CHAPTER 3

SURVEY OF RELAlED LITERATURE

The i n f l u e n c e o f c o u n s e l l i n y o r a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t h ~ bs? e n t h e

subject matter of research s t u d i e s for long a l l over t h e w~~rld. A

large number o f t h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n on u n d e r a c h i e v e r s e:;pxielly

on the r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e non-cognitive factors; ant1 a-ad~lmic

achievement. As r e g a r d s t h e s t u d i e s on c o u n s e l l i n g t h t ? l o w - a ~ : h i e \ l ~ , r s ,

the r e s e a r c h e r , i n s p i t e o f a w i d e s e a r c h , c o u l d come a c r o s s ~nl.) a

few. S i n c e some o f t h e l o w - a c h i e v e r s a r e i d e ~ t i f i e da s u n d e ~ a c h i e v ~ r s ,

s t u d i e s on u n d e r a c h i e v e r s are a l s o ~ x a m i n e d .

In t h i s chapter a g e n e r a l and r a p i d survey o f t h e work 311.6.ady

done exploring the complex factors involved in guicla~ic? and

c o u n s e l l i n g i s made. T h i s p r o v i d e s t h e background and c o n t ~ x l : t o the

present study. An a t t e m p t i s made t o g a t h e r up and c l a ~ i ' y 1,heir

insights to enable further scrutiry i n t h e area. I\ conlp::eieris.ive

picture of all the problems i d e r t i f i e d in these studje:; is an

imperative f o r f u r t h e r research.

3.1.0. Guidance and counselling

This sectlon g i v e s q u i t e a ncmber o f g u i d a n c e end c o ~ ~ n ; e l i. nl g

programmes which a r e c o n d u c t e d i n view o f h e l p i n g t h e lov, acadr:mic

achievers overcome their diffic~lties. They are reF,ort?d in

considerable details. The f o c u s i s on t h e e f f e c t of (311idsnce and

c o u n s e l l i n g on t h e l o w - a c h i e v e r s .

3.1.1. The e f f e c t o f g u i d a n c e a n d c o u n s e l l i n g o n l o w - a o h i e b e r s

Marjorie ~ u n k e r l studied the effect of an extendec. College

counselling programme upon low-achieving Hispanic: twelfth grade

students in t h r e e Los A n g e l e s U n i f i e d Sctiool D i s t r i c t High S c h ~ ~ o l s .

She found out that an extended or special college co~nsellinq

treatment given t o a p o p u l a t i o n of a c a d e n ~ i c a l l y low achieving 12th

g r a d e H i s p a n i c student:^ c a n i n f l u e n c e t h e i r d e c i s i o n t o co:?tirlue t h e i r

e d u c a t i o n beyond t h e 1 2 t P g r a d e .

. Mary Lee ~ i l l i a m s "compared t h e e f f e c t s o f t u t o r i n g c ~ ~ m b i n ewd i t h

counselling on a c h i e v e m e n t , s e l f - e s t e e m , n i o t i v a t i o n and a t t i t u d e ; of

loth g r a d e s i n 'Remedial Mathematics C l a s r t e s ' and found o ~ t th a t the

t u t o r i n g combined w i t h c o u n s e l l i n g would be more e f f e c t i v e t h a n Aass

tutoring alone. Her c o n c l u s i o n s was t h a t s t u d e n t s c a n be ir~flusnced

to increase t h e i r academic achievement through counse.lling. More

s p e c i f i c and d i r e c t e d e f f o r t s were recommended f o c u s s i n g 111 i n d i v i d u a l

in need o f h i g h e r s e l f ' - e s t e e m , g r - a t e r mof:ivation and mote positike

attitudes.

0. A . 5chmieding3 u n d e r t o o k an i n v e s t : ? g a t i o n f o r d e t e r n i r t i n q the

e f f i c i e n c y o f c o u n s e l l i n g and g u i d a n c e p r o c e d u r e s w i t h f a i l i n ! ] Junior

h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s and found o u t t h a t t h e c o u n s e l l i n g r e s t N e d i n :
1. Higher academic achievement arlong f a i l i n g s t u d e r ~ t sas deterrained

by semester grade p o i n t averaqe.

2. Counselling was equally c?ffective in improvirl~g acs~jemic

achievement among s t u d e n t s " a i l i n g i n one academic: ccursa as

c o n t r a s t e d w i t h those f a i l i n g i n more than one.

3. The number o f problems r e p o r t e d by t h e c o u n s e l l e d grrldp was less

than those by t h e uncounselled group.

4
Dosajh N. I. and tsharma e x ~ l o r e dt h e impact of g ~ i t l a n c ea r d

c o u n s e l l i n g o n academic achievement. What was c o n s p i c u o u i bout this

study i s t h a t i t i n v o l v e d o n l y a s m a l l nunber o f 46 s t u d e n t s b u t the

programme was intense with a variety o' activities, namt:ly, the

e x p e r i m e n t a l group was g i v e n c o n s t a n t c a r e e r t a l k s , c a r e e r f : x l ~ i t i t i o r i ,

career v i s i t s and i n t e n s i v e c o u n s e l l i n g . Changes i n t.he ach:.e./enient o f

e x p e r i m e n t a l group was a s q r i b e d t o c o u n s e l l i n g and guidance p:ogrammf?.

5
Ann Carns and M i c h a e l Carns design-d and presented guidance

study s k i l l s approach t o improve scademic achievement: i n intsrmc!dia:e

students by i n c r e a s i n g s e l f - e f f i c a c y and awareness of n~e:a=ogr~iti'~e

s k i l l s , l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s and 1c:arning s t y l e i n f o r m a t i o r i . Fir~dinqs

from 1118 f o u r t h g r a d e r s showed t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s malie imllr~vemc?rit i n

a l l C a l i f o r n i a Test o f B a s i c s k i l l s sub t e s t s g r e a t e r thari # h a t would

be expected from t h e elapsed t i m e . What i s s p e c i a l about t h i s study

is that the achievement prob11:m was tackled using ;he illdirect

approach. Here t h e c o u n s e l l o r mirjht have f o l l o w e d t h e B~?ha~iou:ists'

theory of c o u n s e l l i r i g which say!; t h a t any change :In th? precdence

w i l l r e s u l t i n changes i n t h e consequenct:. I n other w o r k , in-.rease

in the study s k i l l s r e s u l t e d i n increase in acaden~ic achi~?verrent.

Guidance and counselling was t h e stimuLating fact.or. In short,

c h a n g e s w e r e b r o u g h t a b o u t m a i n l y by c h a n g i ~ i gt h e l e a r n i n g mt:tliocls ant1

learning style.

The comprehensive g u i d a n c e and c o u n s e l l i n g programme (CGCFI--a

conceptual framework for the delivery of guidance and c~)uisellinq

s e r v i c e s f o r a l l s t u d e n t s i n g r a d e s K-12 k n ~ w na s CGCF' wa: orgarised

for the Montgomery county (Mary L a n d ) 3ublic s c h o o l s (IICJS)

t in

R o c k v i l l e s , Mary Land. The programme was d e v e l o p m e n t a l i n n a t ~ r e a n d

attempted to integrate the various facts of student d~v~?l~prnent-.-

intellectual, s o c i a l , p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l . The CGCP f'o~:usserl on

student development i n t h r e e major a r e a s : (1) Academic a1:hievc:rnen-t

(2) Career a n d e d u c a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g (3) Personal and social

development as a st.udent. The c o u n s e l l o r ' s r o l e i n t b ~ e ~CGCP was

defined in terms of' the follorring components: group gui~jance,

individual planning, responsive counselling services anj !;c:hool

programme report. Actual time allocations were detmrnined by

individual school needs. The e x p e c t e d s t u d e n t o u t c o m e s rrt:r: dei'ined

as t h e improvement o f t h e a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t o f a l l s t . ~ ~ d e n t s ,t h e

implementing of a s p e c i a l e m p h a s i s programme f o r improvcd academic

performance a n d e x t r a - c u r r i c u l a r p a r t i c i p ~ t i o no f m j i o r i t . : ~ s t u d t : n t l s

abilities to become i n d e p e n d e n t . e a r n e r s , r e s p o n s i b l e c:rtizens and

e f f e c t i v e g r o u p members. What was r e m a r k a t ~ l ea b o u t t . h i s [).:ogramn~: is

t h a t t h e p r i o r i t i e s a n d g o a l s o f t h e CGCP r 8 e r e a s h a r e d r a ~ i p o r s i b i l i t y

of counsellors, teachers, adminis:rators, s t u d e n t s and p a r e n t s . The

o u t c o m e s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o s i t i , / e .
 Marsh H. and R i c h a r d s G.' d e s i g n e d arl o u t w a r d sound b~idging

c o u r s e , which was a s i x - w e e k r e s i d e n ~ i a lproqramme t o i m p r o v - a r : a d e n i c

achievement and self-concepts i n low-achieving high scho2l malzs.

D u r i n g 1980-1984, f i v e c : o u t s e s w e r e c o n d u c t e d f o r s i x t y - s i x k s t r a l i a n

high school males. Most o f them w e r s n i n t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s , : t o s e n on

the basis o f p o o r a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e . Afl:er the f i r s t twc years,

s t a n d a r d i z e d m a t h e m a t i c s a n d r e a d i n g t e s t s , t:he s e l f - e s t e e m i r s t : r u m e n t

(SEI) and self-description, questionnaire (SDO) were admjn~stered

before, d u r i n g and a f t e r e a c h c o u r s e . The programme was f o u n d t o be

e f f e c t i v e i n improving academic achievement and academic s e l f - c o n c e p t .

8
The s c h o o l w i t h i n ;I s c h o o l (SWAS) progr.3mme was clesignetl -20 help

low-achievers improve t h e i r academic achiegement. This evaluation

examined f i v e programme a s p e c t s : ( 1 ) I m p l e m e i t a t i o n , ( 2 ) Ach..e/eni~nt,

(3) Self-concept, ( 4 ) P e r c e p t i o n s c f s t u d e n t s , t e a c h e r s , cco::dinat o r s

and p r i n c i p a l s , and ( 5 ) S t u d e n t a t t e n d a n c e . S t u d e n t - t e a m 1ea::ning a n d

individual instruction were of particular interest for t.his

evaluation. The r e s u l t s showed t h a t . , f o r t h e most p a r t , st11dl:nt.s were

attentive to l e a r n i n s a c t i v i t i e s and d i s c i p l i n e i n t ~ : r r u p t . i ~ n s were

low. The SWAS s t u d e n t s h a d h i g h e r s c o r e s t h a n t h e c o m p a r i s t l n s t u ~ j t ! n t s

on t h e t e s t s o f a c h i e v e m e n t and p r o f i c i e n c y r e a d i n g t e s t . It he..ped

t h e s t u d e n t s d e v e l o p a b e t t e r o u t l o c ~ kon t h e l e a r n i n g proce:js a n d n a k e

some p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s o v e r c o m i n g t h e i r acac:emic defi-iencies. What

was particularly posrtive about t h e SWA: programme is ttat the

students l i k e d t h e pel-sonal a t t e n t t o n t h a t t h e y r e c e i v e d froni their

teachers. T h i s was p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f t h e s m a l l c l a s s sire. lhis

programme would have been s t i l l more e f f ' e c t i v e i f t h e ;tuclent; had

i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e l l i n g and person.31 a s s e s s m e n t s o f t h e i r ; t r ~ ! n g t i sand

weaknesses.

9
Mary L. F.'s report describes a model academic in~prodement

programme for 18 T h i r d G r a d e r s w i t h low-.achievement. Iata from a

q u e s t i o n n a i r e f i l l e d out. by f o u r t e a c h e r s and from o b s e r v a t i c ~ n s 3y t h e

t e a c h e r s r e v e a l e d t h a t s t u d e n t t a r g e t e d f u r t h e programme c e n l o n s t r a t e d

low l e a r n i n g r e a d i n e m s k i l l s , which r e s u l t e d i n l e s s t h a n desirable

behaviour, study s k - ~ l l s , and academic performance. In ord?r to

enhance performance in these areas, a 10-week prj3gramme was

implemented. The programme i n c l u d e d t h e (1) Asaertiv? discipline

programme i n which t e a c h e r s r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g c o n c e r n i n . 3 c l i s c i p l i n e

competence, (2) study-skills enhancement plan, and (3) Ac3defiic

excellence Growth plan which i n c l u d e d t.he ' B r i n g up 1;racies Honor

Roll Programme.' S t u d e n t ' s p r o g r e s s a f t e r 10 weeks was ass,ess?d by

q u e s t i o n n a i r e s F i l l e d o u t by t e a c h e r s . Rc!sults i n d i c a t e d a decreased

number o f b e h a v i o u r problems, i n c r e a s e d l e a r n i n g r e a d i n e s s s l . : i l l s and

improved academic perf'ormance.

Roberta J. and o t h e r s 1 ° r e p o r t e d a Bilingual EHL kfainstream

Instructional Support Programme f o r one hundred and seventy high

school students a t Washington. T h i s was c o n d u c t e d by ~ n eresource

teacher and t h r e e i n s t r u c t i o n a l a s s i s t a n t s . The l a t t e r ~ s s i s t s d in

completing assignments, developing reading and s t ~ c y s<ills,

counselling, o u t r e a c h and t r a n s l a t i n g s e r v i c e s . !jtaff c e\~elopmer~t,

materials development and p a r e i t involvement were a.Lsc important

aspects of t h e programme. The e v d u a t i o n l o o k e d a t b o t h t t e pro3rarr.me

implementation and s t u d e n t outct~mes. The l a t t e r were me~lsur2d b y

examining students' academic success and other indications of

s u c c e s s f u l p r o g r e s s toward g r a d u a t i o n such as attendance r a t ~ , s , grade

point averages, and c r e d i t s toward g r a d u a t i o n . The progczmnle had no

statistically signif.lcant effect i n rai:;ing students' stcindardised

test scores, grades o r a t t e n d a n c r a t e s when compared w.itb l i k e data

for students i n a s i m i l a r b u t unserved c:omparisons grojp. Hodever,

narrative data administration and teacher responses, ar~d other

indicators suggested t h a t t h e programme had a significmt positive

imoact.

11
An i n t e n s i v e c a r e and s c h o o l invo1v~:mentprogramme (1C:;IP) was

conducted in Washington ( D i s t r i c t o f Columbia) to su3plement the

regular e d u c a t i o n a l [programme t o t h e l o w - - a c h i e v i n g atudt:'its i n four

Junior High Schools. The e x p e c t s d s t u d e n t outcomes were to inprcve

grades and attendance. The a c t i v i t i e s c o n s i s t e d o f prov.ijinc1 ac!iderric

support delivering social services to potential ~::JF-c~uts and

improving the school atmosphere. The team was corn~cse!d 3 f a

counsellor, a s o c i a l worker, a psycho1ogi:;t and an e t t e n d w c r ! o f f i c e r .

The results showed t h a t t h e r e 'gas a positive correlnbion b?tween

participation in the extended school services and tl-e academic

achievement and attendance r a t e . The above mentioned re!;?arch studies

and guidance and c o u n s e l l i n g programme:; indicate that they have

enabled t h e l o w - a c h i e v e r s t o dev,?lop b e t t . e r l e a r n i n g pro-es::, t o make

p r o g r e s s i n academic performance, t o e x p e r i e n c e success a i c t.o ced~ce

t h e number o f problems.
 There are othe:? studies which also show that counselll.ng
13
t r e a t m e n t produce p o s i t i v e e f f e c t . For example, 0 . A . Sckm:.eding's

study on counselling and achievement shows that cnurselling is

e f f e c t i v e n o t o n l y i n i m p r o v i n g academic 8chievement o f faj1:ng Juni.or

high school students but a l s o i n reducing t h e number cf problems

reported. Dosajh N. l.14 s t u d y was on t h e i m p a c t o f c n u r s e l l i n g on

personality pattern. The results revealed that coun:,e.ling has

d i r e c t l y changed t h e p e r s o n a l i t y t o w a r d s a p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n . De-K-

Monteith J . and De Wet j.15 i n t h e i r s t u d y on p e r s o n a l i t y and other

characteristics of t h e underachieving g i f t e d p u p i l s emphasized the

value o f g u i d a n c e and c o u n s e l l i n g i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l ar,d remedial

education programme. They examined t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between certain

variables like goals, learning styles, test-anxiety, stress and

academic achievement among t h e p o t e n t i a l l : / drop-out c o l l e g e freshmen.

The r e s u l t r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e above v a r i a b l e s a r e s i g n i f i c a r t ; . ~r e l a t e d

to academic performance and t h a t c o u n s e l l i n g h a s p o s i t i v e effect on

developmental tasks:. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y a r e v e r y useful for

t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s .

We have s o f a r been examining some o f t h e s t u d i e s t h ~ t f o c u s s e d

on t h e p o s i t l v e e f f e c t o f c o u n s e l l i n g . There a r e i n s t a n c e s where t.he

guidance and c o u n s e l l i n g programmes were n o t s u c c e s s f u l i n t h e sense

that they have n o t o b t a i n e d t h e d e s i r e d r e s u l t s . For example, an

eight-week c o u n s e l l i n g s t u d y s k i l l s programme c o n d u c t e d FOI n i n e t y - s i x

low a c h i e v i n g freshmen s t u d e n t s r e v e a l e d : h a t t h e i n t e r v e n t i ~ ~dni d riot

influence either the academic achievement or the 3 e 1 , s : ~ s t a n c ei n

college.
3.1.2. Counselling t h e underachievers

Guidance and c o u ~ ~ s e l l i nhga s been found e f f e c t i v e i n d e s l i q g w i t h

underachievers.

Mercy Abraham's s t u d y on t h e f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o undi:rachis,lement

concludes with the f i n d i n g s t h a t t h e i n c r e a s e of s c o r e s , i n a 'youp,

in their attitude t o w a r d s Engl.ish c a n tse a c h i e v e d t h r ~ ~ u g ka well

d e s i g n e d p r o c e s s o f t e a c h i n g supplemented by g u i d a n c e .

She g i v e s a d e t a i l e d descript:ion o f how much a t e a c h ~ ? rc o u n : j e l l o r

can help the students eliminate their ma1adju:;tment and

underachievement. She o b s e r v e s :

Good t e a c h i ~ n gconducte(J i n a d e m o c r a t i c c;lassroorn climate,

with full understanding of t h e individual ar~tj k i s worth

could be o f very g r e a t tielp i n e s t a b l i s h i n g bet:er l e v e l s of

adjustment. For extreme cases of maladjus:mer~ts, the

location of cases early enough i n t h e i r s c h o o l c a r e e r , and

taking appropriate r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s a s soon 3s the! are

located will go a long way toward effec:inc better

adjustment. Not o n l y c h a t t h e s c h o o l s s h o u l d do anfthing

which will directly i ~ r indirectly lead to adju:?tment

problems, they should ever play a positivs: rol? in

l o c a t i n g , d i a g n o s i n g and t r e a t i r ~ gc a s e s o f rnala~jjustrneilt. A

good team of teacher.; well-versed i n the ~ ~ c i n c . i p l ? os f

guidance and mental adjustment, co-oper,3ting among

themselves c a n p u t i n t o o p e r a t i . o n a programme ~f guijance-

oriented teaching. S i ~ c h a s),stem e x t e n d e d iveI a long

 period of time w i l l n a t u r a l l y l e a d t o t h e el.:.mination of

factors leading to maladjustment. Factors like guilt

feeling, test-anxiety irrational hostility, d3y-dreaming

etc. can be e l i m i n a t e d by a good team of teachers and

guidance w o r k e r s working a s a team. Improved 3djustment,

together with o t h e r p o s i t i v e f a c t o r s , w i l l be O F help in

e s t a b l i s h i n g h i g h e r achievement l e v e l s . Such m e a s u r e s w i l l ,

to a very great extent, help in elimlrrating

underachievement.

It i s a v a l u a b l e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t Mercy Abraham makes a~out. the

p o s s i b i l i t y o f guidarrce-oriented teaching. Such t e a c h e r s a:?e e x p e c t e d

to know t h e main p r i n c i p l e s o f g c i d a n c e and c o u n s e l l i n g . First and

foremost, a guidancc-oriented teacher c r e a t e s a democratic -1a:sroom

climate which i s c o n d u c i v e t o l e a r n i n g , u q d e r s t a n d s the :.njividuals

and accepts them a s p e r s o n s o f worth. The existence o" guidance

o r i e n t e d t e a c h e r s d o e s n o t , however, e x c l u d e t h e n e c e s s i t y o f h a b i n g a

guidance-counsellor ir-I schools. On the contrary, tean work of'

teachers and guidance-counsellors is strongly rec:ommerdnd by the

author herself.

Natalia S. ~ i l s o r i l ' s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t s o f a c l . a s s r a o n guidance

u n i t on s i x t h g r a d e r s ' e x a m i n a t i o n p e r f o r n a n c e . Guidance c o n : s i s t e d o f

s t u d y s k i l l s t r a i n i n g end c o u n s e l l i n g s u p p o r t i n s t r u c t u r e d o ? l e a d e r -

directed format i n group s e t t i n g . Forty-seven

.
failing sixth graders

participated in e i t h e r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l programme or norl-rrestment

control programme. Experimental s t u d e r ~ t s were found to have

s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher examination a,,erages than d i d c o n t r o l s t c d e n t s .

Other s t u d i e s s u c h a s t h o s e of G. D. \layo,19 W . J . P o v e l l a l l j S.

M. ~ o u r a r d , " 5. D. S p i e l b e r g e r e t and W. E. W h i t ~ ? i"

s 'ound

that maladjusted anc a n x i o u s s t u d e n t s perfbrm l e s s ; well thaq the

normally adjusted and happy si:udent,s. They s ~ g g e s t per!jonal

counselling t o a s s i s t . t,he a n x i o u s * u n s t a b l e and m a l a d j u s t e d students

to overcome their personal problems ard to facilitate academic

achievement.

G. L . Kcppers and 5 . W . ~ a ~ l ~ on
n ,t h' e ~o t h e r hand, s t u d i e d t h s

effect of counselling in working with students with xholastir

underachievement and found o u t t h a t c h a n g e s were n o t of 3uffic:ient

magnitude t o f u r n i s h s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r t h e approach f o r rmediation

of under a c h i e v e m e n t problems. Reason f o r t h e low effect of this

programme was that it was c o n d u c t e d a f t e r the class ho~rs. The

students might have resented it. i n w a r d l y if not opcmly. Sucl'l

reactions on the part of t h e students, though insiqr~ificant. in

a p p e a r a n c e , c o u l d have s e v e r e c o n s e q u e n c e s i n its e f f e c t s .

3.1.3. Types o f c ! o u n s e l l i n g

The problem of' academic a c h i f v e m e n t i s a p p r o a c h e d usin11 variou:;

types of counsel1:ing. . The most commonly u s e d are the .in-Ji\,idual

counselling, yroup counsel.li.ng and ecl?ctic counsellit~q. Tht:

24
following s t u d i e s il.l.ustrate t h i s point. 3. R . Callltrun ;~p~~rc~~ohed
the p r o b l e m o f a c a d e n i i c a c h i e v e m e ~ l t i n e i q h t g r a d e s by h o l d i r g :hree

individual c o n f e r e n c e s w i t h a n e x l ~ e r i m e n t ~g lr o u p d u r i n g the 31:hool

year. In these i n t , e r v i e w s , t e s : r e s u l t s were i n t e r p r e ~ e d by the

counsellor and the pupils were encour~iged t o develop plans to

a l l e v i a t e t h e i r underachievement b a s e d on t h e s t u d e n t s ' oSvn a n a l y s e s

of the reasons For t h i s p r o b l e m . The r e s u l t s indicated that the

s c h o o l n a r k s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p were b e t t e r by a statjsti:ally

significant margin. R a t i n g o f p ~ l p i l si n t . e r e s t i n s c h o o l wc~rk a l s o

favoured t h e experimental group. The a u t h o r c o n c l u d e d t h a t s c : h o l a s t i c

underachievement which a p p e a r s t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h complex factors

c o u l d b e s u c c e s s f u l l y d e a l t w i t h obi a n i n d : . v i d u a l i s e d basis.

C a l h o u n ' s c h o i c e o f i n d i v i d u a l c o u n s e L l i n g a p p e a r s t o b e t h e most

appropriate one in the particulx stud:/ because the counsellirtg

s e s s i o n s c o n s i s t e d of t h e c o m m u n i c ~ t i o no f t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i c n o f t e x t s

and the knowledge c ~ ft h e a s s e t s a n d liabilities. Such s..tuations

r e q u i r e p e r s o n a l e n c o u n t e r b e t w e e n t h e c o u ~ i s e l l o ra n d t h e c c u n s e l l e e s .

Group counsell.ing is a n o t h e r a l t e r n i a t i v e . Freeman Phonda and

Couchman 8obZ5 e x a m i n e d t h e i m p a c t o f g r o u p c o u n s e l l i n g OII tht: schocll

performance of 82 c h . i l d r e n o f d i v o r c e d f r m i l i e s . Result:; revealed

that c h i l d r e n i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p showed g r e a t e s t e\.idence c~f

g a i n a n d c h i l d r e n whose p a r e n t s w e r e simultaneously i n v o l v e t l made the

b e s t improvement.

A third a l t e r n a t i v e is t h e combination of both inci\ritlual and

group counselling. Anne winchellZ6 established the Nf?w $tart,'

Programrnc t o a s s i s t s t u d e n t s who b e g a n t h e i r p o s t - s e c : o n d a r y ?ducation

a t c o o p e r a t i n g s e n i o r c o l l e g e s , b u t encountered academic dil'f.iculties

there. The programme o f f e r e d i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p c o u n s e l l i r ~ gt o h e l p

participants overcome p r e v i o u s d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d work towards future

success. A t o t a l o f 8 0 2 s t u d e n t s from 1 0 c o l l e g e s participated in

' N e w S t a r t ' d u r i n g i t s f i r s t 4 y e a r s , w i t h e n r o l l m e n t s grading from 51

i n f a l l 1985 t o 416 i n s p r i n g 1989. E n r o l l r a e n t s were c o n c e n t r a t e d in

three curricula: Liberal Arts, Business Administration, and

Accounting. By the e n d o f s p r i n g 1989, 20.1% o f all 'NEW S t a r t '

s t u d e n t s had g r a d u a t e d from KCC a n d / o r t r a n s f e r r e d t o s e n i o r c o l l e g e s ;

465 were planning t o c o n t i n u e a t KCC a f t e r spring 1989; 22% h a d

d r o p p p e d o r s t o p p e d o u t ; .and 11%h a d b e e n a c a d e m i c a l l y d i s m i s s e d from

KCC. A n o t h e r r e m a r k a b l e t h i n g a b o u t t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d programme was

that no 'New S t a r t ' g r a d u a t e who a p p l i e d t o a senior college hac!

f a i l e d t o b e a d m i t t e d by o n e o f t h e c o l l e g e s o f h i d h e r c h o i c e .

The way t h a t t h e y p l a n o u t t h e p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e p r o , j e c t i s a l s o

v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g a s f a r a s c h o o l c o u n s e l l o r is c o n c e r n e d . Cu~,rently,

prospective students attend a group orientation and academic

advisement session before they enroll, and receive individual

counselling. To s u p p l e m e n t t h e s e s e r v i c e s , 'New Start' staff are

considering adding individual counselling sessions t o t h e ednlisaions

process and are w o r k i n g on t h e f u r t h e r development of z 12-hour

course.

L . L . L i g h t and C. E. ~ l e x a k o s " s t u d i e d t h e e f f e c t o f i n t l i v i d u a l

and g r o u p c o u n s e l l i n g on s t u d e n t s ' s t u d y h a b i t s w i t h t h e xrpose of

helping them t o i m p r o v e t h e i r s t u d ! h a b i t s . S t u d e n t s were assaigneo

to 3 gropus: Group counsellin~], Individual coirnselling anrj No

counselling. W r e n n ' s i n v e n t o r y OF s t u d y k ' a b i t s (WISH) a n d a 20-item

rating s c a l e were a d m i n i s t e r e d bo-h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d at the end

of the counselling. S t u d e n t s ' g r a d e s on p r e - and post.-co~nselling

periods were obtained from the official records of :he s~hool.

Student t e s t f o r c o r r e l a t e d rneasu~:ements z n d a n a l y s e s o f , ~ a r i a n ~ : t ? on

the changes between p r e - and p o s t - c o u n s e l l i n g s c o r e s we::e us2d to

analyse the data. The r e s u t l s i n d i c a t e d i ~ c r e a s ei n s t u d e n t s ' scores

on t h e WISH a n d on t h e q r a d e s i n I l n g l i s h uf t h e coirnsel?~:d 5tudl:nts.

The g r a d e s o f t h e c o u n s e l l e d s t u d e r i t s i n G ~ o m e t r yr e m a i n e d unchanged,

b u t t h o s e o f t h e u n c o u n s e l l e d groul, d e c r e a s e d . D i f f e r e n c e : ; ansong the

t h r e e g r o u p s w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t on t h e WISH s c o r e s , g r a d e s i n Geometry,

a n d r a t i n g b y t h e t e a c h e r s o f Engl.ish a n d Cieornetry.

28
G. L. Marx compared t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f i n d i v i d u a l a c d group

counselling. The c o u n s e l l e e s s e e n i n d i v i d u a l l y made singnificantly

greater grade point i n ~ p r o v e m e n tt h a n t h e c o u n s e l 1 t : s s wen in the

groups. A l s o more o f t h e s t u d n e t s i n t h e c : o u n s e l l e d g r o u p s completed

t h e s e c o n d semester t h a n d i d t h o s e i n t h e c . o n t r o 1 g r o u p .

3.1.4. C o u n s e l l i n g approaches

The three m a i n c o u n s e l l i n g : a p p r o a c h ~ : sa r e the diwctive, the

29
client--centered and e c l e c t i c mezhod. J o h n F . Kremer a ~ i d 0tht.r~

explored the effect of these three c:ounsellin(] str.3te<;ies o n

compliance with one component O F a s t u d y skills prog::3nm~l, gelf-

monitoring and r e p o r t i n g s t u d y t i ~ n ei n 201 s t . u d e n t s . Rewlt: slowed

l l l r ~ t student.:; who c o m p i l e d i n i t i a l l y w i t h t t i e i n s t r u c t o r ' s s c g ~ j e s t i o n c

w ~ ~ more
le l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e t o selF-lnonito? t h a n s t u d e n t s to faile?

111 comply with i n i t i a l l y . T h i s snows t h a l . e c l e c t i c method 1.s nore

~ ~ l f e c t i vt l he: ~ r l c l i e n t - c ~ ? n t e r e do r d i r e c t i v e methods irl the iense that

I l ~ c , r e was :ictlve p a r t i c i p a t i o n on t h e pa1.t o f the couniellee and

~ ! ; : i ~ s t ; l n or1
c c ttir p a r t r ~ f t h e c o u n s ~ : l l o r .

The 5outti C a r o l i r i a S t a t e L'ourlcil on vocational and techmica1

30
~ ! ~ l l ~ c a t i o n , Columbia, made a statewide s u r v e y o f approxj.nately 550

wl{.iltional i:rntt:r d i r c : c t o r s , q u i d i ~ n c ea n d p l a c e m e n t p e r s ~ ~ n n e l ,and

v l r t . a t i o n a l t e a c h c r s on t.he i s s u e o f how v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t i c ~ r i ? a n [lest

r!~t?t?t t h e n e e d s o f some 3 0 , 0 0 0 l o w - a c h i e v i n g s t u d e n t s who d o n 3 t p u r s u e

I secondary educatjon. The re!;ults of t h e survey revealed that

I..linre w e r e no s p e c i F i c g u i d e l i n e r e ~ l a r d i n ga s s e s s m e n t a n d t:o~nse.l!.ing

1wt>grammes t h a t o f f e r t h e most r e a l j s t i c o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r su':ces:; and

,11111 placement. T h i s st.ucly b r i n g s t.o l i g h t a n e x i s t i n g factt: t h a t the

L r ~ w - a c h i e v i n g s t u d e n t s d o n o t usua1l.y r e a c h h i g h e d u c a t i o n u n l e s s t.hey

I underachievers ant1 e v e n t h e u n d e r a c h i e v e r s need ass:.stance to

11t:l:ide t o rneet c h a l l e n ( ~ i n ge d u r - a t i c ~ n a l g o a l s . I t i s hopecl :hat the

\nil,jority o f l o w - a c h i e v e r s w i l l b e n c f ' i t more from j o b ol-ientc:d cour!ies.

Il1l.s is i n d e e d a v e r y u s e f u l a n d r e l e v a n t s t u d y b e c a u s e t h e awart?rless

I the lack of s p e c i f i c g u i d e l i n ~ l s h e l p s guidance-coun:;eLlors to

ittitiate thls activity. T h i s s t u d ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t tht? lcv'-;3~9if?\~ers

11eed i n f o r m a t - i o n concern:.ng j o b - o p p o r t u n i t i ~ s , skill-t.rain:.ng etc. A

~ i c l i o o l g u i d a n c e - c o u n s e l l . o r c a n hell1 them e c p e c i a l l y i n a s s ~ ? s s i n g t h e

tltudents' a b i l i t y , a p t i t u d e a n d i n t e r e s t wkich i n t u r n may h e l p :hem

l o make wise v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s .

1.2.0.0. F a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o acadcmic achiebement

This section i s a n 3 n v e s t i y a L i o n o f t o w much s t . u d y tiasits and

?il.~ldy s k i l l s , academic m o t i v a t i o n andn s e l f - c o n c e p t a r e .:elsted to

t~r:admeic a c h i e v e m e n t . I t .is hoped \.hat a n a d e q u a t e krlowletllje a f what

~ l i r f r e n t i a t e sLow-actiiev~ers from h i g h a c h i e b e r s w i l l e i a b l r : gbidance-

i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ n s eto
l l hoerl sp t h e Former r e m e d i a t e t h e i r s h o r t c o i n i n g .

3.2.1.0. Study h a b i t s and s t u d y s k i l l s

Studies have shown t h a t b e t t e r s t u d y h a b i t s and st.udy sl<.tlls

contribute b e t t e r achievement. The f o l l o w i n g are s t u d i e s t h ~ t !;how

positive correlation between study habits and study :;kills and

academic achievement.

31
A one-credit study s k i l l course has been orgsnise~i for the

s e c o n d s e m e s t e r c o l l e g e f r e s h m e n on a c a d m e i c p r o b a t i o n . 3514 c t u d ( : n t s

took part in it. Results showed ctatistica1.ly iiigrificant

ilnprovements in grade p o i n t a v e r a g e , acaclmeic hours al.:enced and

academic hours e a r n e d d u r i n g t h e same acsdemic year. I)iffers?nces

persisted a f t e r o n e ancl two y e a r s , a n d r e t r , n t i o n d a t a al:ji> favo~red

the treatment.
 32
Michael H. used t h e p r e - t e s t and p ~ t - t e s t c o u n t e r Ibal~nced

design to determine d i f f e r e n c e s i n achievsment a t t r i b u t ~ b . , e t.c tht?

a p p l i c a t i o n o f a n i n t e n s e s t u d y s k i l l s t r a i l i n g programme. Survey of

study h a b i t s and a t t i t . u d e form H and a s t ~ d ys k i l l s invenl:ory were?

used. The result wa!; t.hat a s t u d y s k i l l programme help:; inl~rovt?

achievement.

Mary ~ a g r o a r examined
t ~ ~ ~ t h e l e a r n i n 3 s t r a t e g i e s anc a:tj.tude:;

of college l a n g u a g e s t u d e n t s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to suc,:ess in

language l e a r n i n g . Three r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n ; were a s k e d :

(1) Which self-reportec language study s t r a t e ~ ] i ? s were

associated with achievement a s measured by c1a:isroon or

o t h e r p r o f i c i e n c y t e s t s ? ( 2 ) Whici a t t i t u d e and no1:idat.i o n a l

factors predic:ted s u c c e s s and w i a t was t.he re:.a:ic~rship

between thelje factors and study strateqies? (3) What

d i s t i n g u i s h e d s t u d e n t s who c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t c n e r e a r of

second l a n g u a g e s t u d y frcm t h o s e dho dropped o u t ;

Two l a r g e g r o u p s o f v o l u n t e e r s , C o l l e a e s t u d e n t s o f Cp;rnish and

.Japanese, completed a t t i t u d e and s t u d y s t r a t e g y questiornilicea and

tbok initial l a n g u a g e s k i l l t e s t s , and t h x e who p e r s i s t e d for one

year were re-administered the prcficiency t e s t s . Exam scores and

course g r a d e s were c c ~ l l e c t e df o r e a c h q u a r t e r . A n a l y s i s c f tlie data

indicated t h a t c e r t a i n s t u d y s t r a t e g i e s were c o n s i s t a n t l y ;~s;oc:jated

wi.th acatiernic success, a l t h o u g h some differences were 'o~ntl for

i;panish and .lapancse.

 34
Chabbari h a d a r ~ a l y s e dC o r n e l l O r i e n t a t i o n I n v e n t o r y I;en15 on

study h a b i t s a n d t h e i r r e l a t i v e v a l u e s i n ~ r e d i c t i o no f ~ct~i~:venent.,

The r e s u l t o f t h e a n a l y s i s showed t h e i n l p o r , l t n c e o f a s t u c y h : a h i t s irl

s t u d e n t s ' academic achievement.

S t ~ ~ t ica
~ , s1 lt y significant relationships between st,o::es or1

l ~ ~ v e n t o r i e : ;o f s t u d y h a b . i t s a n d m e a s u r e s O F s c h o l a s t i c succ:e:js have

I)~:r:n r e p o r l . e d b y F . U. B r o o k s a n d 3 . C. Hes-;on, 35 5 . 14. S c , i e l e : ; s e r a n d

36 37
I:. W . Younfj and Harold D. Carter. Noel ~ n t w i s t l ~ ? ' : ~ 's t u d y

r e p o r t e d t h a L t h e s t u d y s k i l l c o u r s e s a r e u!;ually f o l l o w e d b), t~cadernic:

39
improvement. Thomas J o h n e t a 1 . c o n c l u d e r i t h a t a c a d e m i c a t h:.evement

d e p e n d s on thr? n a t u r e o r t h e s t u d y 3ctiviti1:s s t u d e n t ! ; f o l l o r , . Harolcl

D. Carter's study indicated that one's study methods correlated

s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h g r a d e s when a b i l i t y was c o n t r o l l e d .

The a b o v e s t u d i e s q i v e s u f f i c i e n t b a s i s t o b e l i e v e t h a t t t ~ e r e i s

significant c o r r e l a t i o r ~ between study habits, stc~dy i l l s anc

academic achievement. I t s h o w s tht3t t h e erihancement o f p r l p e r study

habits a n d s t u d y s k i l l s may h e l p h w - a c h i e v e r s experience sholastic

success.

3.2.1.1. P r o g r a m n e s t o e n h a n c e s t u d y skills;

Most of t i l e l o w - a c h i e v e r s who h a v e a c a d e m i c d i . f f i c o l t i ~ s ,qeed

40
help improve t h e i r study s k i l l s . John R . Knapp a n d Stua't A . I(.

examined formal and inf~:rrmal h e ~ p s e e k i n g hehavi.3ur 11f College

students. Five hundred and seveni:y-three students e x p r j ? s s ~ d ;ome

degree of n e e d f o r h e l p w i t h c o u r s e s o r g e n e r a l stucly s l l s The

f o l l o w i n g a r e some f o r m a l s t u d y s k i l l s deve.Lopment t r a i n i n g F'rogrammes.

t o help achieve t h i s goal.

Many s t u d e n t s i n si:andard C o l l q e Pre1,aratory ProgralnnesL" #ere

not r e a c h i n g t h e i r p o t < : n t i a l l e v e l ; o f ach:.evement. So a c t c ~ d y was

undertaken, in the spring of 1736 at Marshfieltl H i g ~ Sch301,

Massachusetts, to d e t e r m i n e t h e need f o r i:he p o s s i b l e content. of a

course for improving t h e academic performance of their st.udelts.

Information about stuclent study habits, s k i l l s and aticitutles was

gathered from surveys completed o f 110 s t u d e n t s (50 f r ? s h n ~ e n , 30

sophomores, and 30 j u n i o r s ) t h e i r p a r e n t s 01. g u a r d i a n s , and 48 sciool

s t a f f members. R e s u l t showed t h a t tlie t i m e s t u d e n t s s p e n d on hcjme ~ o r k

is only 4 . 8 what t h ~ e i rt e a c h e r : ; f e e l i:; a s s i g n e d : tha:. €1 large

majority of s t u d e n t s 8 1 9 and p a r e n t s (95.5%) want s t u d y h a t i t s and

s k i l l s improved, and t h a t a c o u r s e in s t u d y and time nanageinent. s k i l l s

is wanted by 56.9:; o f t h e s t u d n e t : ; and 8 1 . 5 % o f the: palr1:nts. The

study indicated t h a t t o improve s:udent achievement, not only the

s t u d y h a b i t s and s k i l l s b u t a l s o t h ~ ?academic m o t i v a t i o n anlj ctuds?nt-

t e a c h e r r e l a t i r ~ r i smust be improved.

42
Richard Doriria and others i:onductecl a project to determine

factors that contribute t o t h e a~:ademic s u c c e s s of ed~cation~lly

clisadvantaqed vocational s t u d e t n s and t o clevelop a plan t h ~ t, v i l l

enhance s u c c e s s o f p e r s i s t a n t non-:>chievin!l s t u d e n t s i n I:ie f u t re.

Educationally disadvantaged studelits at mountain view ccmmunity

college ( T e x a s ) were d e v i d e d i n t o :wo g r o u p s , namely, t h e Persistant

Non-Achiever (PNAs) and the Pe::sistant High Achieve: (pH.4~).

Approximately 150 studecltr; were c l t ~ s s i f i e da s a PNAs and l.!)O a s I'HAs.

Among t h e r e a s o n s g i v e n by t h e PNA!; For t h e i r low grade-poiit-av~?rage

were poor time management and l a c k o f gooc s t u d y h a b i t s . The study

concluded t h a t t h e s e s t u d e n t s need t o be o f f e r e d e x t e n d e d orientation

arid s t u d y s k i l l s c o u r s e s a s w e l l a s i n d i v i c u a l s u p p o r t i v e "ollow-up t o

a s s i s t i n t l i e i r c o l l e g ~s u c c e s s .

A s t u d y 4 > e x p l o r e d whetner i r ~ s t r u c t i o ni n v o l v i n g a n t!m>has.i:;' on

atudy skills could help seventh grade students retai.11 rnatclrials

encountered i n s c i e n c e c l a s s e s i n k p r e d o m i n a n t l y w h i t e , rn:.dile class

school in New J e r s e y . The e x p e r j m e n t a l group received ai advanc?

organizer as a overall summary o f a textbook chapter they wen?

s t u d y i n g t o h e l p them i n o r g a n i z i n q t h e c o n t e n t . The:$ wert! i n t r l ~ d u c e d

t o t h e c h a p t e r , were t o l d t o l o o k a t h e a d i n g s , p i c t u r e s ar~tl diaqi.ams,

pronounced and d e f i n e d v o c a b u l a r y t.errns, and n o t e d names 01' 3eop.L(? and

places relevant t o the chapter. Each day, a r e v i e w o f the prer~iou;~

lesson was conductetl b e f o r e t h e new l e s s o n was begun. Yh? cor~trol

group was t a u g h t w i t t i o u t t h e u s e c4f any l e a r n i n g a i d . Al.1 stutlent:;

were tested at the end of each chapter. Results :.njicated a

significant d i f f e r e n c e between t h e means o f t h e s a m p l e s i r ~f a v o u r OF

the experimental treatments. The f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t st.ujy skills

can help students r e t a i n science material content.

3.2.1.2. Study h a b i t s o f t h e l o w - a c h i e v i n g and h i g h achiev:.ng s t u d e n t s

Numerous s t u d i e s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e low-achievers have p,or ritudy

hablts. The r e s u l ' t o f a c o m p a r i t i v e s t u d y c o n d u c t e d on bright and

poor students by sing questionnaire: interv:tews cr direct

observations showed t h a t t h e r e is a c t u a l c l i s c r i m i n a l . i o n t11:tw~en good

and poor s t u d e n t s on t h e b a s i s o f : ; t l ~ d y h a b i t s c o r e s .

4Q
P r a t i b h a Deo a n d Kanwar S a i n I n v e s t i g a t e d t h e 3 a t t e . n ~o f s t u d y

methods o f t h e h i g h a n d low achieving s t u d ~ n t so f t e n t h g r a d e : [heir

s t u d y showed f a u l t y 1 e a r n i . n g a n d b a d s t u d y h a b i t s among o t . t ~ e r f a c t o r s

related to underachievement. The r e s u l t s also showed significant

d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s t u d y h a b i t s s c o r e s on h i g h a n d low a c h : . e , e r s .

Monteith .I. L . anri Wet J . J . compared

~ ~ fifty qiftetl a2hit:ver:;

w i t h f i f t y ~ ~ r i d e r a c h i e v e ~ , sThe
. sutmjects w e r e o b t a i n e d f r c n ~ :he total

standard 10 Afrikans speaking Cohort ii the Orange F e :*tat(:

iltepublic of Sc~uth A!-rica). Amcng t h e f a c t o r s ex;minecl wsrc! the

academic actiievement 2nd study habits. Substantj.al d..fFerence:;

between a c h i e v i n g and u n d e r a c h i e v i n g g i f t e d p u p i l s w e r e fcurid i n all

s t u d y h a b l t s and a t t i t u o e v a r i a b l e s e x c e p t 3tudy t i m e , s u g c e t i t i n g l e s s

efficient study-methoas by underachie~ing students. C,i fted

u n d e r a c h i e v e r s had l e s s f a v o u r a b l e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s c h o o l .

Mabel K . urn,^^ u s i n g t h e s u r v e y o f s t u d y h a b i t s a n d a t t i l : u d e s by

Holtzman, found t h a t a c a d e m i c d r i v e d i f f e r e n t i a t e s t h e ove1ac:hievers

from t h e underachievers. Her s t u d y revealed t h a t t h e l a t t - I t,end tn

become easily discouraged when c ~ n f r o n t e dw i t h l o n g ant d:.fficult

a s s i g n m e n t s and a d m i t t h a t u n l e s s t.hey l i k e t h e c o u r s e t h e y E x e r t 3 n l y

the minimum effort required t o get a passing grade. The less

s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t s show a marked t(:ndency t.oward p r o t : a s t i n a t i c t n dith

regard t o a s s i g n m e n t s ~ These s t u d e n t s stcldy i n a random prcposition

depending upon ' i n s p i r r L d ' moods. -.hey tenc t o be most2 s u s l : e 3 t i b l 1 ? t o

distraction than the b e t t e r students. They waste too n ~ c h time

engaging in social ac:tivities. -he o v e r ~ c h i e v i n g student:^, on the

other hand, spend most o f t h e i r t l m e on s t u d i e s , do the assign~nents

promptly, have good s t u d y h a b i t s and g e n e r a l l y have a f2elinq of

academic effectiveness.

47
Juliana Lazara surveyed t h o s t u d y h a b i t s o f Fseshn~t:n s t l ~ d e n t s

of the Hicol I e a c h e r s C o l l e g e i n r e l a t i o r t o academic i~ciievenent.

The i n s t r u m e n t used was t h e S S t i A by Holtzman. The s t u d y r . t ! l t e a l e d t h e

following results:

(1) Among t h e males t h e r e was s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i 3 between

SSHA and academic achievement. ( 2 : The h i c h a c h i e v i n g men i1 the BTC

sample were compared a n ~ jwere fount1 t o d i f f e r i n SSHA scores. (:3! Th?

low achieving women found t o be more heterogeneous than the hig7

achieving women. The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e i r means was signif..cant

a t t h e one Des c e n t l e v e l .

48
Angelina E. Hamirez compared t h e work method of the low

a c h i e v i n g and t h e h i g h ;achieving s t u d e n t s ~ n found

d out t h n t the more

scholastically success~ul. students had b e t t e r techniquc!~ i n data

gathering, o r g a n i z a t i c ~ n and prt:sentatic,n of ideas khan >;heir

counterparts. They s u c c e s s f u l s t u d e n t s ccnform t o prescr:.bsd fl~rrns,

carefully f o l l o w i n s t r u c t i o n s and g e t t o h o r k w i t h c:m3ncer1':ration and

interest. They have a more posit:.ve a t t i t u d e towarcl s c h o t ~ lworl< and

have motives o t h e r t h a n p r e s t i g e ill p u r s u i r g a c o l l e g e cotr::se.

 The stildie:; c i t e ( ! above r e v e a l a direct r e l a t i o n s h ~ . p bei:\reen

s t u d y h a b i t s and s t u d y s k i l l s and ac:ademic a c h i e v e m e n t . The. s J r v e : l of

study habit:; enables us t o real;.se t h a t the atud~:nts with poor

academic p e r f o r m a n c e need h e l p a s t n how t o o r g a n i z e t h e i r 'qork and

l>ow t o u s e their s t u d y time more e l ' f e c t i v e l y . Guidance c:o~nsel..ing

programmes may tie an e f f e c t i v e means o f extending such help to

students.

3.2.2.0. Academic m a t i v a t i o n a n d ac:admeic a c h i e v e m e n t

A c c o r d i n g t o a well-known e d u c a t o r , W i l l i a m A . K e l l y , m3tivat;ion

is a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r which i n f l u e n c e s l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s . 8:oll~~b~ing

are studies on the impact of proper motivatior on academic

achievement.

49
Adele E . G o t t f r i e d ' : ; s t u d y or) a c a d e m i c i n t r i n s i c rnot.:.vation in

elementary and junior high school stbdents detnonst.i.ates the

significance of academic intrinsic motivation for clildcnn'a

education. As p r e d i c t e d , a c a d e m i c i n t r i n s i c m o t i v a t i o n wa!; found to

be sigriificaritly and p o s i t i v e l y c c ~ r r e l a t e c w i t h c h i l d r e r ~ ' ; s~:liool

a c h i e v e m e n t and p e r c e p t i o n s o f a c a d e m i c competence.

A l i s n i ~ i n y ~i n' v e s t j g a t e d t h e t : f f e c t s c f s t u d e n t s ' serl!;e c f :;l:lf-

d e t e r m i n a t i n a s a m o t i v a t . i c ~ n a l forct: i n a r t l e a r n i n g . Seve:al hundred

sixth graders participated i n the study. P 1 1 four outconi~: I r e a s u r e s

r e v e a l e d d i f f e r e n c e s f a v c ~ u r i n gt h e :;t.udent-choice c o n d i t i o r i . In orher

words, both a c h i e v e m e n t and a t t i t u d e s a r e improved when stud-nts'

sense of s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s enhanced and i t is en irifjis~ensable

motivating factor i n learning.

 Those who a r e a c a d e m i c a l l y mcitivated g e n e r a l l y ,2ossa:;s spl?l:ific

c h a l l e n g l n ~ jg o a l s i n l i f e and have d e f i n i t ~j o b o r i e n t a t i o r ~ .

Kathlec?ii J. 51:ol;t and Steven €3. Robbins5 1 sllujied the

iinplicatiuns of goal instabilit:, for ~ c a d e r n i c p ~ r f o r r a a n c e among

students in l e a r n i n g s k i l l s coursc:. S i x t y s t u d e n t s took p a r t in the

study. R e s u l t s showed t h a t s t u d e r l t s w i t h h i g h g o a l inst.abi1it.y had

lower g r a d e - p o i n t - a v e r a g e t h a n s t u d e n t s w i t h low g o a l i n s t . a b i l i t y .

52
Nona lollefson's s t u d y showed t h a t t e a c h e r s most. frequc:ntly

a t t r i b u t e d low a c h i e v e n ~ e r ~t to t y p i c a l p a t t ~ r no f low effor.:. Thi:; is

confirmed by Ronald V . and o t h e r s

515 who s u r v e y e d 117 c o l l e q e students

r e g a r d i n g f r i c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e i r s u c c ~ . s sand f a i l u r e i n college.

Persistent and active s t u d y was t h e most common reason given for

academic success, f o l l o w e d by s e - : t l n g challening goal:;. Acatjemic

failure was a t t r i b u t e d t o l a c k o f s t u d y , poor t i m e manaqenent, and

inadequate goal--setting.

3.2.2.1. Parents are influent.ia1 fact.ors in the actiev~zment

motivation of t h e i r c h i l d r e n

Schiamberg and o t h e r s 5 ' made a 1 4 y e a m l o n g i t u d i n a l u t u c y a f t h e

educational and o c c u p a t i o n a l l i f e p l a n s and achievement o f )out11 i n

r u r a l low income a r a s i17 s i x south eastern s t a t e s . Specific ~ t t e ~ ~ t i o n

was given to how p a t e n t s ' behaviours influence children's self-

concept, metntal a b i l i t y , and aciademic and achievement motivation.

The findings indicate the 'family in school' makes siqnificant

contributioins to the attainm8:nt of youths' educstior~al and

occupational goals. The f i n d i n g s s u p p o r t t h e need fs~r ~t~ju:ator:; to

involve t h e llarriily i n !;chool l e a r r ~ i r ~agc t i v i t i e s , incluct..n3 s~ence

education.

3.3.3.0. Self-concept :and academic: a c h i e v e m e n t

Self-concept i s fuund t o b e one o f ti-e m a i n factors 3ssoc:~ate3

w i t h l o w achievement. The s e l f - c o n c e p t c a n b e d e f i n e d a s : . n J i v i d t ~ a l ' s

r e p e r t o i r e o f s e l f - d e s c r i p t i v e b e h a v i o u r s u c h a s self-knorr..e3ge, :;elf-

esteem and s e l f - l d e a l w h i c h can b e measured b y p h y s i c a l r n a l . u r i t y , p e e r

r e l a t i o n s , academic s u c c e s s and s c t ~ o o la d a p t i v e n e s s .

3.3.3.1. The relationship between self-concept. ar~cl acedemic

achievement

Several studies were made on t h e relationship bel.w3en :;elf-

concept and academic ac:hievement. Barbara M. U. 55 : ; t ~ d i e d th:

i m p o r t a n c e oi s e l f - c o n c e p t and acaclemic a c h i e v e m e n t a:j di.!;crimin;~tors

o f academic t r a c k mcmbei.ship i n h i q h s c h o o l . N i n e hundrecl a i d s:.xty-

three s t u d e n t s were t e s t e d u s i n g measures o f self-concepl;, ac;3rlemi':

self-concept and academic a c h i e v f m e n t . Academic self-c:oicept was

f o u n d t o b e r e l a t e d t o academic a c t ~ i e v e m e n t .

56
Three self-esteem research guides, based on re:;earch data

collected from the C a l i f o r n i a Tusk F o r c e to p r o n ~ ( ~ t e:;elf-e!jl:eem,

supported t h e a s s u m p t i r ~ nt h a t l o w s e l f - e s t e e m i s d i r e c t l y r?latc:d t 3

l o w s c h o o l a c h i e v e m e n t and s c h o o l ~ l r o p o u t . A p o s i t i v e c o r i ' e l a t i ~ ~was

~i

found between t h e e f f e c t o f s e l f - c , o n f i d e n c e and sch1101 [ ~ e r f o r m ; ~ n c e .

The g r o u p c o u n s e l l l r - i g Has t h e s u g q e s t e d m ~ t h o dt o inlsrove: self-#::;teem

and achievemerit l e v e l s for. drop-out. p r o v e n t i o n .

Parnela L a e l l . a n d David L e s t e r 5 7 e x p l o r e d the aisociation

between isel F-r:~1rrccpt a:id a c a d e m l c p e r f o r m ~ n c ei n Jalnaicat~ t e e m g e r s

cirrd t h c r-c!,ult r:ntiflrni~:d p o s i t l v e r e l a t i o r s h i p betwe8.n tht? two with

d t o ff,~n;rlc st.irdent:;.

i ii
Robinson examin.;.d t h e r e l a t j o n s h i ~ between self'--c3nccl1l; of

ability, a c a d e m i c a p t i t u ~ l e ,1"laths a n d v e r b a l s k i l l s , a n d a-hievement

i n technolorj.1cal1.y o r i e ~ i t e dc o l l e g e : c u r r i c u l a r i n c o l l e g e l'r?shmeri (\I

= 302). R e s u l t s i n d i c a t e 1 1 t h a t se:.f-concept of

c o r r e l a t e d w i t h academii: !;uccess.

59
Kindergarten chilriren were: a d m i n i s t e r e d

concept t e s t in order t o investigate the

concept and a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t . Two weeks l a t e r , the r?searchers

a d m i n i s t e r e d the: I.latrint;.k-Zaicakowsky s e l f - c o n c e p t s c a l e f.11r c h i l d r e n .

Results of a c u r r e l a t i o n a n a l y s l s i n d i c t e c t h a t self-coric:e3t :;[:ores

were significant p r e d i c 3 t o r s o f a c a d e m i c s L c c e s s .

B r o o k o v e r , 60 in hi:; study, argued that the self'.-c?ncepl: of

academic a b i l i t y i s t h e p a r t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t most c l o s e l y linked to

achievement i n s c h o o l -tnl:l t h e r e f o r e , i s mcre i n f l u e r - ~ t i a l. n term:; of

achievement outcomes. Ile u s i n g : ; e l f - c o n c e p t o f ablity s c ~ l e over

1,000 s e v e n t h cjradc s t ~ ~ d e n tfound

s out a correlatior-I of 11.5 bt.':ween

academic self-c!irlcept an11 a c h i e v e r l e n t ( G . P . A . ) . tle a l s 1 1 f c u n d out

that s t u d e n t s who were r e p o r t e d t~ h a v e lcw s e l f - c o r ~ z e p t s o f ability

r a r e l y p e r f o r ~ n e d a t abo'de a v e r a g e L e v e l s .
 6L
Cryst.al Kijykendall c o n d u c t e d an e x p 3 r i m e n t a l s t u d y t o in~~rovt?

Black students' a c h i e v e m e n t by e n t a n c i n g s e l f - i m a g e . R e s ~ l ; s :it~owell

that effective Instruction has E p o s i t i v e impact on tte 3catlemit:

a c h i e v e m e n t o f B l a c k and l i i s p a n i c s t u d e n t s . I t was a.Lso f t ~ u n dt h a t i-1

positive academic identity is crucial for underachieiing E;lacl<

students and t h a t t e a c h e r s p l a y z major r o l e i n buildir~rl studf!nts'

belief in and r e s p e c t f o r t h e m s e l v e s by p r o v i d i n g a n atnlojphel-E! ill

which s t u d e n t s c a n e x p e r i e n c e s u c c r : s s .

Therr: a r e s t i l l o t h e r s who found positive cor:elat.:oi br:t:weei

self-concept and acaclemic achie\,enient. Among them art: .lame!; W.

62 64
Chapman, bictor ~ 0 and 1T . A ~ ~
. Heeder. ~ Their stucl..ei sul~port

t h a t o f a v o ~ ~ r a b lsce l f - c o n c e p t i . . p o s i t i v e f e e l i n g s at111ut t h ~ ?s e l f

are associ:it.i:d wltti good a c a d e m . . ~a c h i e i e m e n t and a poor concept

w l t h l e s s dr:sirable performance.

We c a n c o n c l u d e from t h e a b o v e s t u d i e : , t h a t a n i n c r e n : ; e d p o s i t i v e

self-concepl will h a v e i m p a c t n o r o n l y on a c a d e m i c ach.i:ven~ent but

also on the personal, social :and vocational d t : v e l o l ~ n e n t oF an

individual. Parent attitudes i ? the f:imily envrronmeit, teacher

attitudes in the s c t ~ o o l enviroiment, and peer a t t i - ~ c e in tke

community environment--all work t o g e t h e r t o form tl:e cliild s self-

c o n c e p t and t o i n f l u e n c e h i s a c h i e v e m e n t .

3.3.3.2. The a c a d e m i c s e l f - c o n c e p t a n d g l ~ ~ b sa el l f c o n c e p t

While the academic s e l f - c o n c e p t i n c l u d e s ttle feelinqs c'n the

ability t o p e r f o r m at:aclemic work, t h e g e i e r a l s e l f - - c o n c e p t : ir~cludt?~

the i n d l v l d u a J ' s f e e l ~ n g so f b e l o r ~ g l n g n e s s , s e l f - w o r t h , cxrpetl:nce,

s e l f - a c c e p t a n c e and a c c e p t a n c e by o t h e r s , e t c .

Both academic s e l f - c o n c e p t a n d g l o b a l s e l f - c o n c e ~ t wc!?e found to

have p o s i t l v c c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h academic achievement. How~:ver, a few

investigators found the academic s e l f - c r ) n c e p t t o be ri~lre c l ~ l s e l y

related t o a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t tlian t h e q e n e r a l self-conce~t. The

f o l l o w i n g a r e some o f t h e s t u d i e s on t h i s m a t t e r .

65
Harold A . Altmann and S a n d r a F . Dupor~t t e s t e d the hypotlieses

t h a t a c a d e m l c s e l f - c o n c e p t is a b e t t e r p r e d i c t o r o f r e p o r t ca1.d g r a d e s

than general self-concept. S u b j e c t s were clne h u n d r e d a n d l i n ~ t y - ? i g h t

s t u d e n t s i n t h i r d t h r o ~ ~ gshi x t h q r a d e s . Rt?sults i n d i c t e d tkat. either

c h i l d r e n ' s academic s e l f - c o n c e p t a f f e c t s t h e i r s c h o l a s t i c achievment

o r t h a t c h i l d r e n ' s s u c c e s s a n d f a i l u r e i n :ichool a f f e c t t h s i r a c a d e m i c

self-concept. This q u e s t i o n s t i l l remains t o be explored. Whatever

may be t h c ;iriswcr, i r r ~ p r o v i n g s e l f - c o n c e p t ; i s good i n i t s e l f and it

should tho one o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s . The pres13nt research

~ n t e r ~ d st o st~o,., t h a t t h e enhancement o f s e l f - c o n c e p t must t e a majclr

~ s s u ei n r c ~ p l zu~ n n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e l ~ t .

M. I4. lklbuya6' s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f gl<lb;31 s e l f -

concept and s e l f - c o n c t ' p t o f a c a d e m i c a b i l i t y i n predictin!] aczdemlc

achievement. tie examined s e l f - c o n c e p t and a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e r l e n t among

229 grade students. F!esults revealed t h a t global self-cont:ept and

self-concept o f a c a d e n ~ i ca b i l i t y c o r r e l a t z d p o s i t i v e l y w i t h ac~dem:~c

achievement, but t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - c o n r : e p t o' ac:~tdem.ic

ab.tlity arid academic: a c h i e v e m e n t c o r r e l a t e d more s t r o n g l y than the

r e l a c i c ~ n s t i i , between g l o b a l s e l f - c o n c e p t and t h e a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t .

67
Kevin H. Kelly and Laverne K. Jordan compared 90 male and

fernale eighth grade:; r e p r e s e n t i n g v e r y h i g h , moderately high, and

averaye Levels o f achievement on measures o f academic and s o c i a l s e l f -

concz~t.. Tile r e s u l t : : i ~ i d i c a t e da p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n between acaden~lc

s e l f -concept. and t h e ..eve1 o f a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t . Average a c h l e v i r r g

gi:ls had lower academic s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e t h a n a l l other groups.

68
Richard J. 5havelsl:m and Royer Bolus point to the casual

pr:don~inanct: o f s e l f - I - ' o n c e p t o v e r a c h i e v e m e n t .

3.5.3.11. The r e l a t i o n betweer1 s e l f - c o n c e p t and a b s e n t e e i s m

F ' c ~ s i t i v es e l f - - i m . i g e a p p e a r s t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h h i g h r a t e o f s c h o o l

attentlsnce and liiyh~:.r g r a d e s . Paul 8. ~ a r i o n ~ 'i n v e s t i g a t e d the

r e l a t : . o n s h i l ~ o f s e l f - i m a g e it>h i g h s c h o o l w i t h a t t e n d a n c e and grade

point average at p.:lsk secondary educational institutions. The

ana1y:;r.s c f d a t a r e v i ! a l e d a 1 : o n s i s t e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between positive

self-:.toage i n h i g h sc i o c ~ land h i g h e r c o l l e g e o n g o i n g r a t e s and h i g h e r

g r a c e : ; i n posL s e c o n d l ~ r ye d u c ; i t i o n .

I:. ~eid'" i n d i c : ~ t e stha:: p e r s i s t e n t a b s e n t e e s a t an inner-city

schco.1 i n South Wale:; had s i q n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r s e l f - c o n c e p t and self-

e s t ~ e r ~ mclre
, deprive:j socio-economic backgrounds, lower intelligence

l e v ~ l : ; and rnore e d i ~ c a t i o n a l problems than two control groups.

Remtd.la1 nleasure:; for a b s e n t e e i s m was suggested by focussing on

r a i s , i n g s e l f - c o n c e p t and c h a n ~ i n ga t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s c h o o l .
3.J.3.4. The c h a r a c t ~ ? r i s t i c ss e l f - i m a g e p a t t e r n o f u n d e r a c h i e v e r s

Comparative s t u d i e s o f a v e r a c h i e v i n g and underachieving students

r e t e a l c e r t a i n charac:eristic:; regarding t h e i r self-concepts. Result

o f a s t u d y o f 2 1 VIItli g r a d e s t u d e n t s r e v e a l e d t h a t u n d e r a c h i e v e r s a r e

less self-confident, l e s s s o c i a l l y and e m o t i o n a l l y m a t u r e , l e s s able

t o f o c u s on one conce:,n a t a t i m e , l e s s a c c u r a t e i n t h e i r perceptions

a b 3 u t t.hemselves arid : h e i r work, a n d l e s s h a r d w o r k i n g t h a n achievers.

71
C. F . Combs e x p l o r ~ ! dd i f r e r e n c e s i n t h e way t h a t u n d e r a c h i e v e r s and

aclievers perceived .hemselvf:s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o the world

around them. Achie:gers and u n d e r a c h i e v e r s showed significant and

c o i s i c t e n t d i f f e r e n e e l ; i n t h e way t h e y saw t h e m s e l v e s . Underachievers

s e - t t ~ e m s e l v e sa s l e s , a d e q u a t e , l e s s a c c e p t a b l e t o o t h e r s , t h e l r p e e r s

a s 1e:;s a c c e p t a b l e , a8:iult a s i e s s a c c e p t a b l e . They showed i n e f f i c i e n t

and less effective approach t o problem, showed less freedom and

ad-quacy o f e m o t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n s .

E.. E. ~ s r n i r e z ' : js ~t u~d y o f underachievers revealed that the

u n d e r a c h i e v e r s h o l d a low c o n c e p t o f t h e i r a b i l i t i e s . Such c o n c e p t i s

d e $ e l c \ p e d by r e p e a t e ~ jp e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s o f f a i l u r e a n d reinforced

by f e e d - b a c k s t h e y re1:eive a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s from s i g n i f i c a n t a d u l t s .

3.3-3.5. Factors c o n t r i b u t i r ~ gt o t h e development o f negative self-

concept

l t u r l c o r ~ f l i ' : t s appclars to be a contributin~j factor of

negatjve self-concep:. D a r l i t , l I e ~ a n d e r s t ~u d~i e d t h e clash values

colfrtlr>ted by 4meri1:aii inrlian students in predontlri;~ntly whltu

c1a:s:~ooms and founrj c ~ u tt h ; l t c u l t u r a l c o n f l i c t s c o n t r i b u t e to the

devt-lol~ment o t 1 r1:gative : ; e l f - i m a g e and the faililre to achieve

acaceliically is a funiltlon o f t h i s negative self-concept.

I\ teecher, who c h e r i s h c : ~ and c a r e s f o r t h e c h i l d r e n , who h a s a

p e r : o ~ l n l a p p r o a c h w i t 1 :;tuden':s a n d r e s p e c t s them and a c c e p t s them as

they a r e end where t i e y a r e , c r e a t e s a c l i m a t e c o n d u c i v e t o learnlny

and {;hen l e a r n i n g be::on~es an e x c i t i n g e x p e r i e n c e . Similarly teacher

can damage a child's posit:ive s e l f - i m a g e by labelling the child

neg;t..vely o r by s a y i n g n e g a t i v e r e m a r k s . I n o t h e r words, a teacher

possesses the power t o make a c h i l d ' s l i f e m i s e r a b l e o r joyous. A

detsi:.ed description o f an i n c i d e n c e g i v e n below will clarify the

thesis.

74
/ case study f o l l o w e d a c h i l d from b i r t h t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y age

eigl-t c e c o r d i n g h l s e a r l y s u c c e s s e s w i t h l e a r n i n g language and r e a d i n g

skills, and t h e n d i s 2 u s s e d h : ~ s a c a d e m i c d e c l i n e a f t e r b e i n g labelled

as a ' l o w a c h i e v e r ' 3nd a c a n d i d a t e f o r r e m e d i a l c l a s s e s . The child

had 1 t : a r n e d t u c o n s t r ~ c tword:; from m a g n e t i c l e t t e r s a t a n e a r l y age,

a n d by a g e f i v e h e wa; a r e 1 a t : i v e l y i n d e p e n d e n t r e a d e r . Kindergarten

and f r ~ r s t grade reinforced h i s self-concept a s a capable learner

facilrtatinc] h i s r e a j i n g a b i . . i t y and o t h e r s k i l l s . However, during

gr3de two a s u b s t i t u ~ et e a c h e r c r i t i c i s e d t h e monotone v o i c e h e used

whsn reading a l o u d 3nd n o t e i l t h e number o f work s h e e t s he had not

conplcted. Ihe c h i l d was p l a c e d i n a r e m e d i a l c l a s s where h i s s c h o o l

work continued t o d ~ ? c l i n e . tie had a d a p t e d t h e l a b e l g i v e n to him,

'r?mecl:.al s l : u d e n t 1 , and behovt:d a s a s l o w l e a r n e r would. T r a n s f e r t o a

n e d sc,tiool = o r h i s t k ~ i r dy e a r r e v e r s e d t h e problem. H i s t e a c h e r began

to i.e~uild hls s e l f - c o n c e p t , r e g a r d i n g him f o r improved work and

encoc~raging h i s endeavours. Implications of the study is that

in;urli;ious l a b e l l i n g can s e r i w s l y tamper a c h i l d ' s academic p r o g r e s s

and damage h i s o r h e r s e l f - e s t e e m . Additionally, remedial students

n e ~ , dt s b e i n c l u d e d a r d e n c o u r a g e d r a t h e r t h a n d e n i e d t h e possibility

f o ~ticademir: a c h i e v e m e r ~ t .

3 . 6 . Action progr arrmes t o r a i s e students' self-image

~ r o g r a ~ n m e swere
'~ conducted t o r a i s e t h e s t u d e n t s ' self-image in

view of r a i s i n g t h e academic achievement. A programme was conducted

in .:he Newark (New Jersey) School District students, who were

pol:ential drop-outs, to raise their self-esteem. The programme

included individual and group conuselling sessions, parents'

pai'ticipatim a n d thc: u s e o f t h e 'Toward A f f e c t i v e Development (TD)

Sy:;t,?m1 and t h e 'Pun~:;ey S e r i e s ' . Two h u n d r e d and seventy at-risk

stud?nt.s were randumly a s s i g n e d t o a t r e a t m e n t g r o u p a n d 183 were

a s ! j i ~ n e dt o a c o n t r o l cjroup t b a t r e c e i v e d n o t r e a t m e n t . More t h a n 3/4

o f t i e studr!rits i n b o t h g r o u p s were B l a c k , w h i l e t h e r e m a i n d e r w e r e o f

Hi:;p3ri.c o r P o r t u y u e s t : b a c k q r c u n d s . The g r o u p were compared u s i n g t h e

follorj.ng pre- and p o s t - t e s t measures:

(I.) The c o o p e r s r i . ~ t h s e l l ' - e s t e e m i n v e n t o r y

(! Attendance

(I\) The Califori1.i.a t e s t o f b a s i c s k i l l s (CTBSj

(0) Parerit p a r t ir:ipatior~

( 5) P a r t i c i p n t i o r r i.n c : o u n s e l l i n g s e s s i o n s
 The f o l l o w i r g h i g h l i g h t s a r e d i s c u s s e d :

1. S ~ c i a le x p e r i e n c ~w i t h p e e r s seemed t o have more o f a n e f f e c t on

s e l f - e s t e e m t h a n e i t h e r home o r s c h o o l e x p e r i e n c e s .

2. A-ademlc self-concepts were significantly associated with

c l a s s r ~ ~ o pme r f o r m a n c e , f o r B l a c k s and m a l e s .

3. W i i l e t h e progranme d i d have a s i g n i f i c a n t impact on r a i s i n g o v e r

a l l s e l f - e s t e e m , ~t d i d n o t have a s i g n i f i c a n t impact on academic

s?lf-concept.

4. Tie h ~ g ha b s e n c e r a t e s o f o l d e r s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e t h e need for

l ~ n g e r , more irtensive intervention with this group.

A structured academic s , ~ p p o r tgroup76 f o r 2 1 h i g h ability but

~ ~ n c e ~ . a : h i e v . l n g u n d e r q r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s r e s u l t e d i n improved s t u d y and

~;elf--m.3nagenlentskills,, p e e r s ~ p p o r t ,improvements i n s t u d e n t G P A , and

im~rciv:d s e l f - c o n c e p t s c o r e s .

Physical e d u c a t i o n seems t o have a n e f f e c t i n r a i s i n g t h e self-

/ /
1:orcE:p:. Uobert Pangraz s a y s t h a t physical education can have a

: i t r o r ~ gimpact on t h e development o f s e l f - c o n c e p t . The s t u d e n t who is

posit.*~ely oriented and who h a s a s e n s e of belonging, worth and

conpt!tt:nce p o s s e s s e s a s t r o n g f o u n d a t i o n f o r l e a r n i n g .

4 H t m and f a m i l y e n v i r o n m e n t

Hoine and f a m i l y environm1:nt seems t o have a n impact n o t o n l y on

;,cad~,mic a c h i e v e m e n t b u t a 1 3 1 on s t u d y h a b i t s , academic motivaton,

s e l f - c ~ ~ n c e p t . ,I . Q . arid h e a l t l i . Hence, i t w i l l be t r e a t e d h e r e a s a
s p ~ : c i z J . f a c t o r i n f l u t ? r ~ c i n ga c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t . There is a need to

1o11k i n t o t n e e n v i r o n r ~ e n t a l f z c t o r s i m p i n g i n g on t h e l e a r n e r .

3.9.1. The whole f a m i l y comes t o school

There are man), reasors for low-achievement. Quinn Aaron

S a ~ : t a i n ' ~ s a y s t h a t ,.he i n a b i l i t y t o c o n c e n t r a t e i n s t u d y i n g may be

due to emotional d:.stracticns. Some students are worried about

f i n a i c e s , o r a r e a n x i r ~ u sa b o u t t h e i r a b i l i t i e s o r a r e h a v i n g c o n f l i c t s

wi':h t.heir parents. Such f ~ e l i n g si n t e r f e r e w i t h effective study.

79
Th~:s? i d e a s a r e complc!mented b y B e r n a r d . He s a y s :

A b o y ' s s c l ~ o l a s t i ca p t i t u d e s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e p a t t e r n of

r e l a t i o n s h i p s h e h a s had w i t h h i s f a t h e r . The c h i l d brings

his family t o s c h ~ o li n h i s worry about family welfare,

illness at home, family q u a r r e l s or financial problems

because these may make it d i f f i c u l t for the child to

e m c e n t r a t e on s c h o o l a c t i v i t i e s .

8U
Miller e l a b o r a t e s t h i s i d e a by s a y i n g t h a t t h e abnormal home

r e . ; a : i c ~ n s h i ? s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e s e r t i o n , s e p a r a t i o n , and l o n g i l l n e s s ,

di!;corc, e ~ r ~ o t i o n aand
l m a r i t a l i n s t a b i l i t y , low c u l t u r a l v a l u e s lack

of 2 o n f i d e - ~ c e betwc:e:n p a r e n t s and c h i l d r e n , l a c k o f acceptance arid

derio(:ratic rrspects oP t h e horne i n t e r a c t i o n , p a r e n t s s e t t i n g h i g h g o a l s

for their childrcr~, lack of encouragement of self-reliance,

disatjreement between p a r e n t s a b o u t s t a n d a r d s o f behaviour e x p e c t e d of

tht!i: c h i l d r e n , s e v e r : . t y o f d i s c i p l i n e , and p a r e n t a l d o m i n a n c e - - a l l of

tht!s~: h a v e been found to be associated with children's school

~e~.fs~rn~ance.
 Ine c ~ ~ l t u r a al r ~ il n t e l l e c t u a l a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e home, to some

extent, in'luence the achievenent of t h e students. While explaining

81
t h t c:aJse o f u n d e r a c h i t ? v e m e n t E . G . W i l l i a m s o n states:

The c u l t u r a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l a t m o s p h e r e o f t h e home may be

so inferior t h a t the potentially superior student is not

e!jtlmated t c ~ maxlmum e f f o r t . Frequently parents do not

p e r m i t s u c h 5 ; t u d e n t s t o aim h i g h enough . . . t h e y want to

keep t h e i r s o n on t h e farm o r i n t h e f s n i i . 1 ~ b u s i n e s s with

the result that the son's f a i t h i n h i s ability and his

desire for greater achievements and higher goals are

thwarted.

3.4.:!. Causes o f c c r ~ f l i c t s

82
Wi1liar:lson cescribes the causes of conflicts as:

(1: -C2mparlson: Many p a r e n t s e x p e c t a l l t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o f i t i n the

same 3attei-n of behaviour. Deviation brings about dissatisfaction.

I\la<~g..n~
and u n f a v o u r a t l e c o m p a r i s o n s o f t h e o f f e n d i n g c h i l d w i t h o t h e r

c h j l d r ? n may r e s u l t i r c o n f l i c t s . (2) Clash: A s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t s may

;arjst: between s t u d e r t and p a r e n t s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e clash between

rnoclern i n f l u e n c e s and outrnoded c u s t o m s . ( 3 ) Envy: The s t u d e n t b e g i n s

t o corn3are h i s f a m i l y w i t h t h o s e o f h i s companions a n d becomes ashamed

of 1.h: l a c k o f educatiori and s o c i a l g r a c e s , and the old-fashioned

idea!; a n d d r e s s o f t i s own. ( 4 ) Limited space: The necessity of

ca1ryi3g or, the intimate relationships of family life in ttie

conip;~r3tive..y l l i r ~ i t e c s p a c e o f inany o f t h e modern d w e l l l n q increases

rhe p3ssibtlltles o f f r i c t i o n and c o n f l i c t . Ihe 1imltt.d arnount 111

s p a c e i n a s m a l l home d e p r i v e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l members o f t l i e f i ~ m i l yof'

the degree o f p r i v a c y which i s s o necessa;:y for hsrmoniois social

interaction.

3.4.3. Thc t y p e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t h e fxmily and t . h e i r r:onnectior~

t o actiievcment

The type of re1atil:)nship of s t u d e n t s with t h e member:; of' tht:

f a m i l y h a s an e f f e c t on h i s s c h o o l p e r f o r m a i c e . T h i s i s s ~ p l ) o r t e c by
83
Ruth Strang. She s a y s t h a t t h e n a t u r e 3f student. re1al:inn with

other member o f h i s f a m i l y a n d w i t h h i s a g e m a t e s may b e taking hi:$

mind off h i s school subjects. T h i s i n a b i l i t y t o g e t alonc: w e l l with

the members o f t h e f a n l i l y r e s u l t i n u n p l e a s a n t outcome s ~ c : ha s clver;

disagreement or in dissatisfactjons, irritations and annayarlces.

Q u a r r e l l i n g of parents is p a r t i c , u l a r l y d e t r i m e n t a l to tie nrlrmal

e m o t i o n a l development c ~ fc h i l d r e n a s i t g i v e s r i s e t o c o n f ' u s i o n :ill tha

mind.

86
Ramires," Hillard a n d R . ~ o t h , ' J~. K u r t s and E. Swenslln,
8 €1
W. R. Morrow and R . C . w i l s o n B 7 a n d H a r o l d W . Bernard are ~nong

those who s t u d i e d thr: r i o n - i n t e l l ~ t c t u a l f a c t o r s a f ' f e c t ~ i n g aca'iemic

achievement. I h e i r f l n d i n g s a r e nummarist'd below:

Ramirez studied the non-intellective factors affectilq acajemic

achievement and found o u t t h a t :he underachievers per:ei\,e their

relations w i t h t h e f a m i l y members t o b e u r l s a t i s f a c t a r y , e x F r t ! s s i n g a

feeling that the c l i m a t e a t hom? is r1:strictive and ~npleasant.

Parental a u t h o r i t y i s viewed a s s t i f l i n g and l i n e s of con~municatic~n

w i t h ~ a r e n t sa r e seldcim o p e n znd c o m f o r t a b l e . Underachievers t e n d to

dislike t h e i r parent:; f o r b e l n g c r i t i c a l , q u a r r e l s o m e , i r r i t a b l e and

l a c k i n g i n real a f f e c t i o n and sympathy.

T. H i l l a r d a n d E. Hoth f o u n d o u t t h a t m o t h e r s o f a c h i e v e r s were

more a c c e p t i n y o f the1.r c h i l d r e n t h a n were m o t h e r s o f underachievers.

Tht? L a t t e r were r e j e c t i n g o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n a n d u s u a l l y a t t e n d e d only

t o t n e f a i l ~ r e so f t h e i r c h i l d r e n w h i l e i g n o r i n g o r t a k i n g f o r g r a n t e d

thf:i : s u c c e s s e s .

Kurts a n d Swenson f o u n d o u t t h a t t h e p a r e n t s o f high achievers

had pride, confidence, a f f e c t i o n and interest in their children

whf!rt?as, t h e u p p o s i t ? was t r u e f o r p a r e n t s of underachievers. The

lallt(?r d i d rrot expc!~:t much o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n a n d had very little

r e s p ~ ? c tf o r a n d r a p p o r t w i t h t h e i r c h i l d r e n .

Morrow and W~l:.i>n o b s e r v e d t h a t p a r e n t s o f h i g h achiever gave

theii: c h i l ~ j ~ e more
n p r a i s e a n d a p p r o v a l , showed more i n t e r e s t and

u n t l e . ? s t a n d i ~ l y ,a n d wt.1.e closer t o their children than parents of

Bsrnard remarkec that p a r e n t s who t a k e a n interest in their

c h j . l ~ i r - n and who h a b ~ !t h e t i m e a n d i n c l i n a t i o n t o t a l k t o them and

an:;wt!r t h e . ~ rq u e s t i o r s h a v e h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f c h i l d r e n who score

high 01 tests and do h e l l i n s c h o o l .

8iJ
Miner investigated t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n family background

vari;ables and academic success i n public school. Variables were

s o c i o - :conoriic s t a t u s , r e l i g i ~ r ~s i, b l i n g s t r u c t u r e , f a m i l y size and

the like. She found o u t t h a t b i r t h o r d e r ~ n df a m i l y . s i z e i a p ~ e a rt o be

related t o the achievment variables. Neither socio-economic :;tatus

nor intelligence appear to have a direct influence Jn these

relationships. First-born c h i l d r e n a n d c h i l d r e n i r ~ smai.1 fam:.lies

tend to achieve a h i g h e r l e v e l t.han t h e later-born ch..l3ren and

children irl larger families. The l a c k c f o n e p a r e n t j.11 the home

should provide t h e c k ~ i l dw i t h sorle d e g r e e of cultural d2priv;ation

e l t h e r thl-oi~cjti the l a c k o f s t i m u l a t . i o n o r t h r o u g h t h e i n s e c : u r i t y o f a

normal home environment. There is a slight negative -ffect; oa

academic p e r f o r m a n c e .

3.4.4. The f a m i l y b a c k g r o u n d o f l o w - a c h i e v e r s

I t i s r e l e v a n t t o examine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e fami..y s i t u a t i o n

i n o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s o f t h e c h i l d ' s acaclt!mic s1Jc:cess

not only at the beginning of t h e c h i l d ' s schooling t111t a l s u at

s u c c e s s i v e p o i n t s throughout h i s academic c a r e e r .

Gladys I. ats son^' made a st.udy on t h e h i g h a c l i i e v j r ~ g a n d lo#

achieving students. He found o u t t h a t t h e students nlio are low

achieving often come from home s i t u a t i o r s that are des-ribed as

b r u t a l i z i n g , over-powering, extremt:ly d e s t r u c t i v e . Parent.!; nay o p e n l y

reject t h e c h i l d o r may more s u b t l y r e j e c t him by o v e r p r ~ > t - c t i n ~oj r

making t o o g r e a t demands o n him. i n some i n s t a n c e s t.here i s r o figther

in t h e home, o n l y a m a l i c i o u s , h o s t i l e m o t h e r , o f t e n o n e who b~xause

o f h e r own f a i l u r e s , h a t e s a l l men. A few s t u d e n t s i n th:.!~ g r o u p h a v e

reacted t ~ y!ret.reat anli w i t h d r a w a l . They f i n d s a f e t y i n h . t d i r g . They

f l n d i t ? i f . f i c l ; l t t o speak i n c l a s s .

'I 1
ftamirer, ir, h e r a r t i c l e " L o r ~ c e p t u a lModel f o r l J n d e r ! ; t g n d i n ~ ] t h e

Filiplno I l n d e r a c t i i e v e r ~ s , " remark:; t h a t t t e model u n d e r a ~ h i e v e r may

have been raised by a dpminant a n d r e j e c t i n g mother r r t ~ o s e sl:rong

aspirations f a r t h e academic achievement c f h e r c h i l d r e n c o n p e l s her

t o push h e r c h i l d r e n t o o f a r i n t h e i r s c h o o l t a s k s , a n d rrtro emp:.oyee

negative r e i n f o r c e m e n t s by w i t h d r a w i n g h e r a f f e c t i o n from the child

who f a i l s t o come up t o h e r i n o r d h a t e e x p e c t a t i o n s . This situi~tion

is aggravated by the presence of a father who holds a poor

relationship w i t h t h e mother a n d who h a s r e l a t i v e l y l o w e r value:; for

academic achievement. The chi1d1,en a c c e p t t h e f a t h e r as; an i~dult

model and r e j e c t t h e m o t h e r who i s a c a d e m i c a l l y o r i e n t e d . lhere arm?

t h r e e t y p e s o f f a m i l y s e t t i n g mentioned by t h e a u t h o r : I . Ihe family

setting i n which t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c y i n v a l u e s h e l d f o r s c h o o l a n d the

poor relationships among f a m i l y members a r e l i k e l y to grr?vent the

c h i l d r e n from d e v e l o p i n g a n a t t i t u c l e For s c h o o l achievement.. (2) The

family s e t t i n g i n which b o t h p a r e n t s may h o l d h i g h v a l u e s f ~ r!jc:hool

b u t b o t h p a r e n t s f a i l t o a t t e n d t o t h e n e e d s o f t h e chi1drc:n a t home.

(3) The family setting in t i a child suffers fron adverse

comparison w i t h h i s more ' s u c c e s s f ~ u l ' s i b l i n g . P a r e n t s ol't:n remark

unkindly a b o u t t h e c h i l d ' s f a i l u r e t o a c h i e v e l i k e t h e ot.tler a.itding

and display preferential t r e a t m e n t i n t h e i r r e w a r d i n g system. The

s e n s e o f b e i n g d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t b r i n g s i n e m o t i o n a l ti'alma t o tht?

l e s s a c h i e v i n g members n f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y endowed f a m i l y .
3.4.5. The d e t r i m e n l : a l e f f e c t o f p a r e n t a l p r e s s u r e

'Williarn;ono2 s a y s t h a t f r e q u e n t l y p a r e n t s e x e r t s o much pressure

on c h i l d r e n t o g e t g o t ~ dg r a d e s t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g l o s s o f confidence

and lnorals may caust. low grades. Other parents exhibit such

ind..fferent attitudes toward t h e s t u d e n t s ' s c h o o l work t h a t tie i s n o t

notivated tc achieve at h i s l e v e l of aptitude. Because of the

d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t uporl tlhe s t u d e n t ' s e m o t i o n a l b e h a v i o u r , t h e s t u d e n t

a c h l . e 5 / e s l e s s t h a n optj~nurrt s u c c e s s and s a t i s f a c t i o n i r i s c h o o l . Soclal

rs-lationship:; fail tcl s a t i s f y a n d o f t e n become irritating to the

s t u c l e l ~ t a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s , s c h o l a s t i c work i s no l o n g e r a s o u r c e of

sati.s'action and the student is not motivated to exert himself.

Effcrrl: to Learn be con,^: half-hearted with t h e r e s u l t that the able

s t u d e n t becotries an u n d t r a c h i e v e r and t h e l e s s a b l e s t u d e n t f a i l s .

Co?flicts betweer t h e s t u d e n t and h i s f a m i l y o f t e n a r i s e as a

result. of clash betw~:en t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f the parents and the

abiliti3s of the s t ~ d e r i t . P a r e n t s s o m e t i m e s make the mistake of

tryjn~] to iurcu t h e s t u d e n t t o l i v e up an arbitrary standard of

3 c h i e ~ e 1 n e nwhich
t h a s bt:come t r a d i t i o n a l i n t h a t f a m i l y . The student

dho :.s u n a b l e t o a t t a i n t.he d e s i r e d g o a l o r i s u n i n t e r e s t e d in that

goal o f t e n attempts t o achieve t h e impossible i n h i s desire to meet

the tip2rova.l of the family. He often remains unaware of his

limitations until he r e a c h e s t h e more specialised fields at the

:olIer]e level. He tt-c:n b e g i n s t o l o s e g r o u n d , and eventually his

a i i y t r , a t t a i n t h ~ s! t a n d a r d s e t by h i s f a m i l y g i v e s him f e e l i n g s

JF r.nFeriority and I'utility which act as inhibitions to the

jr:velclp~nent of t h e t a l e n t s w h i c i h e d o e s p o s s e s s .
 Underactiievernent [nay be c a u s e d by o r .I r e s u l t of' s i b l i r ~ gr i v a l r y .
9<
Williamson siivs:

S l t ~ l ~ r i gjeal.ousy i s a c a u s e o f c o n f l i c t wl-ich marly believe

Lo L J ~ an 1.nevitable r e s u l t or the natural c.oripetitictn

bct.ween chil.dren o f t h - same f m i l y f o r favour with the

persons they u s u a l l y admire most, t h e i r ~arents. Sibling

c o n f l i c t s o c c u r most f r e q u e n t l y where t h e r e i s a d:.fferenc:e

i n mental age. The weaker o f t h e c h i l d r e n may r e t r t l a t int.0

futile resentment, day-dreaming in which revenge is a

prominent motif, and other compensatory ar d escape

reactions. As a r e s u l t , h e tend:; t o l o s e h i s c o i f i t l e n c e in

h l m s e l f and becomes r e l u n t a n t t o a s s e r t h i r r s e l f .

I n some c a s e s , u n d e r a c h i e v e m e t i t h a s been d i s c o v e r e d ? J be! a form

of aggressive reaction against parental oppression. The s t u d e n t rney

have a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l o f h i s l i f e s i t u a t i r ~ nb u t h e u s e s f a i l u r e a s a

weapon of adjustment t o 'even up' with masterful s.ignifixnt. adults

w i t h whom he i s p o w e r l e s s t o contebid o p e n l y .

94
Felips studied the associatzd relat-onship of m a t e r i ~ l c o i t r c l

t o a c a d e m i c achlevernent o f 1 0 0 p r i n a r y s c h r ~ o lc h i l d r e n . t d below

a r e her findinys:

1. The type of m a t e r n a l c o n t r ~ lh a s a b e a r i n g on th? ].eve1 cf

children's academic achievemsnt. Tht? t y p e o f c o n t r o l which is

most f a c i l i t a t i v e o f c h i l d r e l ' s achic!vement i s the rwturant--

permissive typc.
2. Low achievers tenti t o come from homes w h e r e i n t h i s neg1t:c:t is

attended w i t h dprnirlance o r ~ e r m i s s i v e n e s s . Th:is stutjy j.n;pli~:s

that t h e r e i s a n e e d f o r l e s s d o m i n a t i o n a n d .Lt:ss ~~u:h~rit.arien

control o f c h i l d r e n a t home. T h e r e n u s t b e s o n e c o r t : r o l t r ~ ~ it t

must b e on r e a s o n a b l e g r o u n d s i n o r d e r t o p r e v e r i t t h e ~ j e v e l c ~ p m e n t

of n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s o f c h i l d r e n toward t h e i r parert!;.

3.4.6. The p h y s i c a l a s p e c t o f home e n v i r o n m e n t

So f a r wc have beer1 d e a l i n g h i t h t h e ~ s y c h o 1 o g i c : a l aspc:c: o f horne

environment. One c a r i n o t , however, i g n o r e t h e o t h e r d i m e r s . . o ~ i rame.ly

the physical aspect.

ranke el" i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e physical aspects of t h e falmili~s of

t h e a c h i e v i n g and t h e u n d e r a c h i e v i n g g r o u p s . Questionnaire-res~onscs

indicated no d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two g r o u p s wit.h r e $ p e c : Lc (1)

number o f p e o p l e l i v i n g a t home, ( 2 ) s i z e 3f t h e famj.ly, 3 iurnter of

rooms i n t h e home, ( 4 ) number o f d i s r u p t e d f a m i l y p a t t e r r s anc (1;)

birth order of subject.s. Bet.ty i, h e r s t u d y on s o c i o l c g i c a l

background variable a f f e c t i n g school achievement yielded $different

results, :;he found t h a t t h e s o c i o - e c o n o m i - s t a t u s , f a m i l y ! ; i c e , bir+.h

order ; I I I ~ t.he l i k e have d i r c c t i n f l u e n c e on academ1.c sLcc:e;s. She

a l s o f o ~ ~ r it.17:rt
d t h e f i r s t b o r r ~ c h i l d r e n and c h i l d r e n i n sna1.l f a n i l i e s

tend to ;i::liieve a higher l c v e l than t h e later born ch:.l,jrer and

c h i l d r r r i iri larr-jc families. Nore r e s e a r c h ~ s ,u s i n g t.he ssmc! : o o l s a r ~ d

methods and tiavlnq t h e same s a m p l e s , may % a b l e u s t.o make a d s f i n i l 2 e

c o n c l u s i o n or1 t h i s \ l e b a t a b l e s u b j e c t .
 Many . ~ n v e s l . i g a t o r s have been t r y i n g tr, determine: t h e f;actor: 01'

adjustm~:rit, o r n ~ i ~ l a d j u s t m e nt h
t a t a r e i n h e r z n t i n home l i v i n q . 1. J..
97
Sandefuc made a study w i t h t h e purpose of providing st:atistical

evidence tx:~s u p p l ~ r tthe. assumption t h a t a d o l e s c e n t s have per:;oial and

s o c i a l [problems rrhich f i f f e c t t h e i r school/a:hievement. Mocnc!y prcblero

Check l i s t s and t.he SI(A achievement s e r i e s were giver1 t o 2..7 eighth

and ninl-li grade s t u d r n t s . He found h i g h correlatitrns tehwt3en the

number of problt?~naof liome and t a i n i l y r e p o r t e d and t h e achieveinerit 01'

the student.. [ : ' o r r e l a t i o n s s i g r ~ i f i c a n ta t t h e 0.01 l e v e l wt!rt? found

between home ;and fam1.ly probltnms and ;ichi-vement with reft:renc!e to

skill, charts, reatling cor~~pcehension, vocabulary, ;irithneti(:

comniutatiori, arid the composit.e achievemsnt score. Col.rt?lat i o n s

sigriificent at the 0.115 l e v e l . were found between home ar~d femily

problents trt-id ;-lchieve~ner~Li n the sul~ject of c a p ~ . t a l i s a l ; i ~ m and

p u n c t u a t i r ~ t ~s,p t : , l l i r ~ q ,al:ithrnet.~c c o n c e l ~ t s . The o n l y non-s:.gnificant:

r e l a t i r ~ n s t ~ if p
o ~ t n dwas between home and f a m i l y problem and achievement:

l r i r;lranirna r .

The ; ~ l ~ o v tt* i e s q i v e :r~ough reasons to coriclud~ tiat. the

phyr;ic:il and p s y c t ~ o . l ~ : ~ ~ laspt?ct.s

ical o f t h e home and f a r n i l y envirc~r~ment

are clr)sc!ly 1 i.nked ~ i t thh e academic performance of tte learner.

Hence, t i pr.!~blemo f low-achit?vement cannot be generall:/ tackled

without f i r s t t a c k l i n g the family. The r e l a t i o n s h i p betvw:n family

members need s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s i n c e i t has l o t of repert,u,;siori$; on

the learner.
15.4.7. l : o r ~ c l ~ ~ d i r lr!ejm a r k s

Arl e1.lempl. i made i n t h i s chapter to examine the st~dies

~connecl.ed to low--achievement.. Certain major factor:; that are

d i r e c t l y r t : l a t c , l t.o z~cadernic a c l i i e ~ e r n e n ta1.e i 1 l u s t r ; l t e d w i t h r e l 2 v a n t

rt?sr:arc:t~ :;l.udir!s. Itie!je stujiej are r~eant to p r o v i j ~ us with

s u f f'icierlt bacl..grnur~dknowltrd~]~:
regarding t h e needs, charact e r i j t i c s

imd 11r~111It:rnso f low-schi.evln<l student:;. Knowledge abctut the

~ : t ~ a ~ : a t : l . t i r i ~ i t . ~ cof: : tIle1.r c o u n t t : c p a : t s (hi$ a c h i e v i r q stud1:nts) helps

u!; bel:r:~nlr: ilwirrl o f ' I:tic: week p o i r i t s o f l o w - . a c h i e v e r s . 5ur:h knowledge

will I l e l j ~!lot i ~ n l y thr! kluidannt:--i:ounsellc~rs b u t a l s o a l l ttose who

direct.1) ijoal with c h i l d r e n in -.heir s c h o o l a n d family set-up to

u n d t > r s t a r ~ dt h e l a t t e r a n d t o t a k e ; i p p r o p r i ~ l t em e a s u r e s t o !;olbe :heir

problems.

The proce1:ding survey of research s t u d i e s thus char:s out the

scope o f the subject. I t a l s c ~tle.lps a s s e t s t h e comp1exil:ies of the

problem::; irivo1,ved. I t i s a g a i n : ; t t h i s background and on this l~asis

t h a t t h o prcseril; r e s e a r c h e x a m i r ~ f r st h e modes o f t a c k l i n g and tre,~ting

l o w - a c h i e v e r s o f t h e 51econdary s ~ : h o o l si n K e r a l a .
 REFERENCE 5

Related l i t e r a t u r e

1
Msrjorlt? S. D u n k e r , F-d. D . , -
Effe(,t of an Extendcld Collecg

Counselliriq Proqrammc! upon Low-Achievinq Hispanic Twell'tli Grade

Studento i n Thcee Lo:i A n q e l e s U n i f i e d 5ch11ol D i s t r i c--t IlicJ~---

S c h-.o o l s ,

D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n , P e p p e r d i n e U, 1 9 8 7 : 1 5 6 .
L
M;.~ry Lee W i l l i a m s , EIci. D . , A l a r i s o n ---
o f-- thr? - E l ' f e c t-- o f

Tutorinc~or Ttrtorinci C o m b i n e d x t h Counsc:llinq on the Ac h;.evement. __ .ji

Self-€st-eem, Mptivation, a n d A t t i t u d e o f T e n t h G r a -o e r s ir Remedial

D o c t o r a l Dissertation. U o f San F r a n c i s c o , 19E6:

195.
3
[I. A . !3ctimietling, "Coun!;e l l i n g anti Achievement ," Z o ~ ~ r n a ol f

C o u n s e---
l l i n ~ ~ . c t ~ o l o3q (1356:
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4
I ) I : I ~ ~Iri.J ~ I . , e t a l . , " I m p a c t c ~ fGtridance a n d Co1~isellin3an

Academic.: Arhit:vement," ---

R e c e n t 1 r e n d s i n E d u c a t i o n 1, 2 (197C) : 28-50.
5
Arir! W . I:erns a n d M i c h a e l 13. Carns, "Teaching 5I:~oy S k i l l s ,

C o g n i t i v o S t r a t e g i e s and M e t a - C o g n i t i v e S k i l l s Through Self-Diag3osed

learn in^,] f i t y l e s , " J o u r n a l : S c h o c ~ li : o u n s e l l o r 38 ( 5 May 19111): 3 4 1 - 3 4 6 .

6
Mrint<]ocnery C o u n t y Public Schools, Program -------- S t u ' j i e s :
11'

Comprehensive Guidance a n d C o u n s ~ : l l i n q P ~ . o q r a mK-.l;;, Repc~rt o f the

MCPS Board o f E d u c a t i o n , Rockvj l l e . M a r y l a n d , 1 9 8 6 .

 7
M;:~rsh llerpert; arid G a r r y K i c h a r d , The Outwa~:!J Bc~unL Bi:.dqi:lg

Course for Low-Achie#il-lq liirlh School Males: Effect 01 --

Academic

Achievenlent and M u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l S e l f - C o n c e p t s , D o c t c ~ r a l[ ~ i : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . : l t l O l l ,

U o f A u s t r a l i a , 1986.
8
Kanas C i t y S c h o o l , N a t i o n o f t h e School within 3 :chor~l

1984-86 (SWAS) D i s t r i c : t , M. 0. 1985.

9
Mary L . F o r d , "A Model Programme t3 Improve S t u d y k and

Academic Performanct: of Low-Achieving Third Grade S:uclents:"

D i s s e r t a t i-
o n A b-
s t r a c t 7 ( 1 9 9 1 ) : 1051.
10
Roberta J . ,, t:t a l . , w i n q u a l / E l ? L Mainstream I n : , t ~ ' u c t i o n a t l

Support l ' r o q r a ~ n do f Year E v a l u a t j o n i t e p o r t f o r 1989-91., Seattle

P u b l i c S c h o o l s , Washiiigton, 1 9 9 0 , Vo. 90-96.

lvnluative Research Rep3rt of D:.strict Public 'chools cf

C o l u m b i t ~ , E v a l u a t i o n - o f t h e J u n i ~ rHiqh S c h o o l Intensivll'are ard

&covemerlt Proqram ( I C S I P ) , Washington DC: 1990: 1 2 .

l2 E l s i e M. Bruno, F o l l o w - u p S t u d y on Guidacne 7: C o l l e q ~ Su8:cess

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13
Sc:hmieding, <I[>. c i t . , 75-02.
14
D o s a j h , o p . c i t . , 28-50.

l5 De K. Montr::ith J . and [)e Wet :., Personality 3nd llther

C h a r a c t e r i z i t i c s o f tht? U n d e r a c h i e v i n q L i f t e d P u p i l , R e s e ~ ~ r zRhe p o r t .

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l6 Mercy Abrahtlm, -
F a c t-
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Unde::.achit!v:ment -- i n
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17
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