Lesson1 Elementarysignal

Chapter 1
Elementary Signals
T
his chapter begins with a discussion of elementary signals that may be applied to electric net-
works. The unit step, unit ramp, and delta functions are introduced. The sampling and sifting
properties of the delta function are defined and derived. Several examples for expressing a vari-
ety of waveforms in terms of these elementary signals are provided.
1.1 Signals Described in Math Form

Consider the network of Figure 1.1 where the switch is closed at time t = 0 .
vS t = 0
+
+ v out open terminals

Figure 1.1. A switched network with open terminals.

We wish to describe v out in a math form for the time interval – f t +f . To do this, it is conve-
nient to divide the time interval into two parts, – f t 0 , and 0 t f .
For the time interval – f t 0 the switch is open and therefore, the output voltage v out is zero. In
other words,
v out = 0 for – f t 0 (1.1)
For the time interval 0 t f the switch is closed. Then, the input voltage v S appears at the output,
i.e.,
v out = v S for 0 t f (1.2)
Combining (1.1) and (1.2) into a single relationship, we get
0 –f t 0
v out = ® (1.3)
¯ vS 0 t f
We can express (1.3) by the waveform shown in Figure 1.2.
Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition 1-1

Orchard Publications
Chapter 1 Elementary Signals
v out
vS
0
t
Figure 1.2. Waveform for v out as defined in relation (1.3)
The waveform of Figure 1.2 is an example of a discontinuous function. A function is said to be dis-
continuous if it exhibits points of discontinuity, that is, the function jumps from one value to another
without taking on any intermediate values.
1.2 The Unit Step Function u 0 t
A well-known discontinuous function is the unit step function u 0 t * that is defined as
0 t0
u0 t = ® (1.4)
¯1 t!0
It is also represented by the waveform of Figure 1.3.

u0 t
1
0 t
Figure 1.3. Waveform for u 0 t
In the waveform of Figure 1.3, the unit step function u 0 t changes abruptly from 0 to 1 at t = 0 .
But if it changes at t = t 0 instead, it is denoted as u 0 t – t 0 . Its waveform and definition are as
shown in Figure 1.4 and relation (1.5).
1
u0 t – t0
t
0 t0
Figure 1.4. Waveform for u 0 t – t 0
* In some books, the unit step function is denoted as u t , that is, without the subscript 0. In this text, however, we
will reserve the u t designation for any input when we discuss state variables in a later chapter.
1-2 Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

The Unit Step Function
0 t t0
u0 t – t0 = ® (1.5)
¯1 t ! t0
If the unit step function changes abruptly from 0 to 1 at t = – t 0 , it is denoted as u 0 t + t 0 . Its
waveform and definition are as shown in Figure 1.5 and relation (1.6).
u0 t + t0
1
t0 0 t
Figure 1.5. Waveform for u 0 t + t 0
0 t –t0
u0 t + t0 = ® (1.6)
¯1 t ! –t0
Example 1.1
Consider the network of Figure 1.6, where the switch is closed at time t = T .
vS t = T
+
+ v out open terminals

Figure 1.6. Network for Example 1.1
Express the output voltage v out as a function of the unit step function, and sketch the appropriate
waveform.
Solution:
For this example, the output voltage v out = 0 for t T , and v out = v S for t ! T . Therefore,
v out = v S u 0 t – T (1.7)
and the waveform is shown in Figure 1.7.

vS u0 t – T
v out
t
0 T
Figure 1.7. Waveform for Example 1.1

Other forms of the unit step function are shown in Figure 1.8.
7 7
t t t
0 0 0
(a) (b) (c)
A A A
–A u0 t –A u0 t – T –A u0 t + T
Au 0 – t Au 0 – t + T Au 0 – t – T
A A A
t t t
0 0 7 (e) 7 0 (f)
(d)
7 7
t t t
0 (g) 0 0 (i)
(h)
A A A
–A u0 –t –A u0 – t + T –A u0 – t – T
Figure 1.8. Other forms of the unit step function

Unit step functions can be used to represent other time-varying functions such as the rectangular
pulse shown in Figure 1.9.
u0 t
1
1
t t t
0 1 0 0
c
a b
–u0 t – 1
Figure 1.9. A rectangular pulse expressed as the sum of two unit step functions
Thus, the pulse of Figure 1.9(a) is the sum of the unit step functions of Figures 1.9(b) and 1.9(c) is
represented as u 0 t – u 0 t – 1 .

The unit step function offers a convenient method of describing the sudden application of a voltage
or current source. For example, a constant voltage source of 24 V applied at t = 0 , can be denoted
as 24u 0 t V . Likewise, a sinusoidal voltage source v t = V m cos Zt V that is applied to a circuit at
t = t 0 , can be described as v t = V m cos Zt u 0 t – t 0 V . Also, if the excitation in a circuit is a rect-
angular, or triangular, or sawtooth, or any other recurring pulse, it can be represented as a sum (dif-
ference) of unit step functions.
Example 1.2
Express the square waveform of Figure 1.10 as a sum of unit step functions. The vertical dotted lines
indicate the discontinuities at T 2T 3T and so on.
vt
A
{ }
T 2T 3T
t
0
–A | ~
Figure 1.10. Square waveform for Example 1.2

Solution:
Line segment { has height A , starts at t = 0 , and terminates at t = T . Then, as in Example 1.1, this
segment is expressed as
v1 t = A > u0 t – u0 t – T @ (1.8)
Line segment | has height – A , starts at t = T and terminates at t = 2T . This segment is expressed
as
v 2 t = – A > u 0 t – T – u 0 t – 2T @ (1.9)
Line segment } has height A , starts at t = 2T and terminates at t = 3T . This segment is expressed as
v 3 t = A > u 0 t – 2T – u 0 t – 3T @ (1.10)
Line segment ~ has height – A , starts at t = 3T , and terminates at t = 4T . It is expressed as

v 4 t = – A > u 0 t – 3T – u 0 t – 4T @ (1.11)
Thus, the square waveform of Figure 1.10 can be expressed as the summation of (1.8) through (1.11),
that is,

v t = v1 t + v2 t + v3 t + v4 t
= A > u 0 t – u 0 t – T @ – A > u 0 t – T – u 0 t – 2T @ (1.12)
+A > u 0 t – 2T – u 0 t – 3T @ – A > u 0 t – 3T – u 0 t – 4T @
Combining like terms, we get

v t = A > u 0 t – 2u 0 t – T + 2u 0 t – 2T – 2u 0 t – 3T + } @ (1.13)
Example 1.3
Express the symmetric rectangular pulse of Figure 1.11 as a sum of unit step functions.
it
A
t
–T e 2 0 Te2
Figure 1.11. Symmetric rectangular pulse for Example 1.3

Solution:
This pulse has height A , starts at t = – T e 2 , and terminates at t = T e 2 . Therefore, with reference to
Figures 1.5 and 1.8 (b), we get
i t = Au 0 § t + --- · – Au 0 § t – --- · = A u 0 § t + --- · – u 0 § t – --- ·

T T T T
©
(1.14)
2 ¹ © 2 ¹ © 2 ¹ © 2 ¹
Example 1.4
Express the symmetric triangular waveform of Figure 1.12 as a sum of unit step functions.
vt
1
t
–T e 2 0 Te2
Figure 1.12. Symmetric triangular waveform for Example 1.4

Solution:
We first derive the equations for the linear segments { and | shown in Figure 1.13.

2 vt 2
--- t + 1 1 – --- t + 1
T T
{ |
t
–T e 2 0 Te2
Figure 1.13. Equations for the linear segments of Figure 1.12

For line segment {,
v 1 t = § --- t + 1· u 0 § t + --- · – u 0 t
2 T
©T ¹ © 2¹
(1.15)
and for line segment |,
v 2 t = § – --- t + 1· u 0 t – u 0 § t – --- ·
2 T
© T ¹ © 2¹
(1.16)
Combining (1.15) and (1.16), we get

v t = v1 t + v2 t
(1.17)
= § --- t + 1· u 0 § t + T
--- · – u 0 t + § – --2- t + 1· u 0 t – u 0 § t – T
--- ·
2
©T ¹ © 2¹ © T ¹ © 2¹
Example 1.5
Express the waveform of Figure 1.14 as a sum of unit step functions.
v t
3
t
0 1 2 3
Figure 1.14. Waveform for Example 1.5.

Solution:
As in the previous example, we first find the equations of the linear segments { and | shown in Fig-
ure 1.15.

vt
3
{
2
2t + 1
1 –t+3
|
t
0 1 2 3

Following the same procedure as in the previous examples, we get
v t = 2t + 1 > u 0 t – u 0 t – 1 @ + 3 > u 0 t – 1 – u 0 t – 2 @
+ – t + 3 > u0 t – 2 – u0 t – 3 @
Multiplying the values in parentheses by the values in the brackets, we get

v t = 2t + 1 u 0 t – 2t + 1 u 0 t – 1 + 3u 0 t – 1
– 3u 0 t – 2 + – t + 3 u 0 t – 2 – – t + 3 u 0 t – 3
or
v t = 2t + 1 u 0 t + > – 2t + 1 + 3 @u 0 t – 1
+ > – 3 + – t + 3 @u 0 t – 2 – – t + 3 u 0 t – 3
and combining terms inside the brackets, we get

v t = 2t + 1 u 0 t – 2 t – 1 u 0 t – 1 – t u 0 t – 2 + t – 3 u 0 t – 3 (1.18)
Two other functions of interest are the unit ramp function, and the unit impulse or delta function. We
will introduce them with the examples that follow.
Example 1.6
In the network of Figure 1.16 i S is a constant current source and the switch is closed at time t = 0 .
R
iS t = 0
+
vC t

C

Express the capacitor voltage v C t as a function of the unit step.
Solution:
The current through the capacitor is i C t = i S = cons tan t , and the capacitor voltage v C t is
t
1
³–f i
v C t = ---- *
C W dW (1.19)
C
where W is a dummy variable.
Since the switch closes at t = 0 , we can express the current i C t as
iC t = iS u0 t (1.20)
and assuming that v C t = 0 for t 0 , we can write (1.19) as
i 0
1 t ---S-
³–f u0 W dW iS t
v C t = ----
C ³–f i S u 0 W dW = C + ----
C ³ 0 u 0 W dW (1.21)

°
°
®
°
°
¯
0
or
iS
v C t = ----- tu 0 t (1.22)
C
Therefore, we see that when a capacitor is charged with a constant current, the voltage across it is a
linear function and forms a ramp with slope i S e C as shown in Figure 1.17.
vC t
slope = i S e C
t
0
Figure 1.17. Voltage across a capacitor when charged with a constant current source.
* Since the initial condition for the capacitor voltage was not specified, we express this integral with – f at the
lower limit of integration so that any non-zero value prior to t 0 would be included in the integration.

1.3 The Unit Ramp Function u 1 t
The unit ramp function, denoted as u 1 t , is defined as
t
u1 t = ³–f u0 W dW (1.23)
where W is a dummy variable.

We can evaluate the integral of (1.23) by considering the area under the unit step function u 0 t from
– f to t as shown in Figure 1.18.
Area = 1 u W = W = t
1
t
W
Figure 1.18. Area under the unit step function from – f to t

Therefore, we define u 1 t as
0 t0
u1 t = ® (1.24)
¯t tt0
Since u 1 t is the integral of u 0 t , then u 0 t must be the derivative of u 1 t , i.e.,
d
----- u 1 t = u 0 t (1.25)
dt
Higher order functions of t can be generated by repeated integration of the unit step function. For
example, integrating u 0 t twice and multiplying by 2, we define u 2 t as
0 t0 t
u2 t = ® 2
¯t tt0
or u2 t = 2 ³–f u1 W dW (1.26)
Similarly,
0 t0 t
u3 t = ® 3
¯t tt0
or u3 t = 3 ³–f u2 W dW (1.27)
and in general,

The Unit Ramp Function
0 t0 t
un t = ® n
¯t tt0
or un t = 3 ³–f un – 1 W dW (1.28)
Also,
1d
u n – 1 t = --- ----- u n t (1.29)
n dt
Example 1.7
In the network of Figure 1.19, the switch is closed at time t = 0 and i L t = 0 for t 0 .
R t = 0
iS +
`
iL t
L
v t L

Express the inductor current i L t in terms of the unit step function.
Solution:
The voltage across the inductor is
di L
v L t = L ------- (1.30)
dt
and since the switch closes at t = 0 ,

iL t = iS u0 t (1.31)
Therefore, we can write (1.30) as
d
v L t = Li S ----- u 0 t (1.32)
dt
But, as we know, u 0 t is constant ( 0 or 1 ) for all time except at t = 0 where it is discontinuous.

Since the derivative of any constant is zero, the derivative of the unit step u 0 t has a non-zero value
only at t = 0 . The derivative of the unit step function is defined in the next section.

1.4 The Delta Function G t

The unit impulse or delta function, denoted as G t , is the derivative of the unit step u 0 t . It is also
defined as
t
³–f G W dW = u0 t (1.33)
and
G t = 0 for all t z 0 (1.34)
To better understand the delta function G t , let us represent the unit step u 0 t as shown in Figure
1.20 (a).

Figure (a)
0
t
H H
1
Area =1 2H Figure (b)
0
H H t
Figure 1.20. Representation of the unit step as a limit.

The function of Figure 1.20 (a) becomes the unit step as H o 0 . Figure 1.20 (b) is the derivative of
Figure 1.20 (a), where we see that as H o 0 , 1 e 2 H becomes unbounded, but the area of the rectangle
remains 1 . Therefore, in the limit, we can think of G t as approaching a very large spike or impulse
at the origin, with unbounded amplitude, zero width, and area equal to 1 .
Two useful properties of the delta function are the sampling property and the sifting property.
1.5 Sampling Property of the Delta Function G t

The sampling property of the delta function states that
f t G t – a = f a G t (1.35)
or, when a = 0 ,
f t G t = f 0 G t (1.36)

Sifting Property of the Delta Function
that is, multiplication of any function f t by the delta function G t results in sampling the function
at the time instants where the delta function is not zero. The study of discrete-time systems is based
on this property.
Proof:
Since G t = 0 for t 0 and t ! 0 then,
f t G t = 0 for t 0 and t ! 0 (1.37)
We rewrite f t as
ft = f0 + >ft – f0@ (1.38)
Integrating (1.37) over the interval – f to t and using (1.38), we get
t t t
³–f f W G W dW = ³–f f 0 G W dW + ³–f > f W – f 0 @G W dW (1.39)
The first integral on the right side of (1.39) contains the constant term f 0 ; this can be written out-
side the integral, that is,
t t
³– f f 0 G W dW = f 0 ³–f G W dW (1.40)
The second integral of the right side of (1.39) is always zero because
G t = 0 for t 0 and t ! 0
and
>fW – f0 @ W=0
= f 0 – f0 = 0
Therefore, (1.39) reduces to
t t
³–f f W G W dW = f 0 ³–f G W dW (1.41)
Differentiating both sides of (1.41), and replacing W with t , we get
f t G t = f 0 G t
(1.42)
Sampling Property of G t
1.6 Sifting Property of the Delta Function G t

The sifting property of the delta function states that

³–f f t G t – D dt = fD (1.43)
that is, if we multiply any function f t by G t – D and integrate from – f to +f , we will obtain the
value of f t evaluated at t = D .
Proof:
Let us consider the integral
b
³a f t G t – D dt where a D b (1.44)
We will use integration by parts to evaluate this integral. We recall from the derivative of products
that
d xy = xdy + ydx or xdy = d xy – ydx (1.45)
and integrating both sides we get
³ x dy = xy – y dx ³ (1.46)
Now, we let x = f t ; then, dx = f c t . We also let dy = G t – D ; then, y = u 0 t – D . By substitu-

tion into (1.46), we get
b b
³a ³a u0 t – D f c t dt
b
f t G t – D dt = f t u 0 t – D – (1.47)
a
We have assumed that a D b ; therefore, u 0 t – D = 0 for D a , and thus the first term of the
right side of (1.47) reduces to f b . Also, the integral on the right side is zero for D a , and there-
fore, we can replace the lower limit of integration a by D . We can now rewrite (1.47) as
b b
³a f t G t – D dt = f b – ³ D f c t d t = fb – fb + fD
and letting a o – f and b o f for any D f , we get

f
³–f f t G t – D dt = f D (1.48)
Sifting Property of G t

Higher Order Delta Functions
1.7 Higher Order Delta Functions

An nth-order delta function is defined as the nth derivative of u 0 t , that is,
n
n G
G t = ----- > u 0 t @ (1.49)
dt
The function G' t is called doublet, G'' t is called triplet, and so on. By a procedure similar to the
derivation of the sampling property of the delta function, we can show that
f t G' t – a = f a G' t – a – f ' a G t – a (1.50)
Also, the derivation of the sifting property of the delta function can be extended to show that
f n
nd
³
n
f t G t – D dt = – 1 -------n- > f t @ (1.51)
–f dt t=D
Example 1.8
Evaluate the following expressions:
4
a. 3t G t – 1
f
b. ³–f tG t – 2 dt
2
c. t G' t – 3
Solution:
4
a. The sampling property states that f t G t – a = f a G t – a For this example, f t = 3t and
a = 1 . Then,
4 4
3t G t – 1 = ^ 3t t=1
`G t – 1 = 3G t – 1
f
b. The sifting property states that ³–f f t G t – D dt = f D . For this example, f t = t and D = 2 .
Then,
f
³–f tG t – 2 dt = f 2 = t t = 2 = 2
c. The given expression contains the doublet; therefore, we use the relation

f t G' t – a = f a G' t – a – f ' a G t – a

Then, for this example,
2 2 d 2
t G' t – 3 = t G' t – 3 – ----- t t = 3 G t – 3
t=3 dt
= 9G' t – 3 – 6G t – 3
Example 1.9
a. Express the voltage waveform v t shown in Figure 1.21 as a sum of unit step functions for the
time interval – 1 t 7 s .
b. Using the result of part (a), compute the derivative of v t and sketch its waveform.
vt V
1
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
t s
1
2
Figure 1.21. Waveform for Example 1.9

Solution:
a. We first derive the equations for the linear segments of the given waveform. These are shown in
Figure 1.22.
Next, we express v t in terms of the unit step function u 0 t , and we get
v t = 2t > u 0 t + 1 – u 0 t – 1 @ + 2 > u 0 t – 1 – u 0 t – 2 @
+ – t + 5 > u0 t – 2 – u0 t – 4 @ + > u0 t – 4 – u0 t – 5 @ (1.52)
+ – t + 6 > u0 t – 5 – u0 t – 7 @
Multiplying and collecting like terms in (1.52), we get

Higher Order Delta Functions
vt V vt
–t+5
3
2 –t+6
1
1 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t s
1
2t
2

v t = 2tu 0 t + 1 – 2tu 0 t – 1 – 2u 0 t – 1 – 2u 0 t – 2 – tu 0 t – 2
+ 5u 0 t – 2 + tu 0 t – 4 – 5u 0 t – 4 + u 0 t – 4 – u 0 t – 5
– tu 0 t – 5 + 6u 0 t – 5 + tu 0 t – 7 – 6u 0 t – 7
or
v t = 2tu 0 t + 1 + – 2t + 2 u 0 t – 1 + – t + 3 u 0 t – 2
+ t – 4 u 0 t – 4 + – t + 5 u 0 t – 5 + t – 6 u 0 t – 7
b. The derivative of v t is
dv
------ = 2u 0 t + 1 + 2tG t + 1 – 2u 0 t – 1 + – 2t + 2 G t – 1
dt
– u 0 t – 2 + – t + 3 G t – 2 + u 0 t – 4 + t – 4 G t – 4 (1.53)
– u 0 t – 5 + – t + 5 G t – 5 + u 0 t – 7 + t – 6 G t – 7
From the given waveform, we observe that discontinuities occur only at t = – 1 , t = 2 , and
t = 7 . Therefore, G t – 1 = 0 , G t – 4 = 0 , and G t – 5 = 0 , and the terms that contain these
delta functions vanish. Also, by application of the sampling property,
2tG t + 1 = ^ 2t t = –1
`G t + 1 = – 2G t + 1
– t + 3 G t – 2 = ^ – t + 3 t=2
`G t – 2 = G t – 2
t – 6 G t – 7 = ^ t – 6 t=7
`G t – 7 = G t – 7
and by substitution into (1.53), we get

dv
------ = 2u 0 t + 1 – 2 G t + 1 – 2u 0 t – 1 – u 0 t – 2
dt (1.54)
+ G t – 2 + u0 t – 4 – u0 t – 5 + u0 t – 7 + G t – 7
The plot of dv e dt is shown in Figure 1.23.

dv
------ V e s
dt
2
Gt – 2 Gt – 7
1
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
t s
1
– 2G t + 1
Figure 1.23. Plot of the derivative of the waveform of Figure 1.21.

We observe that a negative spike of magnitude 2 occurs at t = – 1 , and two positive spikes of
magnitude 1 occur at t = 2 , and t = 7 . These spikes occur because of the discontinuities at
these points.
MATLAB* has built-in functions for the unit step, and the delta functions. These are denoted by the
names of the mathematicians who used them in their work. The unit step function u 0 t is referred
to as Heaviside(t), and the delta function G t is referred to as Dirac(t). Their use is illustrated with
the examples below.
syms k a t; % Define symbolic variables
u=k*sym('Heaviside(t-a)') % Create unit step function at t = a
u =
k*Heaviside(t-a)
d=diff(u) % Compute the derivative of the unit step function
d =
k*Dirac(t-a)
* An introduction to MATLAB® is given in Appendix A.

Summary
int(d) % Integrate the delta function

ans =
Heaviside(t-a)*k
1.8 Summary
x The unit step function u 0 t that is defined as
0 t0
u0 t = ®
¯1 t!0
x The unit step function offers a convenient method of describing the sudden application of a volt-
age or current source.
x The unit ramp function, denoted as u 1 t , is defined as
t
u1 t = ³–f u0 W dW
x The unit impulse or delta function, denoted as G t , is the derivative of the unit step u 0 t . It is also
defined as
t
³–f G W dW = u0 t
and
G t = 0 for all t z 0
x The sampling property of the delta function states that
f t G t – a = f a G t
or, when a = 0 ,
f t G t = f 0 G t
x The sifting property of the delta function states that
f
³–f f t G t – D dt = fD
x The sampling property of the doublet function G' t states that

1.9 Exercises
1. Evaluate the following functions:
a. sin tG §© t – S
---·
6¹
b. cos 2tG §© t – S
---·
¹ 4
c. cos t G §© t – S
---·
2
2¹
d. tan 2tG §© t – S
---·
¹ 8
f
2 –t
e. ³–f t e G t – 2 dt
f. sin t G 1 §© t – S
---·
2
2¹
2.
a. Express the voltage waveform v t shown in Figure 1.24, as a sum of unit step functions for
the time interval 0 t 7 s .
b. Using the result of part (a), compute the derivative of v t , and sketch its waveform.
vt V vt
20
– 2t
e
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t s
10
20
Figure 1.24. Waveform for Exercise 2

Solutions to Exercises
1.10 Solutions to Exercises

Dear Reader:
The remaining pages on this chapter contain the solutions to the exercises.
You must, for your benefit, make an honest effort to solve the problems without first looking at the
solutions that follow. It is recommended that first you go through and solve those you feel that you
know. For the exercises that you are uncertain, review this chapter and try again. If your results do
not agree with those provided, look over your procedures for inconsistencies and computational
errors. Refer to the solutions as a last resort and rework those problems at a later date.
You should follow this practice with the exercises on all chapters of this book.

1. We apply the sampling property of the G t function for all expressions except (e) where we apply
the sifting property. For part (f) we apply the sampling property of the doublet.
We recall that the sampling property states that f t G t – a = f a G t – a . Thus,
S
a. sin tG §© t – S
---· = sin t
S S S
G § t – ---· = sin --- G § t – ---· = 0.5G § t – ---·
6¹ t = Se6 © 6¹ 6 © 6¹ © 6¹
S
b. cos 2tG §© t – S
---· = cos 2t
¹
G§t – S
© 4¹
---· = cos --- G § t – S
--- · = 0
4 t = Se4 2 © 4¹
c. cos t G §© t – S
---· = --- 1 + cos 2t
S S S
G § t – ---· = --- 1 + cos S G § t – ---· = --- 1 – 1 G § t – ---· = 0
2 1 1 1
2¹ 2 t = Se2
© 2¹ 2 © 2¹ 2 © 2¹
S
d. tan 2tG §© t – S
---· = tan 2t
¹
S S S
G § t – ---· = tan --- G § t – --- · = G § t – ---·
© 8¹
8 t = Se8 4 © 8¹ © 8¹
f
We recall that the sampling property states that ³–f f t G t – D dt = f D . Thus,
f
2 –t 2 –t
³–f t e
–2
e. G t – 2 dt = t e t=2
= 4e = 0.54
We recall that the sampling property for the doublet states that
Thus,
S S S
sin t G § t – --- · = sin t G § t – --- · – ----- sin t G § t – --- ·
2 1 2 1 d 2
© 2¹ t = Se2 © 2 ¹ dt t = Se2 © 2¹
S S
G § t – --- · – sin 2t G § t – --- ·
1 1
f. = --- 1 – cos 2t
2 t = Se2 © 2¹ t = Se2 © 2¹
S S S
= --- 1 + 1 G § t – --- · – sin SG § t – --- · = G § t – --- ·
1 1 1
2 © 2¹ © 2¹ © 2¹
2.
– 2t
v t = e > u 0 t – u 0 t – 2 @ + 10t – 30 > u 0 t – 2 – u 0 t – 3 @
a.
+ – 10 t + 50 > u 0 t – 3 – u 0 t – 5 @ + 10t – 70 > u 0 t – 5 – u 0 t – 7 @
or

Solutions to Exercises
– 2t – 2t
v t = e u0 t – e u 0 t – 2 + 10tu 0 t – 2 – 30u 0 t – 2 – 10tu 0 t – 3 + 30u 0 t – 3
– 10tu 0 t – 3 + 50u 0 t – 3 + 10tu 0 t – 5 – 50u 0 t – 5 + 10tu 0 t – 5
– 70u 0 t – 5 – 10tu 0 t – 7 + 70u 0 t – 7
– 2t – 2t
= e u0 t + –e + 10t – 30 u 0 t – 2 + – 20t + 80 u 0 t – 3 + 20t – 120 u 0 t – 5
+ – 10t + 70 u 0 t – 7
b.
dv – 2t – 2t – 2t – 2t
------ = – 2e u 0 t + e G t + 2e + 10 u 0 t – 2 + – e + 10t – 30 G t – 2
dt
– 20u 0 t – 3 + – 20t + 80 G t – 3 + 20u 0 t – 5 + 20t – 120 G t – 5 (1)
– 10u 0 t – 7 + – 10t + 70 G t – 7
Referring to the given waveform we observe that discontinuities occur only at t = 2 , t = 3 ,

and t = 5 . Therefore, G t = 0 and G t – 7 = 0 . Also, by the sampling property of the delta
function
– 2t – 2t
–e + 10t – 30 G t – 2 = – e + 10t – 30 t=2
G t – 2 | – 10G t – 2
– 20t + 80 G t – 3 = – 20t + 80 t=3

G t – 3 = 20G t – 3
20t – 120 G t – 5 = 20t – 120 t=5

G t – 5 = – 20 G t – 5
and with these simplifications (1) above reduces to

– 2t – 2t
dv e dt = – 2e u 0 t + 2e u 0 t – 2 + 10u 0 t – 2 – 10G t – 2
– 20u 0 t – 3 + 20G t – 3 + 20u 0 t – 5 – 20G t – 5 – 10u 0 t – 7
– 2t
= – 2e > u 0 t – u 0 t – 2 @ – 10G t – 2 + 10 > u 0 t – 2 – u 0 t – 3 @ + 20G t – 3
– 10 > u 0 t – 3 – u 0 t – 5 @ – 20G t – 5 + 10 > u 0 t – 5 – u 0 t – 7 @
The waveform for dv e dt is shown below.

dv e dt V e s
20 G t – 3
20
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t s
– 10
– 10G t – 2
– 20
– 2t – 20 G t – 5
– 2e

NOTES


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Chapter 1

1.1 Signals Described in Math Form

Figure 1.1. A switched network with open terminals.

Combining (1.1) and (1.2) into a single relationship, we get

We can express (1.3) by the waveform shown in Figure 1.2.

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition 1-1

Figure 1.2. Waveform for v out as defined in relation (1.3)

1.2 The Unit Step Function u 0 t

A well-known discontinuous function is the unit step function u 0 t * that is defined as

It is also represented by the waveform of Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3. Waveform for u 0 t

Figure 1.4. Waveform for u 0 t – t 0

1-2 Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

If the unit step function changes abruptly from 0 to 1 at t = – t 0 , it is denoted as u 0 t + t 0 . Its

Figure 1.5. Waveform for u 0 t + t 0

Figure 1.6. Network for Example 1.1

and the waveform is shown in Figure 1.7.

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition 1-3

Figure 1.7. Waveform for Example 1.1

Figure 1.8. Other forms of the unit step function

1-4 Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Figure 1.10. Square waveform for Example 1.2

Line segment ~ has height – A , starts at t = 3T , and terminates at t = 4T . It is expressed as

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition 1-5

Combining like terms, we get

Figure 1.11. Symmetric rectangular pulse for Example 1.3

i t = Au 0 § t + --- · – Au 0 § t – --- · = A u 0 § t + --- · – u 0 § t – --- ·

Figure 1.12. Symmetric triangular waveform for Example 1.4

1-6 Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Figure 1.13. Equations for the linear segments of Figure 1.12

and for line segment |,

Combining (1.15) and (1.16), we get

Figure 1.14. Waveform for Example 1.5.

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition 1-7

Figure 1.15. Equations for the linear segments of Figure 1.14

Multiplying the values in parentheses by the values in the brackets, we get

and combining terms inside the brackets, we get

Figure 1.16. Network for Example 1.6

1-8 Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Express the capacitor voltage v C t as a function of the unit step.

where W is a dummy variable.

Since the switch closes at t = 0 , we can express the current i C t as

and assuming that v C t = 0 for t  0 , we can write (1.19) as

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition 1-9

1.3 The Unit Ramp Function u 1 t

The unit ramp function, denoted as u 1 t , is defined as

where W is a dummy variable.

Figure 1.18. Area under the unit step function from – f to t

Since u 1 t is the integral of u 0 t , then u 0 t must be the derivative of u 1 t , i.e.,

1-10 Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

Figure 1.19. Network for Example 1.7

and since the switch closes at t = 0 ,

But, as we know, u 0 t is constant ( 0 or 1 ) for all time except at t = 0 where it is discontinuous.

Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition 1-11

1.4 The Delta Function G t

G t = 0 for all t z 0 (1.34)

Figure 1.20. Representation of the unit step as a limit.

1.5 Sampling Property of the Delta Function G t

1-12 Signals and Systems with MATLAB Applications, Second Edition

³–f f W G W dW = ³–f f 0 G W dW + ³–f > f W – f 0 @G W dW (1.39)

³–f f W G W dW = f 0 ³–f G W dW (1.41)

Differentiating both sides of (1.41), and replacing W with t , we get

and assuming that v C t = 0 for t 0 , we can write (1.19) as

and letting a o – f and b o f for any D f , we get