered that, unless new information is
reinforced, we quickly forget what we have learned. In the 1930s, other researchers followed
this up by looking at how often we need to reinforce new information, and found that spacing
out repetition – revising the information every two days, then every four, then every eight,
and so on – was most effective.

So, we’ve known about spaced repetition for quite a while, but it has been difficult to
implement, as it involves keeping track of an awful lot of words. However, this is something
that a language-learning computer programme or app can do brilliantly. And so we’re starting
to see more and more language-learning apps which use the principles of spaced repetition,
such as Lingopolis or Olive Green – two nominees for the ELTons awards this year.

Another way in which digitalisation is affecting ELT resources is in the way it's connecting
learners with the outside world. Students nowadays have access to an incredible amount of
English-language material online. But while this is clearly beneficial, it can also be a bit
overwhelming. Students don’t always know where to go for the most appropriate material.
For teachers, the amount of time needed to find, select and prepare materials can be off-
putting.

As a result, more and more sites that adapt materials for students are appearing. Easier
English Wiki, for example, provides students (and teachers) with free materials based
on articles from New Internationalist magazine. Newsmart is an app that uses daily, up-to-
date content from the Wall Street Journal to teach language and develop reading and listening
skills.
 The Role of Native Language in ESL/EFL Teaching
by ESL Society

The Role of Native Language in Acquiring English

Study after study has demonstrated that there is a strong and positive correlation between
literacy in the native language and learning English. Cummins (1989) explains that: ". . .
although the surface aspects (e.g., pronunciation, fluency, etc.) of different languages are
clearly separate, there is an underlying cognitive/academic proficiency which is common
across languages.

This common underlying proficiency makes it possible for the transfer of cognitive/academic
or literacy-reltaed skills across languages. Transfer is much more likely to occur from minorit
to majority language because of the greater exposure to literacy in the majorit language
outside of the school and the strong social pressure to learn it." In recognition of this,
Standards for the English Language Arts published by the International Reading Association
and the National Council of Teachers of English stipulates in standard 10:

"Students whose first language is not English make use of their first language to develop
competency in English language arts and to develop understanding of content across the
curriculum."Moreover, the National Research Council, in its study entitled Preventing
Reading Difficulties in Young Children recommends
that: "LEP Children should be taught to read in the first language while acquiring proficiency
in spoken English and then subsequently taught to extend their skills to reading in English."

The importance of valuing the skills and knowledge which students bring to the ESL
classroom, regardless of the native language they speak should not be underestimated.It is in
utilizing the student's background knowledge that a more effective and efficient transition to
acquiring English can best be accomplished.

Article source: http://eslarticle.com/pub/english-language-teaching-elt/221-the-role-of-

native-language-in-esl-efl-teaching.html
 Be A Great Teacher - 5 Things You Can Do That Take Little Of Your
Time

by Shannon Tani
All teachers want to be great teachers. But the pressures of lesson planning, grading,
preparing materials, and talking to parents often eat away at the little time we have to work
on being a great teacher. This can lead to frustration and feeling as though you are failing
your students. Fortunately, a few changes in the way you think and act throughout the day
can make a big difference between being a mediocre teacher and a great teacher. These 5
simple things take up little of your time, but can make all the difference in the world.

1. Think positive thoughts. You should think of at least one good thing that you could say
about each of your students every day. If you have a challenging child in your class, it can be
easy to get wrapped up in thinking about all of the bad things about that child. By thinking
something positive about them--even if it's only that they were wearing cute socks or made an
interesting artistic choice by using only red to color their picture--you'll start to change your
thoughts about this child. Additionally, having a constant supply of positive things to say
about your students to their parents makes the parents more receptive when you need to bring
up a problem situation.

2. Give some attention to "kids that don't need attention". We all have students in our class
that scream for attention by acting out and behaving badly. At the opposite end of the
spectrum, we have students who demand attention for the good things they do, whether it's
helping out, knowing the right answer, or excelling in an art project. Then there are the
students in between. They may be shy or modest, but for whatever reason, they don't demand
your attention. Yet, in my experience, they appreciate it even more when they do get your
attention. A great teacher recognizes these students and pays special attention to them. The
smile that they give as they think "Wow! The teacher noticed me!" is more than enough
reward.

3. Make "mistakes". Throughout the day, make some simple mistakes that the students will
notice and can correct. For example, say that it's raining when it's really a sunny day, or point
to a picture of a dog and say that it's a cat. Feign surprise when they correct you and let them
know that you appreciate their help. This will help boost your students' confidence in their
knowledge and helps them to speak out. It also shows them that it's OK to make mistakes,
and even the teacher will sometimes make a mistake.

4. Show an interest in their outside lives. Let your students teach you about their outside
interests. Young students, for example, may be interested in a particular character. Even if
you already know about this character, pretend that you don't, and let the student tell you
about them. The student will feel happy that you care enough to ask and pleased that they
were able to teach the teacher something.

5. Never dislike a child. A child who has just been punished may think that the teacher
doesn't like them. It's important that you let the student know that it's not them you don't like,
it's the bad thing that they did. Since I teach very young children, I show them this with a
hug. Simply saying it is effective for older students. More importantly, you must internalize
this sentiment yourself. You must never think, "I don't like Johnny." Rather, you should
think, "Johnny acts out in ways that I don't like." Your actions will reflect your internal
attitude, so you must always keep this in mind. Being a great teacher can take a lot of hard
work, but following these suggestions can put you on the path to success.

Article source: http://eslarticle.com/pub/teaching/180-be-a-great-teacher-5-things-you-can-

do-that-take-little-of-your-time.html
 In defence of English teaching

by Kevin Burns

have one of the greatest jobs in the world. I get paid to do what I love doing. I teach English
in Japan. I have always enjoyed meeting and conversing with interesting people, only now I
get paid for it.

Yet, teaching at English conversation schools ("Eikaiwa") seems to be a much-maligned

profession, especially on certain websites. One of those is Arthur Caversham's The Truth
About Shane and Nova Pages at http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Academy/6455/

Let me examine some of his claims.

1. "Eikaiwa" schools employ teachers with no teaching experience.

So what? Some of the best teachers in the world are like a diamond in the rough. If you hire
people who have an aptitude for teaching, train them and help them along the way, they will
be better teachers than many teachers who have an advanced degree.

2. "Eikaiwa" schools employ teachers with no teaching qualifications.

Again, so what? Famous Japanese companies do the same thing. They employ people with no
specific qualifications and train them to work in departments which have nothing to do with
their university degrees. "Eikaiwa" schools have their own in-house training programs and
they train their teachers, too.

3. "Eikaiwa" schools employ teachers with NEITHER teaching experience NOR teaching
qualifications.

So do many other businesses in every industry imaginable. Do you believe that university
training is the only thing that matters? Many successful people have no formal education
beyond college, yet they are now company presidents. Some of the worst teachers in the
world have a PhD.

If the schools train them to teach, isn't that sometimes better than a university education that
is full of theory and sometimes a waste of time? Isn't practical on-the-job training sometimes
on a par with or better than a university education?

4. Some "eikaiawa" schools demand that students pay a huge amount of money before
beginning their lessons. This money is not refundable.

Yes, but so do many other businesses. There are also many "eikaiwa" schools that allow
students to pay by the month. They don't pay up front. Most schools are run by trustworthy
people. How do I know this? Because if they weren't trustworthy, they couldn't stay in
business for very long; the word would get around that they are shady operators.

5. Nova's pay and conditions for teachers are among the worst in Japan; therefore Nova
teachers are usually so bad they cannot find a job elsewhere. This is also why Nova
advertises for teachers every week in the Japan Times.

Perhaps. Or maybe they have so many schools -- over 500 now -- that they constantly need
new teachers. If Nova is so terrible, why would anyone choose to work there? Some Nova
teachers would be hired anywhere. They are very good teachers, they enjoy working for Nova
and they care about their students.

6. Nova uses the same boring textbooks (American Streamline, available from most
bookshops) for every lesson.

Some schools allow their teachers to choose which textbook they use, others don't. For some
teachers, choosing the textbook for them is a good thing. For others, giving them more
freedom is better. It really depends on how independent the teacher is.

7. Teachers are not given time to prepare for any lessons.

Most schools do give their teachers time to prepare. As a professional, you are expected to
show up to work and give yourself enough time to prepare or to prepare at home. This is
similar to public school teachers in North America.

8. Nova teachers are not allowed to prepare their own lessons for students.

For some Nova teachers, giving them a structure to follow, I'm sure, is a good thing. For
other teachers, allowing them the freedom to plan their own lessons is better. That is what we
do at our schools.

9. Nova teachers are not allowed to fraternize with students outside the classroom.

True. However, most schools have no problem with students and teachers becoming friends. I
have never understood Nova's non-fraternization policy myself. I like it if our teachers
become friends with students. I feel it helps the school.

10. Some "eikaiwa" schools fire teachers who talk too much in class.

It isn't the teacher who is supposed to do the talking. The students are supposed to talk and
the teacher is supposed to listen and correct. Some experts suggest the teacher should try for
only 15% speaking time and allow the students to speak 85% of the time. I think that is a
great goal for all teachers.
 Applied Linguistics

by G. R. Tucker

The term 'applied linguistics' refers to a broad range of activities which involve solving some
language-related problem or addressing some language-related concern. It appears as though
applied linguistics, at least in North America, was first officially recognized as an
independent course at the University of Michigan in 1946. In those early days, the term was
used both in the United States and in Great Britain to refer to applying a so-called 'scientific
approach' to teaching foreign languages, including English for nonnative speakers. Early
work to improve the quality of foreign language teaching by Professors Charles Fries
(University of Michigan) and Robert Lado (University of Michigan, then Georgetown
University) helped to bring definition to the field as did the 1948 publication of a new
journal, Language Learning: A Quarterly Journal of Applied Linguistics

During the late 1950s and the early 1960s, the use of the term was gradually broadened to
include what was then referred to as 'automatic translation'. In 1964 following two years of
preparatory work financed by the Council of Europe, the Association Internationale de
Linguistique Appliquée (the International Association of Applied Linguistics usually referred
to by the French acronym AILA) was founded and its first international congress was held in
Nancy, France. Papers for the congress were solicited in two distinct strands—foreign
language teaching and automatic translation.

Applied Linguistics Today

Over the intervening years, the foci of attention have continued to broaden. Today the
governing board of AILA describes applied linguistics 'as a means to help solve specific
problems in society…applied linguistics focuses on the numerous and complex areas in
society in which language plays a role.' * There appears to be consensus that the goal is to
apply the findings and the techniques from research in linguistics and related disciplines to
solve practical problems. To an observer, the most notable change in applied linguistics has
been its rapid growth as an interdisciplinary field. In addition to foreign language teaching
and machine translation, a partial sampling of issues considered central to the field of applied
linguistics today includes topics such as language for special purposes (e.g. language and
communication problems related to aviation, language disorders, law, medicine, science),
language policy and planning, and language and literacy issues. For example, following the
adoption of English as the working language for all international flight communication by the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), some applied linguists concerned
themselves with understanding the kinds of linguistic problems that occur when pilots or
flight engineers from varying backgrounds communicate using a nonnative language and how
to better train them to communicate in English more effectively.

Some applied linguists are concerned with helping planners and legislators in countries
develop and implement a language policy (e.g. planners are working in South Africa to
specify and to further develop roles in education and government not only for English and
Afrikaans but also for the other nine indigenous languages) or in helping groups develop
scripts, materials, and literacy programs for previously unwritten languages (e.g. for many of
the 850+ indigenous languages of Papua New Guinea).

Other applied linguists have been concerned with developing the most effective programs
possible to help adult newcomers to the United States or other countries, many of whom have
limited if any prior education, develop literacy in the languages which they will need for
survival and for occupational purposes. Other topics currently of concern to applied linguists
are the broad issue of the optimal role of the mother tongue in the education of culturally and
linguistically diverse students, the language of persuasion and politics, developing effective
tools and programs for interpretation and translation, and language testing and evaluation.

In the United Kingdom, the first school of applied linguistics is thought to have opened in
1957 at the University of Edinburgh with Ian Catford as Head. In the United States, a
nonprofit educational organization, the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL), was founded in
1959 with Charles Ferguson as its first Director. CAL's mission remains to 'promote the study
of language and to assist people in achieving their educational, occupational, and social goals
through more effective communication'. The organization carries out its mission by collecting
and disseminating information through various clearinghouses that it operates, by conducting
practical research, by developing practical materials and training individuals such as teachers,
administrators, or other human resource specialists to use these to reduce the barriers that
limited language proficiency can pose for culturally and linguistically diverse individuals as
they seek full and effective participation in educational or occupational opportunities.
 Meaning (Semantics and Pragmatics)

by William Ladusaw

Meaning seems at once the most obvious feature of language and the most obscure
aspect to study. It is obvious because it is what we use language for—to communicate with
each other, to convey 'what we mean' effectively. But the steps in understanding something
said to us in a language in which we are fluent are so rapid, so transparent, that we have little
conscious feel for the principles and knowledge which underlie this communicative ability.
Questions of 'semantics' are an important part of the study of linguistic structure. They
encompass several different investigations: how each language provides words and idioms
for fundamental concepts and ideas (lexical semantics), how the parts of a sentence are
integrated into the basis for understanding its meaning (compositional semantics), and how
our assessment of what someone means on a particular occasion depends not only on what is
actually said but also on aspects of the context of its saying and an assessment of the
information and beliefs we share with the speaker.
Applications
Research in these areas reveals principles and systems which have many applications. The
study of lexical (word) semantics and the conceptual distinctions implicit in the vocabulary of
a language improves dictionaries which enable speakers of a language to extend their
knowledge of its stock of words. It also improves materials which help those acquiring a
second language through instruction. Studying the rules governing the composition of word
meanings into sentence meanings and larger discourses allows us to build computer systems
which can interact with their users in more naturalistic language. Investigating how our
understanding of what is said is influenced by our individual and cultural assumptions and
experience, which are much less visible than what is explicitly said, can help make us more
aware and effective communicators. The result of all of these (sometimes very abstract)
investigations is a deeper understanding and appreciation of the complexity and expressive
elegance of particular languages and the uniquely human system of linguistic communication.
The Importance of Context
We can appreciate how someone can mean more than they `strictly speaking' say by
considering the same thing said in two different contexts. Consider two people, Pat and Chris,
who are getting to know each other on a first date. If Chris says to Pat at the end of the
evening, "I like you a lot.", Pat will likely feel good about the situation. But imagine that Pat
and Chris have been dating for some weeks, and Pat asks, "Do you love me?" Now if Chris
says, "I like you a lot," the reaction will likely be quite different, as Chris' statement is taken
as a negative answer! The difference does not come from the content of what is said but from
the operation of a general pragmatic principle: When evaluating something on a scale of
values, putting it at a certain point on the scale implies that all the higher values on the scale
are inappropriate. It is our background assessment that positive feeling is ranked on a scale
with 'love' higher than "like" which makes Chris' reply in the second context convey "No,
don't love you." We apply this scalar principle so automatically that it is easy to overlook the
fundamental pragmatic difference between what is actually said and what is implied by the
saying of it.
A close examination of most words reveals that they have many different senses and the rules
which combine them into sentence meanings will frequently yield several possibilities for
interpretation. Usually we resolve potential ambiguity unconsciously—unless someone
carefully constructs a joke which turns on an ambiguity. Consider for example this joke,
taken from Douglas Adams' The hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy. Ford and Arthur, are
stowaways on a space ship.
Ford: You should prepare yourself for the jump into hyperspace; it's unpleasantly like being
drunk.
Arthur: What's so unpleasant about being drunk?
Ford: Just ask a glass of water.
The passage turns on the ambiguity of the word 'drunk', which can be an adjective, meaning
'affected by alcohol', or the passive form of the verb 'drink'. Arthur takes Ford as intending
the first sense of 'drunk'—with good reason: he's unlikely to mean that someone would drink
him. But Ford reveals that the bizarre interpretation is what he intends. The art of the image is
the metaphorical treatment of a person as a liquid; the joke turns on the sleight of hand which
makes our semantic interpreter lean in one direction before pulling us back in an unexpected
way with a disambiguation.
These examples illustrate our semantic and pragmatic abilities in action. The goal of
linguistic research into meaning is to illuminate the processes and knowledge involved.
 The Science of Linguistics

Linguistics is the science of language, and linguists are scientists who apply the scientific
method to questions about the nature and function of language.

Linguists conduct formal studies of speech sounds, grammatical structures, and meaning
across all the world’s over 6,000 languages. They also investigate the history of and changes
within language families and how language is acquired when we are infants. Linguists
examine the relationship between written and spoken language as well as the underlying
neural structures that enable us to use language.

Clearly, many of the questions that linguists pose overlap with fields in the life sciences,
social sciences, and humanities, thus making linguistics a multidisciplinary field. Linguistics,
as a multidisciplinary field, attempts to understand how language is stored in the human
mind/brain and how it is part of everyday human behavior through its sister fields of
neuroscience, philosophy, psychology, anthropology, sociology, and computer science.

It is important to note that the term “linguist” may cause some confusion because it is known
to be used differently in non-academic domains. Sometimes language experts are referred to
as linguists, but those individuals do not generally conduct the same kind of scientific
research on language that is carried out by those with advanced degrees in linguistics.
“Polyglot” is the term used for a person who has knowledge of multiple languages. And
although it is possible for a person to be both a linguist and a polyglot, it is just as likely that
a linguist speaks only one language.
 Importance of the English Language

By: Dr. G. Manivannan | Audience: Teachers | Category: Teaching English in Asia | Topic:
Learning and Teaching

A language is a systematic means of communication by the use of sounds or conventional

symbols. It is the code we all use to express ourselves and communicate to others. It is a
communication by word of mouth. It is the mental faculty or power of vocal communication.
It is a system for communicating ideas and feelings using sounds, gestures, signs or marks.
Any means of communicating ideas, specifically, human speech, the expression of ideas by
the voice and sounds articulated by the organs of the throat and mouth is a language. This is a
system for communication.

A language is the written and spoken methods of combining words to create meaning used
by a particular group of people. Language, so far as we know, is something specific to
humans, that is to say it is the basic capacity that distinguishes humans from all other living
beings. Language therefore remains potentially a communicative medium capable of
expressing ideas and concepts as well as moods, feelings and attitudes. A set of linguists who
based their assumptions of language on psychology made claims that language is nothing but
‘habit formation’. According to them, language is learnt through use, through practice. In
their view, ‘the more one is exposed to the use of language, the better one learns’.

Written languages use symbols (characters) to build words. The entire set of words is the
language’s vocabulary. The ways in which the words can be meaningfully combined is
defined by the language’s syntax and grammar. The actual meaning of words and
combinations of words is defined by the language’s semantics. The latest and the most
advanced discoveries and inventions in science and technology are being made in the
universities located in the United States of America where English language is the means of
scientific discourse.

The historical circumstances of India (having been ruled by the British for over two
centuries) have given the Indians an easy access to mastering English language, and
innumerable opportunities for advancement in the field of science and technology. Many
Indians have become so skilled in English language and have won many international awards
for creative and comparative literatures during the last few years. Sometime ago, an Indian
author, Arundhati Roy, won the prestigious booker prize for her book “The God of Small
Things”. Her book sold lakhs of copies all over the globe.

Over the years, English language has become one of our principal assets in getting a global
leadership for books written by Indian authors and for films made by Indians in English
language. A famous Indian movie maker Shekhar Kapoor’s film “Elizabeth” has got several
nominations for Oscar Awards. It does not require any further argument to establish the
advantage English language has brought to us at the international level.
English language comes to our aid in our commercial transactions throughout the globe.
English is the language of the latest business management in the world and Indian proficiency
in English has brought laurels to many Indian business managers. English is a means not only
for international commerce; it has become increasingly essential for inter-state commerce and
communication.

Critical Reading

You'll find many ways to read and understand a text, but keeping a journal as you read is one
of the best ways of exploring a piece of writing. By integrating reading and writing, you can
interact with the work more fully.

1. Begin each new novel, play or poem without predetermined bias. If you decide in
advance that all good art uses realistic settings and promotes your personal moral
values, you close out the possibility of new experiences. You do not have to, nor
should you, enjoy every work of literature that you read, but you should be willing to
recognize that the imagination is limitless.
2. Read slowly. This suggestion can't be stressed enough. If you roller-skate through an
art museum you won't see the paintings.
3. Read with pen in hand. Underline key phrases, speeches by major figures, or
important statements by the narrator. But don't limit yourself. Underline or highlight
anything that seems important or striking. Take notes on ideas or questions (don't trust
your memory). Write in the margins. Keep a list of the characters and/or major events
on the inside of the front cover. Circle words used in special ways or repeated in
significant patterns. Look up words that you don't know or words you think you know
but seem to have a special weight or usage.
4. Look for those qualities that professional writers look for in real life: conflict,
contrast, contradiction, and characterization.
5. Look for rhythm, repetition, and pattern. Successful works of literature incorporate
such structural devices in the language, dialogue, plot, characterization, and
elsewhere. Pattern is form, and form is the shaping the artist gives to his or her
experience. If you can identify the pattern and relate it to the content, you'll be on
your way to insight.
6. Ask silent questions of the material as you read. Don't read passively, waiting to be
told the "meaning." Most authors will seldom pronounce a moral. Even if they do, a
work of literature is always more than its theme. Use the questions devised by
reporters: Who, What, When, Where. Why and How may take more study--such
questions probe the inner levels of a text.
 7. Keep a reading journal. Record your first impressions, explore relationships, ask
questions, write down quotations, and copy whole passages that are difficult or
aesthetically pleasing.

The Reading Journal

Christopher Thaiss in Write to the Limit (Chicago: Holt, 1991) notes that the word journal
comes from the French word for day, which is jour. The word indicates that a journal is kept
daily (68). Thaiss also suggests that journals are kept for many different reasons: to record
events, to keep an ongoing public record, to record feelings, to make close observations for
scientific purposes and, finally, to explore emotions, memories and images in order to think
and learn about any subject (69-76).

Don't feel overwhelmed. Just relax; notice and feel things. Associate ideas with other
subjects, objects or feelings. Try the following three steps:

1. First, write what you see in the text at the surface level.
2. Next, write what you feel about what you see.
3. Finally, write down what you think it means or why you think it is important.