EE 485, Winter 2004, Lih Y.

Lin

Chapter 4 Fourier Optics

- Based on harmonic analysis (Fourier transform) and liner system

(superposition).
- An arbitrary function
∞ ∞
f ( x, y ) = ∫ ∫ F (ν x ,ν y ) exp[− j 2π (ν x x + ν y y)]dν x dν y
−∞−∞
→ Superposition, or integral of harmonic functions of x and y.
F (ν x ,ν y ) : Complex amplitude
ν x ,ν y : Spatial frequency (cycles/unit length)

- Compare this with plane wave

U ( x, y, z ) = A exp[− j (k x x + k y y + k z z )]
U ( x, y,0) = A exp[− j 2π (ν x x + ν y y )]
k
ν x ↔ k x 2π , ν y ↔ y 2π
- An arbitrary function can be analyzed as a superposition of harmonic functions.
→ An arbitrary traveling wave U ( x, y, z ) may be analyzed as a sum of plane
waves!

4.1 Propagation of Light in Free Space

A. Correspondence Between the Spatial Harmonic Function and the Plane Wave

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θ x = sin −1  k x k  = sin −1 (λν x )

 
(4.1-1)
−1  k y 
θ y = sin  k  = sin (λν y ) −1

 
A physical way of picturing the spatial harmonic function is to project a plane
wave on the x-y plane.
Λx = 1 , Λy = 1
ν x ν y

 
→ θ x = sin −1  λ Λ , θ y = sin −1  λ Λ 
 x  y

Paraxial approximation:
θ x = λ Λ = λν x , θ y = λ Λ = λν y (4.1-2)
x y

Spatial spectral analysis

(Response of a plane wave after a thin optical element.)
Consider a simple case:

t ( x, y ) = exp[− j 2π (ν x x + ν y y )]
→ Harmonic function on x-y plane with period Λ x = 1 , Λ y = 1 .
νx νy
U ( x, y, z ) = A exp[− j 2π (ν x x + ν y y )] exp(− jk z z )
→ Output wave is bent with angles θ x = sin −1 (λν x ), θ y = sin −1 (λν y ) .
The harmonic function pattern works like a grating.
Now consider a general case:
t ( x, y ) = ∫∫ F (ν x ,ν y ) exp[− j 2π (ν x x + ν y y )]dν x dν y (4.1-4)

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U ( x, y, z ) = ∫∫ F (ν x ,ν y ) exp[− j 2π (ν x x + ν y y )] exp(− jk z z )dν x dν y

1 1 1
k z = k 2 − k x2 − k y2 = 2π − −
λ2 λ2x λ2y
→ An incident plane wave is decomposed into many plane waves, each
traveling at angles θ x = sin −1 (λν x ), θ y = sin −1 (λν y ) , with a complex envelope
F (ν x ,ν y ) , the Fourier transform of f ( x, y ) .

Example 4.1-2, Imaging

 πx 2 
t ( x, y ) = exp j  = exp(− j 2πϕ ( x, y ) )
 λf 
x2
ϕ ( x, y ) = −
2λf
Compare to earlier: ϕ ( x, y ) ↔ ν x x + ν y y
∂ϕ ( x, y ) x
Now ν x varies with x ⇒ ν x = =−
∂x λf
 x
⇒ θ x = sin −1  − 
 f
→ A cylindrical lens with focal length f

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B. Transfer Function of Free Space

Since an arbitrary function can be analyzed as sum of harmonic functions, we
consider a harmonic input function.

f ( x, y ) = U ( x, y,0) = A exp[− j 2π (ν x x + ν y y )]
Output g ( x, y ) = U ( x, y, d ) = A exp[− j (k x x + k y y + k z d )]
g ( x, y )
Η (ν x ,ν y ) = = exp(− jk z d )
f ( x, y )
 (4.1-6)
2 
1
1 2
= exp − j 2π  2 − ν x − ν y  d 
2

 λ  

Fresnel approximation
ν x2 + ν y2 << 1
λ2
→ The plane-wave components of the propagating light make small angles
θ x ~ λν x , θ y ~ λν y .
→ Paraxial waves:
H (ν x ,ν y ) = exp(− jkd ) exp[ jπλd (ν x2 + ν y2 )] (4.1-8)
Validity of Fresnel approximation has the same expression as in Sec. 2.2.

Input-output relation
Given the input function f ( x, y ) , how to obtain the output g ( x, y ) :
(1) Determine the complex envelopes of the plane-wave components in the
input plane by Fourier transform.
∞ ∞
F (ν x ,ν y ) = ∫ ∫ f ( x,y ) exp[ j 2π (ν x x + ν y y)]dxdy
−∞−∞

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(2) Complex envelopes of the plane-wave components in the output plane =

H (ν x ,ν y ) F (ν x ,ν y )
(3) g ( x, y ) = ∫∫ H (ν x ,ν y ) F (ν x ,ν y ) exp[− j 2π (ν x x + ν y y )]dν x dν y
Under Fresnel approximation,
g ( x, y ) = H 0 ∫∫ F (ν x ,ν y ) exp[ jπλd (ν x2 + ν y2 )] exp[− j 2π (ν x x + ν y y )]dν x dν y
H 0 ≡ exp(− jkd )

Free-space propagation as a convolution

Each point generates a spherical wave. Under Fresnel approximation (observation
point close to the propagation axis), spherical wave → parabolic wave.

 x2 + y2 
h( x, y ) ≈ h0 exp − jk  (4.1-13)
 2 d 
j
h0 = exp(− jkd )
λd
 ( x − x' ) 2 + ( y − y ' ) 2 
g ( x, y ) = h0 ∫∫ f ( x' , y ' ) exp − jπ dx' dy ' (4.1-14)
 λ d 

4.2 Optical Fourier Transform

A plane wave transmitting through an optical element can be used to
decompose the harmonic functions (Fourier components F (ν x ,ν y ) ) that
compose the pattern ( f ( x, y ) ) on the optical element.

A. Fourier Transform in the Far Field (Fraunhofer Approximation)

If f ( x, y ) is confined to a small area of radius b, distance d to the observation
2
plane is sufficiently large, so that Fresnel number for f ( x, y ) , N F ' = b
λd << 1.

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 x2 + y2  x y
g ( x, y ) = h0 exp − jπ  F ( , ) (4.2-4)
 λd  λd λd
Furthermore, if we limit our interest to points at the output plane within a circle
2
of radius a centered about the z axis, so that N F = a
λd << 1 for g ( x, y ) .
x y
g ( x, y ) = h0 F ( , ) (4.2-1)
λ d λd

→ The only plane wave that contributes to the complex amplitude at (x, y) at
output plane is the wave making angles θ x = x ,θ y = y with the optical axis.
d d

d
( )
This is also the wave with wave-vector components k x = x k , k y =  y k and
 d
amplitude F (ν x ,ν y ) with ν x = x ,ν y = y .
λd λd
• Fraunhofer approximation is valid when both N F and N F ' are small.

B. Fourier Transform Using a Lens

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Amplitude of the plane wave with direction (θ x , θ y ) = (λν x , λν y ) is

proportional to the Fourier transform F (ν x ,ν y ) and is located at the point
( x, y ) = (θ x f , θ y f ) = (λfν x , λfν y ) .
x y
→ g ( x, y ) ∝ F ( , ) (4.2-5)
λf λf

j  ( x 2 + y 2 )(d − f )  x y
g ( x, y ) = exp[− jk (d + f )] exp  jπ  F ( , ) (4.2-8)
λf  λf 2
 λf λf
2
1 x y
I ( x, y ) = F( , ) (4.2-9)
| λf | 2
λf λ f
j x y
If d = f , g ( x, y ) = exp[− j 2kf ]F ( , ) (4.2-10)
λf λ f λf
Fourier transform using a lens is valid in Fresnel approximation (only radius at
the output is limited). Without the lens, we need Fraunhofer approximation
(radii at both output and input are limited).

4.3 Diffraction of Light

Light not simply blocked by an opaque object, as in Ray Optics. It depends on

the wavelength, the dimension of the object, and the distance between the
object and the observation plane.

A. Fraunhofer Diffraction
x y
Aperture function p ( x, y ) , with Fourier components P(ν x ,ν y ) = P( , ).
λ d λd

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Assume the incident wave is a plane wave of intensity I i in z-direction.

Using Eq. (4.2-1), Fraunhofer approximation, we obtain:
2
Ii x y
I ( x, y ) = P( , ) (4.3-4)
(λ d ) 2 λd λd
→ Proportional to the squared magnitude of the Fourier transform of the
x y
aperture function p ( x, y ) evaluated at the spatial frequency ν x = ,ν y = .
λd λd

Example: Fraunhofer diffraction from a circular aperture

2 2
 πD 2   2 J1 (πDρ λd ) 
I ( ρ ) =   I i   (4.3-7)
 4λd   πDρ λd 
→ Airy pattern. Center disk (Airy disk) has radius ρ s = 1.22λd / D , subtending
an angle θ = 1.22λ / D .

B. Fresnel Diffraction

At small distance ( d → 0 ), the diffraction pattern is the shadow of the aperture.

At medium distance (Fresnel diffraction), the diffraction pattern is the
convolution of the aperture. Using Eq. (4.1-14), free-space propagation as a
convolution, we obtain:
2
Ii  ( x − x' ) 2 + ( y − y ' ) 2 
I ( x, y ) =
(λ d ) 2
∫∫ p( x' , y' ) exp− jπ λd  dx' dy ' (4.3-11)
 
At large d, the diffraction pattern becomes Fraunhofer diffraction pattern. The
far field has an angular divergence proportional to λ / D , where D is the
diameter of the aperture.

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4.4 Image Formation

Spatial filtering
Two-lens imaging system (4-f system). Unity maginification.

4-f imaging system for Fourier transform. The Fourier components of f ( x, y ) are
separated by the lens. Each point in the Fourier plane corresponds to a single
spatial frequency (Recall Fig. 4.2-2). The second lens reconstructs the image.

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Spatial filtering: Add a mask at the Fourier plane to block unwanted Fourier
components of f ( x, y ) .

Transfer function of the mask for the Fourier components:

H (ν x ,ν y ) = p (λfν x , λfν y ) (4.4-4)
Output: G (ν x ,ν y ) = H (ν x ,ν y ) F (ν x ,ν y )

Example:
(a) Low-pass filter
H (ν x ,ν y ) = 1 for ν x2 + ν y2 < ν s2 , ν s : cutoff frequency
H (ν x ,ν y ) = 0 othewise

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A low-pass filter for spatial frequency is a circular aperture of diameter

D = 2ν s λf .
(b) High-pass filter
Complement of low-pass filter.
Output is high at regions of large rate of change, small at regions of smooth or
slow variation of the object.
Application: Edge enhancement in image-processing.
(c) Vertical-pass filter
Blocks horizontal frequency and transmits vertical frequency.

4.5 Holography
Recording and reconstruction of optical waves.
Consider an arbitrary monochromatic optical wave. At z = 0 plane,
U = U 0 ( x, y ) . If a thin optical element (transparency) has complex amplitude
transmittance t ( x, y ) = U 0 ( x, y ) . Illuminate the transparency with a uniform
plane wave in z-direction, the optical wave U ( x, y ) can be reconstructed.
Transparency → Hologram

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How to get t ( x, y ) from U 0 ( x, y ) ? Phase information is very important. Need

some kind of coding to transform phase into intensity.

Holographic code and off-axis holography

Mixing the original wave (object wave) U 0 with a known reference wave U r , and
recording their interference pattern in z = 0 plane.
t ( x, y ) ∝ I r + I 0 + U r*U 0 + U rU 0* (4.5-1)
Decoding: Illuminate the hologram with U r ,
U = tU r ∝ U r I r + U r I 0 + I rU 0 + U r2U 0* (4.5-2)
First and second terms → Reference wave
Third term → Original wave
Fourth term → Conjugate of the original wave

Example 4.5-1: Hologram of an oblique plane wave

U 0 ( x, y ) = I 0 exp(− jkx sin θ )
U ( x, u ) ∝ I r + I 0 + I r I 0 exp(− jkx sin θ ) + I r I 0 exp( jkx sin θ )
→ Diffraction grating

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How to make sure the object wave can be well separated?

Consider an arbitrary object wave whose propagation direction centers about θ . At
z = 0 plane, U 0 ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ) exp(− jkx sin θ ) .
Assume f ( x, y ) varies slowly so that its maximum spatial frequency ν s ,
corresponding to θ s = sin −1 (λν s ) << θ .
2
U ( x, y ) ∝ I r + f ( x, y ) + I r f ( x, y ) exp(− jkx sin θ ) + I r f * ( x, y ) exp(+ jkx sin θ )
2
f ( x, y ) : Ambiguity term → Non-uniform plane wave in directions with a cone of
2θ s around the z-direction.
2
If (1) θ > 3θ x , or (2) I r >> f ( x, y ) , the original wave can be resolved
unambiguously.

Fourier-transform holography
Fourier transform F (ν x ,ν y ) of a function f ( x, y ) can be obtained by a lens (see

Sec. 4.2). F (ν x ,ν y ) = F ( x ,y
λ f λ f ) = U 0 ( x, y ) .
Illuminate the hologram with U r reconstruct F. The original function f ( x, y ) is
reconstructed at the focal plane using a lens.

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The holographic apparatus

One essential requirement for holography: A monochromatic light source with
minimum phase fluctuations.
→ A coherent light source, usually a laser.

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