SESSION 2.

1:
Plant and Animal
Growth & Development
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the session, the students are hoped and expected
to be able to:
Define the terms ‘growth’ and ‘development’

Compare and contrast the growth and developmental

processes in plants and animals
GROWTH
▪ Irreversible change in the size of cells and organs

▪ Due to both cell division and enlargement

DEVELOPMENT
▪ Progression from earlier to later stages in
maturation
▪ Tissues, organs, and whole organisms are
produced
DEVELOPMENT
▪ is determined by interactions between the
environment and the genetic instructions
inherited by the cells
DEVELOPMENT
▪ Morphogenesis
the process by which an organism takes shape
DEVELOPMENT
▪ Differentiation
The specialization of cells in their structure and
function
 Plant Growth &
1. Development
 ROMANESCO

Its growth These repetitive

pattern follows developmental
a repetitive patterns are
sequence of genetically
instruction. determined and
subject to natural
selection.
 MOST PLANTS

Growth is The highly adaptive

affected by local development is
environmental critical in facilitating
conditions. their acquisition of
resources.
MOST PLANTS

Pattern of Growth
How Growth Happens
Site of Cell Division
Cell Differentiation
Pattern of Growth
▪ show immediate and indeterminate growth
▪ often can grow continuously throughout life
▪ involve increase of number of organs after germination
How Growth Happens
▪ Mainly by cell enlargement (increase in cell
size)
How Development Happens
1. Double Fertilization
How Development Happens
2. Embryogenesis
How Development Happens
Reproductive shoot (flower)
Terminal bud

3. Organogenesis Node
Internode

Terminal
bud
Shoot
system
Vegetative
shoot
Leaf Blade
Petiole
Axillary
bud
Stem

Taproot

Lateral roots Root

system
Site of Cell Division
▪ Meristems
Cell Differentiation
▪ Many cells can differentiate
 Animal Growth &
2. Development
Pattern of Growth

▪ Shows determinate
growth
▪ Involve round
increases of organs
▪ Tend to grow to a
maximum size
How Growth Happens
▪ Increase in the number of cells
How Development Happens
1. Gametogenesis
▪ Formation of gametes
• Oogenesis
• Spermatogenesis
2. Fertilization
How Development Happens
3. Fertilized egg undergoes cleavage to form blastula
Fertilized egg.
Shown here is the zygote
shortly before the first
cleavage division,
surrounded by the
fertilization envelope. The
nucleus is visible in the
center.
Four-cell stage.
Remnants of the mitotic
spindle can be seen between
the two cells that have just
completed the second
cleavage division.
Morula.
After further cleavage
divisions, the embryo is a
multicellular ball that is still
surrounded by the
fertilization envelope. The
blastocoel cavity has begun
to form.
Blastula.
A single layer of cells
surrounds a large blastocoel
cavity. Although not visible
here,
the fertilization envelope is
still present; the embryo will
soon hatch from it and begin
swimming.
How Development Happens
4. Gastrulation
• Rearranges the cells of a blastula into a 3-layered
embryo, called a gastrula, that has a primitive gut
How Development Happens
4. Gastrulation

Ectoderm

Mesoderm

Endoderm
How Development Happens
5. Organogenesis
• The germ layers are programed to develop into
certain tissue types, organs, and organ systems.
Eye
Forebrain
Neural tube
Notochord
Somite Heart
Coelom
Archenteron
Endoderm Blood
Lateral fold
Mesoderm vessels
Ectoderm

Yolk stalk Somites

YOLK
Form extraembryonic Yolk sac Neural tube
membranes
How Development Happens
5. Organogenesis
ECTODERM
• Epidermis of skin and its
derivatives (including sweat
glands, hair follicles)
• Epithelial lining of mouth
and rectum
• Sense receptors in
epidermis
• Cornea and lens of eye
• Nervous system
• Adrenal medulla
• Tooth enamel
• Epithelium or pineal and
pituitary glands
MESODERM
• Notochord
• Skeletal system
• Muscular system
• Muscular layer of
stomach, intestine, etc.
• Excretory system
• Circulatory and lymphatic
systems
• Reproductive system
(except germ cells)
• Dermis of skin
• Lining of body cavity
• Adrenal cortex
ENDODERM
• Epithelial lining of
digestive tract
• Epithelial lining of
respiratory system
• Lining of urethra, urinary
bladder, and reproductive
system
• Liver
• Pancreas
• Thymus
• Thyroid and parathyroid
glands
How Development Happens
6. Birth
• Growth and development continues through
increase in the number of cells.
Site of Cell Division
▪ In most tissues
Cell Differentiation

▪ Involves
gastrulation
▪ Many cells lose
the ability to
differentiate at
an early stage
 COMPARE & CONTRAST
Feature Plants
Pattern of growth • Show immediate growth,
• Involve increase of number of
organs,
• Often can grow continuously
throughout life
How growth Mainly by cell enlargement
happens (increase in cell size)
Where cell division Mainly at meristems – found at the
happens tips of shoots and roots
Cell differentiation • Do not gastrulate,
• Many cells can differentiate
Animals
• Do not show immediate growth,
• Involve round increases of different
organs,
• Tend to grow to a maximum size
Increasing the number of cells
In most tissues
• Involve gastrulation,
• Most cells lose the ability to
differentiate at an early stage
tell eat are I you what tell what me
and you will.
“Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are.”
- Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin
 SESSION 2.2:
Plant and Animal
Nutrition
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the session, the students are hoped and
expected to be able to:
Compare and contrast plant and animal nutrition in
terms of:
• Source of nutrition
• Mechanism to obtain them
• Necessary nutrients and their function
A NUTRITIONAL NETWORK

Every organism
continually
exchanges
energy and
materials with
its environment.
THE NEED TO FEED

For animals, every mealtime is

a reminder that they are
heterotrophs.
 THE NEED TO FEED
Regardless of 1. Fuel for all cellular
what an work
organism eats, 2. The organic raw
an adequate materials for
diet must satisfy biosynthesis
three nutritional 3. Essential nutrients
needs. that the organism
cannot synthesize
for itself
1. Plant Nutrition
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS
▪ Plants require certain chemicals to complete
their life cycle.
CO2 H2O

O2
• Most of the organic
mass is derived from
CO2 from the air.
• Also depend on soil
nutrients such as
water and minerals
O2
Minerals

CO2

H2O
MACRONUTRIENTS
PRIMARY MACRONUTRIENTS
▪ Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H),
Oxygen (O)
• major constituents of plants
• assimilation of oxidation-
reduction reactions
▪ Nitrogen (N)
• component of amino acids
(proteins) for general plant
growth
• chlorophyll synthesis
PRIMARY MACRONUTRIENTS
▪ Phosphorus (P)
• ADP-ATP Synthesis
• structural component of phospholipids,
nucleic acids, coenzymes, and nucleotides
▪ Potassium (K)
• cell extension and stomatal regulation
• enzyme activation
• photosynthetic activity (e.g CO2 fixation
and pH regulation)
SECONDARY MACRONUTRIENTS

▪ Calcium (Ca)
• cell wall and cell membrane
component
• counter-ion in the vacuole
▪ Magnesium (Mg)
• chlorophyll synthesis
• cofactor in the activation of ATPase
SECONDARY MACRONUTRIENTS

▪ Sulfur (S)
• assimilation of redox reactions
• enzymatic processes
▪ Iron (Fe)
• regulatory component of proteins
• metabolites in roots and leaves
MICRONUTRIENTS
▪ Copper (Cu)
• co-factor for metalloproteins and enzymes
• photosynthetic electron transport
• cell wall metabolism and hormone signaling
▪ Manganese (Mn)
• activates enzymes
• precursor of amino acids and hormones
▪ Zinc (Zn)
• activates enzymes, stem elongation
• protein and starch synthesis
MICRONUTRIENTS
▪ Boron (B)
• cell wall component
• mitotic activity for root development
▪ Molybdenum (Mo)
• enzyme activation (e.g. nitrate reductase)
• chlorophyll synthesis
▪ Chlorine (Cl)
• water-splitting system for photosystem II
• stomatal opening regulation
DEFICIENCIES
Healthy

Phosphate-deficient

Potassium-deficient

Nitrogen-deficient
2. Animal Nutrition
SYMBIOSIS
Animals such as the
Philippine tarsier
and Philippine
mouse deer or
pilandok have
bacteria in their gut
to produce enzyme
that aid in
digestion.
HETEROTROPHS
▪ Herbivores eat
mainly autotrophs
(plants and algae). ▪ Carnivores eat
other animals. ▪ Omnivores regularly
consume animals as
well as plants and
algal matter.
ENERGY BUDGET
▪ ATP generation is based on the oxidation of energy-
rich molecules: carbohydrates, proteins, and fat
MINERALS
▪ Needed for ion exchange, body component, and ATP
production
▪ Utilized as enzyme co-factor
MINERALS
▪ Calcium (Ca)
• component of bone and teeth; involved in blood
clotting, muscle and nerve function
▪ Chlorine (Cl)
• formation of HCl in the stomach; acid-base balance;
nerve function
▪ Copper (Cu)
• component of enzyme involve in the synthesis of
melanin, hemoglobin, in iron metabolism
▪ Fluorine (F)
• maintenance of bone and teeth
MINERALS
▪ Iodine (I)
• component of the thyroid hormone
▪ Iron (Fe)
• Component of hemoglobin, myoglobin,
cytochromes, and electron carriers
▪ Magnesium (Mg)
• Muscle and nerve function, coenzyme
▪ Phosphorus (P)
• Component of bone, ATP, DNA, and RNA
MINERALS
▪ Potassium (K)
• Acid-base balance, water balance, and neural
function
▪ Sodium (Na)
• Acid-base balance, water balance, and neural
function
▪ Sulfur (S)
• Component of body proteins
▪ Zinc (Zn)
• Component of digestive enzyme
VITAMINS
▪ Organic compounds needed in trace amounts
but essential for metabolic function.
VITAMINS
▪ Organic compounds needed in trace amounts but
essential for metabolic function.
VITAMINS
▪ A (retinol)
• Synthesis of retinal pigments; regulation of bone cell
activity; maintain healthy epithelial tissues
▪ D (calciferol)
• Involved in calcium absorption, bone growth, and
mineralization
▪ E (tocopherol)
• Antioxidant
▪ K (phylloquinone)
• blood clotting
VITAMINS
▪ B1 (thiamine)
• coenzyme nervous system and muscle
functions
▪ B2 (riboflavin)
• coenzyme in cellular respiration; helps convert
food (carbohydrates) into fuel (glucose)
▪ B3 (niacin)
• coenzyme in cellular respiration; helps convert
food (carbohydrates) into fuel (glucose)
 VITAMINS
▪ B5 (pantothenic acid)
• part of coenzyme-A for carbohydrates and lipid synthesis
and break down fats and carbohydrates for energy; red
blood cell production; sex and stress-related hormones
▪ B6 (pyridoxine)
• coenzyme in amino acid metabolism, normal brain
development and function, essential hormones
production
▪ B7 (biotin)
• coenzyme in carbon dioxide fixation; convert food into
glucose to produce energy; activates protein/amino acid
metabolism
VITAMINS
▪ B9 (folic acid)
• coenzyme in nucleic acid synthesis and amino acid
metabolism; proper brain function, mental, and
emotional health
▪ B12 (cyanocobalamin)
• coenzyme in nucleic acid metabolism; healthy nerve
cells; production of DNA and RNA
▪ C (ascorbic acid)
• synthesis of intercellular substances; aids in
resistance to infection, carbohydrate metabolism
 FOOD PROCESSING
Ingestion Digestion Absorption

Small
molecules

Pieces Elimination
of food
Chemical digestion Nutrient
(enzymatic hydrolysis) molecules
Mechanical
enter body
digestion
cells

Undigested
Food
material
DIGESTION IN BIRDS
Muscular gizzard
DIGESTION IN RUMINANTS
1 Rumen. When the cow first chews and
swallows a mouthful of grass, boluses 2 Reticulum. Some boluses also enter the
(green arrows) enter the rumen. reticulum. In both the rumen and the
reticulum, symbiotic prokaryotes and
protists (mainly ciliates) go to work on
Intestine
the cellulose-rich meal. As by products
of their metabolism, the
microorganisms secrete fatty acids. The
cow periodically regurgitates and
rechews the cud (red arrows), which
further breaks down the fibers, making
them more accessible to further
microbial action.

Esophagus

4 Abomasum. The cud, containing great numbers of 3 Omasum. The cow then reswallows
microorganisms, finally passes to the abomasum for digestion the cud (blue arrows), which moves to
by the cow‘s own enzymes (black arrows). the omasum, where water is removed.
DIGESTION THROUGH PHAGOCYTOSIS
DIGESTION IN CNIDARIANS
DIGESTION IN NEMATODES & FLATWORMS
 DIGESTION IN HERBIVORES

Longer
alimentary canal,
Small intestine

Stomach
reflecting the
Small
intestine longer time
Cecum
needed for
digestion
Colon
(large
intestine)

Carnivore Herbivore