BIOLOGY MIDTERM REVIEWER

Biotechnology Application of
technology to Biology
Careers in Biology
- Computer analysts and web designers Genetics Study of heredity and
variation
- Lawyers and legal experts
- Medico-legal cases and crime investigators Evolution Theory that organisms
- Public servants change over time with
- Insurance companies (humane genome respect to their
project) environment
- Human resource managers
Ecology Study of biotic and
- Mass media industry
abiotic factors and their
interactions with each
Fields of Study other

Taxonomy DINC (describing,

BRANCH DEFINITION identifying, naming,
classifying)
Zoology Study of animals (land) *under systematics
Ichthyology Study of fish Phylogeny Study of genetic trees,
or history and
Herpetology Study of reptiles and
relationship between
amphibians
organisms
Ornithology Study of birds *under systematics

Entomology Study of insects Morphology Study of an organism

relative to another
Botany Study of​ ​plants (land) organism, comparison
of organisms
Bacteriology Study of bacteria
Anatomy Study of body parts
Virology Study of viruses
Physiology Study of body functions
Mycology Study of fungi
Cardiobiology Study of the human
Phycology Study of algae or heart
plant-like protists
Neurobiology Study of the nervous
Protozoology Study of protozoans or system
animal-like protists
Parasitology Study of parasites
Cell Biology (Cytology) Study of what’s inside
the cell and their Microbiology Study of organisms
interactions
Exobiology Study of the possibility
Molecular Biology Study of biomolecules of extraterrestrial life
that make up an
organism Histology Study of tissues
(biomolecules:
Paleontology Study of fossil records
carbohydrates,
proteins, lipids,
nucleotides)
Filipino Scientists
Fe Del Mundo
- Pediatrician
- First pediatric hospital in the PH
- Bamboo incubator and jaundice-relieving
device
- Worked with infectious diseases caused by
microorganisms (Microbiology)
Pedro Escuro
- Rice Breeding (Genetics)
- Isolation of 9 rice varieties that were
eventually commercially released
- Varieties were resistant to pests and
harmful conditions
Angel Alcala
- Marine Ecology
- Invented artificial coral reefs that helped
preserve the PH’s aquatic ecosystems
Dolores Ramirez
- Plant Breeding (Genetics)
- Genetics of various Philippine products
(rice, coconuts, banana, sugarcane, etc.)
- Macapuno (mutation of buko seed)
Dioscoro Umali
- Father of PH Plant Breeding (Genetics)
- Improvements of rice, corn, and other
economic plants
- Mango hero (made mangoes available all
year around)
Jose Velasco
- Plant Physiology
- Elon-elon variety flowered during short days
when there was less than 12 hours of light
- Discovered the cause of cadang-cadang, an
element toxic to the plant
Carmen Velasquez
- Microbiology and Parasitology
- Discovered the presence of parasites in PH
food fishes
Gregorio Velasquez
- Phycology
- Intensive study and collection of the PH
blue-green algal species
Clara Lim-Sylianco
- Biochemistry
- Pioneered the research on carcinogenic
agents found in food, drugs, insecticides,
and environmental pollutants
- First to report on anti-cancer agents found
in some 50 PH plants including ampalaya,
malunggay, and coconut oil
Advancements in Biology
Genetic Engineering and Cloning
- entails obtaining a DNA sample from a
subject and creating an exact replica of it
using lab techniques
- Advantages: better harvests, most desirable
traits guaranteed
- Disadvantages: resistance to diseases is
the same (cloning), ethical concerns for
human GMOs
In-Vitro Fertilization
- involves getting a sperm and egg cell and
fertilizing them in a test tube; after, the
fertilized egg is put back in the mother’s
womb
- Advantages: allows couples who have
difficulty conceiving to conceive
- Disadvantages: expensive, not 100%
guaranteed, painful for the female, possible
complications
Chemotherapy
- form of cancer treatment which slows down
the growth of cancer cells; affects the entire
 body and has several side effects; radiation
that targets highly-mutative cells
- Advantages: inhibits the growth of cancer
cells
- Disadvantages: kills healthy cells as well;
side effects such as nausea, hair loss, etc.,
late side effects (varying on the kind of
chemotherapy drug) like infertility, heart
problems, etc

Plastic Surgery
- surgical specialty involving the restoration,
reconstruction, or alteration of the human
body
- Advantages: attainment of desired features,
correction/reconstruction of parts damaged
by health issues
- Disadvantages: cost, risks and possible
complications such as infections and
implant leakage

Vaccines
- preventive drugs; ​administration of antigenic
material to stimulate an individual's immune
system to develop adaptive immunity to a
pathogen
- Advantages: prevents the spread of
diseases Types of Microscopes
- Disadvantages: not 100% guaranteed, mild
Compound Microscope
reactions to the vaccine, natural immunity
- Image is inverted
(ex: contracting chicken pox to develop - Movement is opposite
antibodies) > artificial immunity (vaccines) - LPO, HPO, and Oil Immersion Objectives

Stereomicroscope
CRISPR-Cas9
- 3D, colored image
- Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short
- Follows the movement of the specimen
Palindromic Repeats - Dissecting microscope
- Guide RNA partners with original DNA then
attracts Cas9, which cuts the DNA; gene is
then inserted
 Higher Magnification, Lower FOV, Lower Light,
Lower Working Distance

Total Magnification = eyepiece x objective

T otal M agnif ication = (eyepiece)(objective)
LP O M ag
H P O F OV = ( HP O M ag ) (LP O F OV )

Phase Contrast Microscope

Estimate Specimen Size = 1/N x HPO FOV; where
- Converts phase shifts in light passing
N is the no. of cells that can fit in the FOV
through a transparent specimen to
brightness changes in the image
1 mm = 1 micrometer
- Used for live organisms

Scanning Electron Microscope Parts of a Microscope

- Sends a beam of electrons across the
specimen from left to right Mechanical - used to support and adjust the parts
- Beam of electrons bounces in all directions
- 3D image, black and white Magnifying - used to enlarge specimen
- 100,000x - 200,000x
Illuminating - used to provide light
Transmission Electron Microscope
- Beam of electrons is absorbed through the
specimen
- Creates a clear, detailed image on a TV-like
screen
- 2D, black and white
- 200,000x - 500,000x

Measurements in Microscopy

Resolution
- Shortest distance between 2 points on a
specimen that can still be observed as
separate entities
Laboratory Equipment
Magnification
- Process of enlarging something in
Compound Microscope- magnifies microscopic
appearance, NOT in physical size
organisms or specimen

Field of Vision
Stereomicroscope - used to magnify large
- Diameter of the circle of light seen through
specimen
the eyepiece

Coverslip/Glass Slide- container for the specimen

Working Distance
to be viewed under the microscope
- Distance between objectives and stage

Petri Dish - a container for growing microorganisms

and cells
Test Tube - a container for small samples under Petrol,
observation Flammable Catches Kerosene,
fire easily Alcohol,
Hydrogen
Test Tube Rack - a stand where test tubes are
placed for observation
Radioactive
Radioactiv Emits carbon,
Alcohol Lamp - used for heating samples and e radiation Uranium
substances

Wire Loop - used to transfer microorganisms Produces

(inoculate) from one medium to another vapors or
fumes
Irritant which Phenol,
Wire Needle - used to transfer microorganisms irritate the Chloroform
eyes, nose,
(stab inoculate) from one medium to another and throat

Graduated Cylinder - used to measure volume of

liquids Eats away Sulfuric Acid,
other Potassium
Corrosive substances Hydroxide,
Pasteur Pipette - used to transfer small amounts of NaOH Pellets
liquid

Dissecting Pan - used as a container to fix Poses a

Hazardous potential Carcinogens,
specimen for dissection to the threat to Chlorofluorocar
Environme the bons (CFC),
nt environmen batteries
Dissecting Scissors - used to cut parts of specimen t
during dissection
A
poisonous Medical Waste,
Scalpel - used to slice parts of the specimen during and Microorganisms
dissection Biohazard infectious , Urine, Blood
substance

Digital Balance - used to measure the mass of

substances Laboratory Techniques
Hazard Symbols Wet Mount and Dry Mount of Specimen
- In order to view some specimen under the
Symbol Name Definition Examples microscope, they must be prepared on a
slide with a liquid medium (to retain
Reacts structural integrity)
violently Flash powder,
Explosive when propane, gas Centrifugation
heated or
struck - Used to separate solid from liquid
components like blood samples
Harmful Methanol, - Produces a precipitate (sinks) and a
even in Cyanide, supernatal
Toxic small Carbon
doses Monoxide,
Chlorine
Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Used to create copies of DNA for molecular Values
screening
- Belong to an individual; different set of
values for different people
Agarose Gel Electrophoresis
- Used to separate fragments of DNA and - Basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or
protein molecules motivate attitudes or actions
- DNA (negative charge) is charged and - Influenced by culture and upbringing
separated
- Rules by which we make decisions and
prioritize
Aseptic Technique and Culturing Bacteria
- Sterile technique used in handling cultures
of growth of microorganisms Bioethics
- Used to isolate microorganisms - Field that explores challenging moral issues
in healthcare and the environment
Dissection and Microdissection
- Helps us make decisions about how best to
- Dismembering of a deceased animal or
plant to study its anatomical structure use new scientific knowledge
- To examine cells and microorganisms - Bioethical questions arise because of our
social responsibility towards others and our
Autoclaving
community
- Sterilization of materials used in the
- Best course of action is always to save lives
laboratory with intense heat
- Kill microorganisms - Never deliberately take a life with no moral
- 400 psi for 15 minutes and bioethical basis as all life forms have
the right to live
Bioethics
History of Bioethics
Ethics
- Old medical practices cannot moderate the
- Deals with concepts of right and wrong
spectacular advances of biology and
- Standards of how people ought to act; study
medicine
of morals
- Examples
- Framework or basis to interpret what is right
1. Genetic advances
and wrong
2. The concept of death
- Moral compass
3. Sustaining the life of the very sick
- Fixed and unchanging
4. Abortion
5. Medical costs
Morals
6. Evolving society: government, culture,
- Manners and character
religion
- Social responsibility
- Relative to time and place
- Depends on the values of the community
- Standards used to distinguish what is right
and wrong (set by society)
Four Principles of Bioethics
Autonomy
- Respect for persons and their natural worth
as an individual
- Acknowledges the person’s right to make
his or her own decision
- Animals do not have autonomy
- Parents or the closest relatives decide for
minors and the mentally ill
Beneficence
- Maximize the benefits of technological
advancements
- Refers to when we ask what can make the
most good and least harm
- Preventing harm, removing harm, or
improving the situation
- Can also pertain to defending the rights of
others, rescuing those in danger and
helping individuals with disabilities
Non-Maleficence
- Do NOT be the direct source of harm
- Minimize harm
Justice
- Considers how we can treat people fairly
and equally
- Sharing of resources, risks, and costs
according to what is due to each person
- Prioritize the pregnant, the children and the
elderly in that order
Origin of Life
- Extra-terrestrial origin
● Prehistoric earth cannot make life on
its own
● Uray - Miller experiment: amino
acids can be obtained but not DNA
- Panspermia
● “Seed of everything” ;
pan(all)sperm(seed)ia
● Asteroid containing “ingredients of
life” struck the earth
- Divine creation
- Abiogenesis
● Life started from no life;
a(non)bio(life)genesis(start)
Manifestations of Life
1) All life forms must be composed of cells
- Basic unit of life
- Building blocks of living things
- Organisms vary in terms of the number of
cells (unicellular and multicellular)
- Prokaryotic cells: genetic material is NOT
enclosed in a membrane
- Eukaryotic cells: genetic material is
enclosed in a membrane
- All cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and a
cell membrane
- Viruses are not living things (NOT a cell)
- Organisms are made up of different types of
cells based on their function
2) There are levels of organization in life/Living
things are organized.
- Atom → Molecule → Macromolecule →
Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ →
Organ System → Organism → Population
→ Community → Ecosystem → Biome →
Biosphere
3) Life forms metabolize/obtain and use energy
- Metabolism: sum of all chemical activities of
the organism
 ● Catabolism: breaking down to make - Prevents extinction of a species
more simple
● Anabolism: combining to make more 9) Life forms contain DNA
complex - DNA = genetic material
- Metabolics: study of metabolism - Molecular blueprint of life
- Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): molecular - Gives us our identity
unit of currency - DNA → mRNA → Proteins
- Autotrophs vs. Heterotrophs
● Autotrophs can make their own food
Biomolecules
Nutrient Test 
4) Life forms respond to stimuli
- Stimuli: everything that can be perceived by Tests Nutrient Positive
Tested Color Change
our senses
- Individual and immediate response Biuret Protein Purple or
Violet
5) Life forms grow and develop Lugol’s Starch Dark Blue to
- Every organisms goes through a particular Black
pattern of growth Benedict’s Glucose Yellow to
- Organisms undergo stages of growth in Orange
their life cycle
Indophenol Vitamin C Light Brown
- Metamorphosis: Changes happening during
growth (puberty) Silver Nitrate Chlorides White
Precipitate
- Grow: increase in size
- Develop: change in function Brown Paper Lipids Grease Stain

6) Life forms reproduce Organic Compounds
- Produce offspring
- Parents pass on their characteristics to their
offspring during reproduction
- Sexually: 2 parents, 2 gametes, genetic
variation
- Asexually: exact copy, no genetic variation
- Compounds that contain both carbon and
hydrogen (hydrocarbons)
- Carbon atoms covalently bonded to one
another
- Inorganic: Carbon not bonded to another
carbon or hydrogen
- Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic
acids (Biomolecules)

7) Life forms maintain homeostasis

Organic Molecules & Chemical Bonds
- Homeostasis: internal balance
Polymers Monomers Chemical
Bonds
8) Life forms can adapt to their environment Carbohydrates Monosaccharide Glycosidic
- Change overtime as means of adapting to
Proteins Amino Acids Peptide
the changing environment
Lipids Fatty Acids & Ester
- Evolution: genetic variation, traits passed on
 Glycerol
Nucleic Acids Nucleotides Phosphodiester
Formation of Polymers
- Polymerization: Dehydration Synthesis
(Releases H2O)
Breaking-down of Polymers
- Hydrolysis Reaction (Adds H2O to break the
bond)
*hydrolysis vs. hydration
- hydrolysis occurs at the molecular level
while hydration occurs at the macro-level
Nature and Structure (Sir Cheo)
Organic vs. Inorganic Compounds
- Organic: composed of carbons structured in
chains or rings covalently bonded to
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
- Carbon atoms covalently bonded to one
another
- Inorganic: small and simple structure,
usually does not contain carbons and long
carbon chains
- Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic
acids (Biomolecules)
Polymers
- Long molecules made of similar repeating
monomers
- Ex. nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates
- Lipids are not polymers because they DO
NOT have a monomer
Biomolecules can be broken apart (catabolism) or
be built (anabolism)
4 Biomolecules (Dela paz)
Carbohydrates
- Main source of energy for cell activities
(starch & sugar)
- Made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen
- Long chains of monosaccharides (sugar
molecules) bonded together form
polysaccharides
- Important polysaccharides found in living
things are starch & glucose
- Monomers
- The simple sugars
- Glucose (blood sugar) is used as the
main energy source in the body
- Fructose is a sugar found in honey
or fruits
- Galactose is a sugar found in milk
and yogurt
- Disaccharide - two sugar monomers formed
through dehydration synthesis
- Sucrose (common table sugar) =
glucose + fructose
- Lactose (major sugar found in milk)
= glucose + galactose
- Maltose (product of starch digestion)
= glucose + glucose
- Polymers
- The complex carbohydrates
- Starch & cellulose are long chains of
simple sugars
- Starch - found in corn
- Cellulose - found in plant leaves &
tree trunks (indigestible)
- Glycogen - found in animal liver
- Simple sugars are bonded together through
Glycosidic Bonds
 - Ex. starch is composed of glucose
molecules bonded together through
glycosidic bonds
- Foods rich in carbohydrates
- Starchy Food: Bread, Cereals,
Pasta, Rice, Potatoes, Beans,
Chestnuts
Lipids
- Include fats and oils
- Fats are solid in room temperature
- Oils are liquid in room temperature
- In living organisms, lipids form part of the
structure of cell membranes (phospholipid
bilayer)
- Extra food that is not immediately needed
as a source of energy is changed to fat and
stored
- Lipids are a source of stored energy in living
organisms
- Also contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- The monomers of lipids are fatty acids and
glycerol
- Formed through the dehydration synthesis
of fatty acids and glycerol
- Saturated fatty acids (single bonds)
- Solid due to the single bond
- Unsaturated fatty acids (double bonds)
- Liquid due to the double covalent
bond
- Ester Linkage - connects the glycerol chain
to the fatty acid chains
- Cholesterol - constituent of membranes and
the source of steroid hormones
- Lipids in Biological Membranes
(Phospholipids)
- hydrophilic heads (polar) and
hydrophobic tails (nonpolar) create a
phospholipid bilayer
- Triglyceride
- Long term energy storage
- The energy stored will be used when
the immediate source is depleted
Nucleic Acids
- Very large molecules made up of carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
- The simplest unit or building block of nucleic
acids is the nucleotide
- Nucleotides are composed of a sugar
molecule, a nitrogen base, and a phosphate
group
- Phosphodiester Bond
- 5’ to 3’
- Two sugar molecules connected by
the phosphate group
- The phosphate group in a nucleotide
bonds with the 5th carbon of the first
sugar molecule
- The phosphate group then bonds
with the 3rd carbon of the second
sugar molecule
- Flow of biological information
DNA -> mRNA -> protein
Proteins
- Form important cell products such as
enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and
hemoglobin
- Pay an important role in cell repair and
growth
- Made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen
4 Biomolecules (Sir Cheo)
Carbohydrates
- Organic compound composed of C, H & O
in a 1:2:1 ratio (except for the majority of
polysaccharides)
- Function: main source of energy for all living
things
- Building block: monosaccharide
- Terms:
Monosaccharide: glucose, galactose
fructose
Disaccharide: sucrose (gl + f), lactose (gl +
ga), maltose (gl + gl)
Polysaccharide: starch (energy for plants),
glycogen (energy for animals), cellulose
(makes up cell walls)
- Linked by glycosidic bonds
- Sugars: produced by plants during
photosynthesis and are the primary sources
of enerygy for most organisms
 - Used in cell walls of plants and other
organisms (when sugars are placed
together into complex carbs like cellulose,
they become strong and rigid)
Lipids
- Made up of a glycerol molecule attached to
three fatty acids
- Organic compound made up of C, H, & O,
but not in any fixed ratio
- Function: energy utilization, hormone
regulation, protection
- Building block: fatty acid
- Triglyceride = 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids
linked by ester bond
- Lipids contain MORE ENERGY than
carbohydrates
- Fatty Acids
● Saturated: all C atoms are joined by
single bonds (solid fats)
● Unsaturated: C chain contain double
or triple bonds (oils)
- Types of Lipids
● Fats from animals(Saturated)
● Oils from plants (Unsaturated)
● Phospholipid: hydrophilic, polar
heads with hydrophobic, nonpolar
tails (has a kink) that make up the
phospholipid bilayer of a cell
membrane
● Steroids: has effect on emotions (ex.
testosterone, Vitamin D, cholesterol
● Carotenoids
Proteins
- Made up of amino acids (peptides)
- Also known as polypeptides
- Most diverse group of biomolecules,
perform the largest variety of functions
- Building block: amino acid
- Linked by peptide bond
- Composition of Monomer: amino group,
hydroxyl group, side chain (R-group)
- Number of side chains: each of the 20
unique amino acids corresponds to a
different side chain (20 side chains)
- Functions: transport molecules through
membranes, attack germs, carry oxygen
through blood, send signals to body
- Order of amino acids give the protein its
shape and in turn determines its function
- Types based on structure: primary,
secondary, tertiary, quaternary
● Quaternary proteins
○ Hemoglobin: transports
oxygen and iron in the blood
stream
○ Myoglobin: transports oxygen
and iron in the muscle
Nucleic Acids
- Main functions: heredity, protein synthesis,
energy (ex. Adenosine triphosphate or ATP)
- Building block: Nucleotide
- Linked by phosphodiester bond (phosphate
to sugar)
- Structure: phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar
(pentose), nitrogenous base
- Nitrogenous bases (linked by hydrogen
bonds):
● Purines (double ring): Adenine and
Guanine
● Pyrimidines (single ring): Cytosine,
Thymine, Uracil
- Types of pentose in nucleotide
● deoxyribose (deoxyribonucleic acid
or DNA)
● Ribose (ribonucleic acid or RNA)