The Internal Combustion Engine

and Its Importance to Agriculture

T HE STUDY of mechanical power

covers a broad area of learning. A
basic understanding of engines is
important if you are to keep pace with
advancements in agricultural mechan-
ics. The first gasoline-powered engine
was created in 1860 but was not prac-
tical. In 1876 the first practical gaso-
line-powered engine was invented.
Some of the early difficulty in creating
engines was getting the piston to return
to its original position before repeating
the cycle.

Objective:

þ Describe the modern internal combustion engine and its effect on agriculture.

Key Terms:

Ñ connecting rod
crankshaft
cylinder
distillation
internal combustion engines
piston
reciprocate

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 The Internal Combustion Engine
In 1678 a Frenchman named Jean de Hautefeuille designed the first engine to use heat as a
motive force and to be capable of doing continuous work. About 1680 Christian Huygens, a
Dutchman, designed the first engine using a cylinder and a piston. Neither of these engines
was successful, and attempts to build an internal combustion engine were abandoned.
The French inventor Beau de Rochas developed the theory that four distinct events create
an operating cycle: intake, compression, power, and exhaust. His theory of operation still
applies to modern engines. Strangely, de Rochas never constructed an engine to prove his
theory.
N. A. Otto, a German, used the theory of Beau de Rochas to build the first successful
engine to operate on the four-stroke-cycle principle. This engine was followed by a two-
stroke-cycle engine patented by Englishman Dugald Clerk. A German, Rudolph Diesel, pro-
duced a high-compression engine to ignite the fuel in the cylinder. His efforts were not suc-
cessful until 1898, when the first diesel engines were produced. A diesel engine was first used
in a farm tractor in 193l.

Intake Exhaust Both Both Intake Exhaust

valve valve valves valves valve valve
open closed closed closed closed open

Air/fuel
mixture in Exhaust
gases
Spark plug Spark out

a b c d
Intake Compression Power Exhaust

FIGURE 1. The operation of a four-stroke-cycle spark-ignition engine.

Internal combustion engines convert the stored energy in fuel to heat, which is then
converted to mechanical power. The most common internal combustion engines are the pis-
ton-type gasoline engine and the diesel engine. A gasoline engine requires a spark to ignite the
fuel-air mixture and is different from a diesel engine that relies on compression to generate the
heat required to ignite the fuel-air mixture.

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 The space where the combustion occurs is called a cylinder. Engines are manufactured in
single- and multi-cylinder designs. A multi-cylinder engine is typically one of four styles:

t A single row of cylinders in a vertical position (in-line engine)

t A double row of cylinders forming a V pattern (V engine)
t A double zigzag row of cylinders with alternating pairs of opposite cylinders creating two
Vs (W engine)
t Two horizontal rows of cylinders, opposite rows opposed (pancake, flat, or boxer engine)

In each cylinder, a piston slides up and

down. The piston is connected to the Valves
crankshaft using a connecting rod. The
crank shape of the crankshaft causes the pis-
ton to reciprocate—that is, move up and
down as the crankshaft rotates. Combustion chamber
Before the creation of the internal com-
bustion engine, steam engines or animals
created rotary power. In the 1870s, engineers
successfully created steam traction engines, Piston
referred today as steam tractors. These were
very large machines and were undesirable for
most farms in North America. Steam trac-
tion engines were popular for large opera- Connecting rod
tions, where they could offset the cost of
draft animals. Steam traction engines were
slow to be adopted because of their size, their
complexity, and the danger of explosion. Crankshaft
With the commercialization of the inter-
nal combustion engine, a more practical FIGURE 2. Components of a cylinder in an internal combustion
power source was available. Farmers pur- engine.

chased large numbers of stationary gasoline

engines in the early part of the twentieth century. A wide variety of household chores were
simplified by the use of stationary engines. Companies began developing gasoline-powered
traction engines during the same period. These machines became known as tractors.

EARLY TRACTORS
Early tractors shared similar traits with steam traction engines. They were large, expensive,
and difficult to maneuver. These early tractors were quickly reduced in size and cost as engine
technology progressed. The Fordson is credited with being the first successful small tractor.
The new tractors proved to be excellent at plowing and were capable of other tasks.

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 Competition with Ford forced International Harvester to make improvements in its trac-
tors. A result of the improvements made by International Harvester was the development of a
general-purpose tractor, the Farmall, in 1925. The other tractor manufacturers, such as Deere,
Massey-Harris, and Case rushed to develop general-purpose tractors. The general-purpose
tractor had high ground clearance, small front wheels, and minimal weight. It was designed for
cultivating, as well as plowing and cutting.
By the mid-1930s, the adoption of tractors powered by internal combustion engines was in
full progress. During World War II, tractors played a very important part in producing the agri-
cultural products required to support an army at war.

IGNITION
Early inventors of gasoline engines were constantly looking for better efficiency and a satis-
factory method of igniting the fuel charge in the combustion chamber. Open flames, glow
plugs, and red-hot wires were used to ignite the fuel charge. Today we have a much more
dependable system using electricity.
The first device for producing electricity was created by Otto Von Guericke, a German. Ital-
ian Count Alessandro Volta developed the first storage battery. Volta’s battery was improved
and enlarged until it was practical for engine use. Battery voltage must be increased before it
will jump between two electrodes. These electrical principles were adapted to engines by plac-
ing electrodes in the spark plugs. The spark plugs are screwed into the engine combustion
chamber. The electricity jumping the gap across the electrodes creates a spark. The spark at the
spark plug ignites the fuel charge. Producing electrical energy and storing it in a battery are
important developments for internal combustion engines.

LUBRICATION
The moving parts of any engine require some lubrication to reduce friction. Friction retards
performance and destroys engine parts. The early engines ran slow enough that lubrication was
less of a problem than in today’s faster-running, more powerful engines. Newer engines
require a high-quality lubricant to reduce friction, provide cooling, and cushion the forces cre-
ated as the fuel is ignited.
Whale oil provided lubrication prior to the petroleum industry. The first oil well was dug in
1859. The crude oil was primarily for use in lamps. Explosions of the crude lamps showed the
presence of a combustible gas. Separating the combustible gas from the crude oil was done by a
process called distillation. The products of distillation were engine fuel and oil for lubrica-
tion. Oil helped reduce friction and created a seal between the piston and the cylinder. The
seal created by the oil made engines more powerful and efficient. As manufacturing technology
improved, engines operated faster and became more powerful. The increase in speed and
power placed new demands on lubricants to perform at a higher level.

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 THE MECHANIZATION OF TILLAGE AND HARVESTING
The development of steam engines made possible the mechanization of some tillage and
harvesting operations. Steam engines were heavy and awkward to handle. More versatile and
lighter internal combustion
engines were developed for farm
use in the early part of the twenti-
eth century. These engines had a
tremendous influence on the
mechanization of agriculture.
Today, with modern equipment,
less than 2 percent of our popula-
tion is engaged in farming. Their
production provides for domestic
use and export.
Mechanization has helped
make production of farm prod-
ucts possible with a great reduc- FIGURE 3. A modern-day tractor. (Courtesy, AGCO)

tion in the labor required. In

1800, about 55 worker-hours were needed to produce an acre of wheat. In 1875, using steam
traction engines and horses, about 15 worker-hours were needed. In 1925, using early gasoline
tractors, an acre of wheat could be produced in about five worker-hours. Modern machinery
requires a little more than one worker-hour to produce the same acre of wheat.

Summary:

2 Early on, a need was recognized for suitable mechanical power for farms. The
introduction of gasoline-powered tractors enabled farmers to replace horses for till-
age and increase production. As engine size became smaller, engines were accepted
on farms to perform a large variety of chores. The lighter engines were adapted to
power smaller tractors. The general-purpose tractors were capable of many tasks
and were rapidly adopted. Internal combustion engines, especially in tractors, have
dramatically reduced the demand for labor to produce agricultural commodities.

Checking Your Knowledge:

´ 1. Define an internal combustion engine.

2. What caused the decline in popularity of steam traction engines?
3. What were the advantages of general-purpose tractors?
4. How did the invention of the battery affect the development of internal com-
bustion engines?

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 5. How did the development of the internal combustion engine affect the pro-
duction of farm commodities?

Expanding Your Knowledge:

L Create a timeline and enter the key dates and discoveries pertaining to internal
combustion engines in agriculture.

Web Links:

: Inventors
http://inventors.about.com/a/098817.htm

Internal Combustion Engine

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion

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