CH (1) - (3) - High Voltage Cables

3 rd Year – High Voltage Engineering (Prof. Dr.
Ahdab Elmorshedy)
Chapter 1
Grounding Systems
How Shock Occurs

The severity of the shock received when a person becomes a part of an electric circuit is
affected by three primary factors:
• The amount of current flowing through the body (measured in amperes).

• The path of the current through the body.
• The length of time the body is in the circuit.
Other factors that may affect the severity of shock are:

• Frequency of the current.
• Phase of the heart cycle when shock occurs.
• General health of the person.
Shock & the Human Body

• The effects of electric shock depend upon the type of circuit, its voltage, resistance,
current, pathway through the body, and duration of the contact.
• Effects can range from a barely perceptible tingle to immediate cardiac arrest.
• There are no absolute limits or even known values that show the exact injury from any
given current.
• The so-called low voltages can be extremely dangerous because, all other factors being
equal, the degree of injury is proportional to the length of time the body is in the
circuit.
• LOW VOLTAGE DOES NOT IMPLY LOW HAZARD.
• A severe shock can cause considerably more damage to the body than is visible.
• For example, a person may suffer internal hemorrhages and destruction of tissues,
nerves, and muscles.
• In addition, shock is often only the beginning in a chain of events.
• The final injury may well be from a fall, cuts, burns, or broken bones.
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Kahraba 1
3 rd Year – High Voltage Engineering (Prof. Dr. Ahdab Elmorshedy)
Ohm’s Law of Electricity

V=IR
V = electrical potential (volts).
I = electrical current (amps).
R = resistance (ohms).
Voltage is almost always a constant so electrical current levels are determined by the
resistance to flow. When there is a potential for electrical shock we can protect ourselves by
maximizing our resistance to current flow. This is done by wearing insulating shoes and
gloves, and by not making direct contact with a source of ground potential such as plumbing
or other sources of ground.
Our skin provides us with a natural barrier or resistance of

approximately 1,000 to 100,000 ohms depending on several
factors including skin thickness and surface moisture.
Table 3.1 Calculated electrical characteristics of human

body at 50 Hz in dry conditions
V(volts) 12.5 31.3 62.5 125 250 500 1000 2000

R(ohms) 16500 11000 6240 3530 2000 1130 640 362
I=V/R(mA) 0.8 2.84 10 35.2 125 443 1560 5540
Effects of Electrical Shock on the Human Body
50 Hz. Current Effect

1 milliampere, or
CURRENT
Threshold of sensation Not Felt

VALUES
less
SAFE
Shock, not painful, can let go, muscular control

1 to 8 ma
maintained
8 to 15 ma Painful, can let go, muscular control maintained
Painful shock, Cannot let go, muscular control of
15 to 20 ma
CURRENT
adjacent muscle loss

VALUES
UNSAFE
Painful, Breathing difficult, Severe muscle

20 to 50
contractions
Ventricular Fibrillation Heart valves not operating
100 to 500 ma
correctly – Flutter. No blood is pumped = DEATH
Severe muscular contractions – chest muscles clamp

200 and over ma
the heart and stop it as long as the current is
applied. Severe burns, especially if over 5 A
Burns & Other Injuries

The most common shock-related injury is a burn.
Burns suffered in electrical accidents may be of three types:
• Electrical
• Arc
• Thermal contact
* Electrical burns are the result of the electric current flowing through tissues or bone.
* Tissue damage is caused by the heat generated by the current flow through the body.
* Electrical burns are one of the most serious injuries you can receive and should be given
immediate attention.
* Arc or flash burns, on the other hand, are the result of high temperatures near the body and
are produced by an electric arc or explosion.
* Thermal contact burns are those normally experienced when the skin comes in contact with
hot surfaces of energized equipment.
* Additionally, clothing may be ignited in an electrical accident and a thermal burn will
result.
* All three types of burns may be produced simultaneously.
Preventing Electrical Hazards

- Electrical accidents appear to be caused by a combination of three possible factors: unsafe
equipment and/or installation; workplaces made unsafe by the environment; and unsafe work
practices.
- There are various ways of

protecting people from the hazards
caused by electricity.
- These include: insulation;

guarding; grounding; electrical
protective devices; and safe work
practices.
Extension cords are approved for temporary use only. If extended use is required, hard
wiring such as a new outlet should be installed. Extension cords are easily frayed, a condition
which may expose bare wires. If not properly placed, extension cords may also become a trip
hazard.
Power cords are doubly insulated and should

be replaced if the outer layer of insulation
becomes frayed exposing wires.
Short circuit
Shorts cause a great increase in the flow of current through the cord producing heat and
perhaps initiating a fire.
Overloads occur when more current

flows through a cord than it is rated to
handle. Power strips can be overloaded
Normal
Short
if too many high current draw devices

are plugged in at one time.
* Another common way in which power

cords can be overloaded is by plugging Plug
one power strip into another. All of the
current drawn by any device plugged
into any of the strips must flow through a V = IR
single cord. As resistance decreases, current increases.
* Eyewashes should be located away
from electrical devices and outlets.
Outlets within six feet of a sink or other
source of plumbing must be GFCI
protected in order to minimize shock
Overloaded circuit
hazards. An unprotected outlet (non- A
GFCI) is illustrated above. Outlet or
B Power
* Transformers are potential sources of C Strip
high voltage and may also contain
polychlorinated biphenyls.
D
Working Safely with Electricity

- Surge Suppressors and GFCIs.
- Lock Out/Tag Out.
- Safety Rules.
- First Aid.
- Fire Fighting.
Outlet Wire Color Conventions

Several different outlet wiring color conventions exist, but don’t
take anything for granted. It is always best to check rather than to
assume that a wire is hot or neutral based upon the wire color.
Typically the hot wire is black, the neutral or return wire is white,
and the ground wire is green.
Function of a Typical GFCI

A GFCI or ground fault circuit interrupter shuts off the flow of current upon sensing a fault
condition such as an electrical shock. Switches quickly open in the GFCI device in order to
prevent the shock victim from receiving a lethal amount of electricity.
GFCI
Switches Receptacle
Hot Line In
Current
Sensor
Neutral Line In
* A GFCI compares the amount of current in the ungrounded (hot) conductor with the
amount of current in the neutral conductor.
* If the current in the neutral conductor becomes less than the current in the hot conductor, a
ground fault condition exists.
* The amount of current that is missing is returned to the source by some path other than the
intended path (fault current).
* A fault current as low as 4 mA to 6 mA activates the GFCI and interrupts the circuit.
* Once activated, the fault condition is cleared and the GFCI manually resets before power
may be restored to the circuit.
GFCI Use
Any outlet within 6 feet of a sink or other source of plumbing should be equipped with a
GFCI. Recalling Ohm’s law, V=IR, very low resistances such as an earth ground (plumbing
etc.) allow for very high levels of current flow.
GFCI device may be located at a circuit breaker instead of an outlet. This arrangement allows
several outlets to be protected with a single GFCI device.
Typical GFCI Outlet

Receptacles containing a GFCI are noted by the test and reset buttons, and should be tested
monthly to insure proper operation.
Lock out/Tag out

To insure the safety of repair personnel, electrical panels and equipment with electrical panels
must be locked out and equipment tagged out of service before any repairs are performed.
The lock must never be removed from an electrical panel until repairs have been completed,
and only then by an individual with the appropriate authority. Repairs must only be
performed by trained professionals.
Electrical Fires
Dry chemical extinguishers (also know as ABC extinguishers) are approved for fighting
electrical fires. The label indicates the type of extinguisher that is present. Electrical fires
should only be fought if the situation is well in hand. If you feel uncomfortable fighting a fire,
pull the alarm and exit the building.
Preventing Electrical Hazards

These include:
- Insulation
- Guarding
- Grounding
- Electrical protective devices
- Safe work practices.
Grounding
* To offer enhanced protection, an additional ground, called the "equipment ground," must
be furnished by providing another path from the tool or machine through which the current
can flow to the ground.
* This additional ground safeguards the electric equipment operator in the event that a
malfunction causes any metal on the tool to become accidentally energized.
* The resulting heavy surge of current will then activate the circuit protection devices and
open the circuit.
The objective of a grounding system is:

1. To provide safety to personnel during normal and fault conditions by limiting step and
touch potential.
2. To assure correct operation of electrical/electronic devices.
3. To prevent damage to electrical/electronic apparatus.
4. To dissipate lightning strokes.
5. To stabilize voltage during transient conditions and to minimize the probability of flashover
during transients.
6. To divert stray RF energy from sensitive audio, video, control, and computer equipment.
A safe grounding design has two objectives:

1. To provide means to carry electric currents into the earth under normal and fault
conditions without exceeding any operating and equipment limits or adversely affecting
continuity of service.
2. To assure that a person in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the danger of
critical electric shock.
* The soil resistivity is the single most important factor affecting the resistance of the
ground system.
* Most soils behave both as a conductor of resistance R, and as a dielectric.
* For high frequency and steep-front waves penetrating a very high resistive soil, the earth
may be presented by a parallel connection of resistance R, capacitance C, and a gap.
* For low frequencies and dc the charging current is negligible comparing to the leakage
current, and the earth can be presented by a pure resistance R.
Soil Characteristics
* Soil type: Soil resistivity varies widely depending on soil type, from as low as 1
Ohmmeter for moist loamy topsoil to almost 10,000 Ohm-meters for surface limestone.
* Moisture content is one of the controlling factors in earth resistance because electrical
conduction in soil is essentially electrolytic.
* The resistivity of most soils rises abruptly when moisture content is less than 15 to 20
percent by weight, but is affected very little above 20 percent.
* The moisture alone is not the predominant factor influencing the soil resistivity.
* If the water is relatively pure, it will be of high resistivity and may not provide the soil with
adequate conductivity.
* The soluble salts, acids or alkali presented in soil influence considerably the soil
resistivity.
* The most commonly used salting materials are sodium chloride (common salt), copper
sulfate and magnesium sulfate.
* Different types of salts have varying depletion rates; consequently, different types may be
combined to produce the optimum depletion and conditioning characteristics.
* The temperature effect on soil resistivity is almost negligible for temperatures above the
freezing points.
* When temperature drops below water freezing point, the resistivity increases rapidly.
* Compactness and granularity affects soil resistivity in that denser soils generally
have lower resistivity.
* The two factors—moisture and salt content—are the most influential ones on soil resistivity
for a given type of soil.
* Therefore the chemical treatment of soil surrounding ground rods is preferable and in some
cases the only economically sound solution in obtaining low impedance of the ground system.
Types Of Ground Electrodes

* Ground electrodes must penetrate into the moisture level below the ground level.
* They consist of a metal (or combination of metals) which do not corrode excessively for the
period of time they are expected to serve.
* Because of its high conductivity and resistance to corrosion, copper is the most commonly
used material for ground electrodes.
* Other popular materials are hot-galvanized steel, stainless steel and lead.
* Ground electrodes may be rods, plates, strips, solid section wire or mats.
* Three types of copper rods are available.
* Solid Copper-Copper -clad steel rod ( copper shrunk onto the core)-Copper bonded steel
core (copper is molecularly bonded to nickel plated steel rod).
* Solid copper rods not prone to corrosion, but are expensive and difficult to drive into hard
ground without bending.
* A steel cored copper rod is used for this reason, however those rods that are simply clad are
prone to the cladding tearing away from the core when driven in rocky ground, or when bent.
* This exposes the internal steel core to corrosion.
* The most cost effective solution is the molecularly bonded steel cored copper rod.
There are three components affecting grounding electrode

resistance:
(1) The resistance of the electrode which is negligible.
(2) The resistance of the electrode-to-soil interface area which is negligible
(3) The resistance of the body of earth immediately surrounding the electrode.
The main part of any electrode resistance is that of the body of earth
surrounding the electrode.
Ground Resistance Of An Electrode
Grounding point electrode
* The equations for the resistance of any complex system of ground electrodes can be
developed from the fundamental principles.
* The starting point for such a development is the use of a buried metallic electrode with a
hemispherical base of radius r.
* It is assumed that the hemispherical base is completely buried in the soil.
* When a current I enters the ground through such an electrode, due to its hemispherical
base, the current flows radial outward as shown in the sketch below.
A Hemispherical electrode
ρ dx
dR =
2π x 2
Current flow from a hemisphere in a uniform earth
* If ρ is the resistivity of the soil, the resistance offered by a hemispherical shell of thickness
dx at a radial distance x from the electrode is given by
r1
ρdx
R=∫
a
2πx 2
* Hence, the resistance encountered by the ground electrode up to the depth of r1 is
ρ 1 1 
R=  − 
2π  a r1 
* If r1 is made ∞, the total resistance of the ground electrode will be
ρ
r1 → ∞ R∞ =
2π a
* This is the maximum resistance of the ground electrode.
* The general equation of the resistance shown above can be modified to a suitable form.
* If a current I enter the ground electrode, the potential drop up to the shell radius of r1 will
be given by
1 1 
ρ
R=  − 
2π  a r1 
 aρ
R= 1 − 
2πa  r1 
 a
V = IR = IR∞ 1 − 

 r1 
* The general equation for the electrode resistance:
ρ
R =
2πC
* Where C is the electrostatic capacitance of the electrode and its image above earth.
Q
Vsphere =
4πε 0 r
Q
= C = 4πε 0 r
V
* r in cm = C of a sphere in cgs units.
* At very high values of r1, the resistance value will approach the value R∞, beyond which
true ground can be assumed to be present.
* The figure below shows the plots of R, V and Vabs, the absolute potential with respect to the
true ground against the radial distance r1 from the electrode.
 a
V = IR = IR∞ 1 − 
 r1 
a
Vabs = IR∞  
 r1 
Iρ  a 
Vabs =  
2πa  r1 
Iρ
Vabs =
2πr1
Step and touch voltages
Step and Touch voltages near a grounded

structure:
E electrostatic stress (voltage gradient) :
ρI
E x = ρi =
2πx 2
r1
ρI ρI  1 1 
Vr = ∫ dx =  − 
1
a 2πx
2
2π  a r1 
Step potential
* “Step potential” is the voltage between the feet of a person standing near an energized
grounded object.
* It is equal to the difference in voltage, given by the voltage distribution curve, between two
points at different distances from the “electrode.”
* A person could be at risk of injury during a fault simply by standing near the grounding
point.
Touch potential
* “Touch potential” is the voltage between the energized object and the feet of a person in
contact with the object.
* It is equal to the difference in voltage between the energized object and a point some
distance away.
* The touch potential could be nearly the full voltage across the grounded object if that object
is grounded at a point remote from the place where the person is in contact with it.
Driven rods
Resistance of driven rods:

* The Ground Resistance (R) of a single rod, of diameter (d) and driven length (i) driven
vertically into the soil of resistivity (ρ), can be calculated as follows:
ρ   8l  
R =  ln   − 1 
2π l   d  
Where: ρ Soil Resistivity in m.

l Buried Length of the electrode in m.
d Diameter of the electrode in m.
The rod is assumed as carrying current uniformly along its rod.
* Examples:
(a) 20mm rod of 3m length and Soil resistivity 50 Ω-m .....R=16.1 Ω
(b) 25mm rod of 2m length and Soil resistivity 30 Ω-m.....R=13.0 Ω
Earth resistance shells surrounding a vertical earth electrode
* The resistance of a single rod is not sufficiently low.
* A number of rods are connected in parallel.
* They should be driven far apart as possible to minimize the overlap among their areas of
influence.
* It is necessary to determine the net reduction in the total resistance by connecting rods in
parallel.
* The rod is replaced by a hemispherical electrode having the same resistance.
Equivalent hemisphere
ρ ρ  8l 
=  ln − 1
2πreq 2πl  d 
l
req =
 8l 
ln d − 1
* R for large power station = 0.5 ohm

* R for small power station = 5 ohm
* R for towers = 10-30 ohm
* R for labs = 2 ohm
Rod Electrodes in Parallel

* If the desired ground resistance cannot be achieved with one ground electrode, the overall
resistance can be reduced by connecting a number of electrodes in parallel.
* These are called “arrays of rod electrodes”.
* The combined resistance is a function of the number and configuration of electrodes, the
separation between them, their dimensions and soil resistivity.
* Rods in parallel should be spaced at least twice their length to utilize the full benefit of the
additional rods.
* If the separation of the electrodes is much larger than their lengths and only a few
electrodes are in parallel, then the resultant ground resistance can be calculated using the
ordinary equation for resistances in parallel.
* In practice, the effective ground resistance will usually be higher than this.
* Typically, a 4 spike array may provide an improvement of about 2.5 to 3 times.
* An 8 spike array will typically give an improvement of may be 5 to 6 times.
The multiple driven rod electrode

* The driven rod is an economical and simple means of making an earth connection but its
resistance is not sufficiently low.
* A number of rods are connected in parallel.
* They should be driven far apart as possible to minimize the overlap among their areas of
influence.
* It is necessary to determine the net reduction in the total resistance by connecting rods in
parallel.
* The rod is replaced by a hemispherical electrode having the same resistance.
* The method consists of assuming that each equivalent hemisphere carries the same charge.
* Calculate the average potential of the group of rods.
* From this and the total charge the capacity and the resistance can be calculated.
Two ground electrodes
Equivalent
Hemisphere
* Two driven rods:

( I / 2) ρ ( I / 2) ρ Iρ  1 1 
V1 = + =  + 
2πr 2πd 4π  r d 
* Actual value ρ
Re qideal =
4πr
* Ideal value
V ρ 1 1 
Re qactual = = +
I 4π  r d 
Overlapping coefficient (screening):
ideal Re qideal
η= = ≤1
actual Re qactual
* Three electrode system
* Four electrode system
Ground-grid Mesh Electrodes

¾ Another example of the use of conductors buried under the surface of the ground is
the ground-grid mesh.
¾ A common method for obtaining low ground resistance at high voltage substations is to
use interconnected ground grids.
¾ A typical grid system for a substation would comprise 4/0 bare solid copper
conductors buried at a depth of 30-60 cm, spaced in a grid pattern of about 3-10 m.
¾ At each junction, the conductors are securely bonded together.
¾ Grid meshes are often used to complement rods or can be used separately when deep
driven rods are impractical due to soil considerations.
¾ Grid meshes are often used for the grounding in substations to create an equipotential
platform and also to handle the high fault currents returning to the transformer
neutrals.
¾ They are particularly useful when multiple injection points are required, at a
substation.
¾ In this case a number of items will be connected to the grid at various locations, the
mesh provides a good ground irrespective of the injection point of the fault current.
¾ Grounding resistance of buried grid meshes can be considerably lower than those
implemented using vertical ground rods.
¾ Increasing the area of the grid coverage can also significantly reduce the ground
resistance.
The side of grid conductors required to avoid fusing under the fault current I is estimated as
1
 76t  2
a =I 
 ln(234 + Tm )(234 + Ta ) 
¾ where a is the copper cross-section (circular mils), t is the fault duration s, Tm is the
maximum allowable temperature, and Ta is the ambient temperature.
¾ Such a grid not only effectively grounds the equipment, but has the added advantage
of controlling the voltage gradients at the surface
of the ground to values safe for human contact.
¾ Ground rods may be connected to the grid for further reduction in the ground
resistance when the upper layer of soil is of much higher resistivity than that of the soil
underneath.
A practical approach to safe grounding considers the interaction of two grounding systems:
¾ The intentional ground, consisting of ground electrodes buried at some depth below
the earth surface, and the accidental ground, temporarily established by a person
exposed to a potential gradient at a grounded facility.
¾ An ideal ground should provide a near zero resistance to remote earth.
¾ The ground potential rise at the facility site increases proportionally to the fault
current; the higher the current, the lower the value of total system resistance which
must be obtained.
¾ For most large substations the ground resistance should be less than 1 Ohm.
¾ For smaller distribution substations the usually acceptable range is 1-5 Ohms,
depending on the local conditions.
¾ The grounding system of power plants and substations is usually formed by several
vertical ground rods connected to each other and to all equipment frames, neutrals
and structures that are to be grounded.
¾ Such a system that combines a horizontal grid and a number of vertical ground rods
penetrating lower soil layers has several advantages in comparison to a grid alone.
Sufficiently long ground rods stabilize the performance of such a combined system making it
less dependent on seasonal and weather variations of soil resistivity.
¾ Rods are more efficient in dissipating fault currents because the upper soil layer
usually has a higher resistivity than the lower layers.
¾ The current in the ground rods is discharged mainly in lower portion of the rods.
Methods Of Decreasing Ground Resistance

¾ Decreasing the ground resistance of a grounding system in high resistivity soil is often
a formidable task.
¾ Recently, some new methods have been proposed to decrease ground resistance. These
methods are listed in the following section.
1-Chemical Rods
¾ Chemical rods are electrodes with holes along their length, filled with mineral salts.
¾ The specially formulated mineral salts are evenly distributed along the entire length of
the electrode.
¾ The rod absorbs moisture from both air and soil.
¾ Continuous conditioning of a large area insures an ultra-low-resistance ground which
is more effective than a conventional electrode.
¾ If the conductive salts are running low, the rod can be recharged with a refill kit.
¾ These rods are available in vertical and horizontal configurations.
¾ They may be used in rocky soils, freezing climates, dry deserts, or tropical rain forests.
¾ They provide stable protection for many years.
Disadvantages are:
¾ Chemicals concentrated around electrodes will cause corrosion.
¾ Chemicals leach through the soil and dissipate.
¾ Scheduled replenishment may be required.
¾ May be prohibited because they may contaminate the water table.
2- Grounding Augmentation Fill (GAF)

¾ About 95% of the grounding resistance of a given electrode is determined by the
character of the soil within a hemisphere whose radius is 1.1 times the length of the
rod.
¾ It is obvious that replacing all or part of that soil with a highly conductive backfill will
facilitate the achievement of a low-resistance ground connection.
¾ The greater the percentage of soil replaced, the lower the ultimate grounding
resistance.
¾ The amount of the backfill material required is determined in most cases by the
Interfacing Volume and Critical Cylinder principles.
¾ A ground electrode establishes a connection to earth by affecting only a certain

volume of earth, called the Interfacing Volume (IV).
¾ For practical purposes for a ground rod the entire connection to earth is contained
within an IV whose radius is 2.5 times the length of the rod.
¾ Most of the earth connection takes place in a cylinder close to the electrode, called the
Critical Cylinder.
¾ A study of the influence of soil within the IV demonstrates that six inches of soil along
any radial makes up 52 per cent of the connection to earth; a 12 inches makes up 68
percent of the connection.
¾ Beyond a diameter of 24 inches there is very little improvement for much larger
diameters.
¾ Therefore, the recommended diameter for the Critical Cylinder is between 12 and 24
inches, and the calculated amount of the required backfill material is based on that
diameter and the length of the ground rod.
3- Cracks with Low Resistivity Materials (LRM)

This method requires 3 steps:
¾ drilling deep holes in the ground, developing cracks in the soil by means of explosions
in the holes, filling the holes with low resistivity materials (LRM) under pressure.
¾ Most of the cracks around the vertical conductors will be filled with LRM, and a
complex network of low resistivity tree like cracks linked to the substation grid is
formed.
¾ Field tests show that the optimum span between vertical conductors is in the range of
1.5-2 times the length of the vertical conductor.
¾ This method is effective in reducing ground resistances in rocky areas.
¾ Soil Treatment Alternatives
¾ Ground enhancement material
z Cement-like compound
z Non-corrosive
z Extremely conductive
z Installed around the electrode
z Easy installation
z Permanent
Conductive Cement Concrete has a resistivity range of 30 to 90 Ohm-meters.
¾ Since it is hygroscopic by nature it will tend to absorb moisture when available and
keep it up to 30 days, thus maintaining a resistivity lower than the surrounding soil.
¾ However, during a long dry season concrete will dry out with a subsequent rise in
resistivity.
¾ Also, if a substantial amount of fault or lightning current is injected into a concrete

encased electrode, the moisture in the concrete may become steam, dramatically
increasing in volume and placing a substantial stress on the concrete.
Neutral Grounding
Power System Grounding

• “System grounding” means the connection of ground to the neutral points of current
carrying conductors such as the neutral point of a circuit, a transformer, rotating
machinery, or a system, either solidly or with a current limiting device.
¾ Ungrounded system.
¾ Solid grounding.
¾ Impedance grounding (R and X).
¾ Resonant grounding.
Ungrounded Systems
• Early Electrical systems are almost universally operated ungrounded.
• On small systems an insulation failure on one phase did not cause an outage.
• As systems increased in size and voltage rating, an increasing number of insulation

failures produced multiple failures and major faults.
• The ungrounded neutral system is a capacitive grounded neutral system, the

capacitance being the conductor capacitance to ground.
• In normal operation the capacitive current of all three lines is leading the respective
line to neutral voltage by 90˚, and the vector sum of all three currents is zero.
• An ungrounded system is one in which there is no intentional connection between the
conductors and earth ground.
• In any system, a capacitive coupling exists between the system conductors and the
adjacent grounded surfaces.
• The “ungrounded system” is, in reality, a “capacitive grounded system” by virtue of

the distributed capacitance.
• Under normal operating conditions, this distributed capacitance causes no problems.
• In fact, it is beneficial, because it establishes, in effect, a neutral point for the system
and as a result, the phase conductors are stressed at only line-to-neutral voltage above
ground.
• An ungrounded system is one in which there is no intentional connection between the

conductors and earth ground.
• In any system, a capacitive coupling exists between the system conductors and the
adjacent grounded surfaces.
• The “ungrounded system” is, in reality, a “capacitive grounded system” by virtue of

the distributed capacitance.
• Under normal operating conditions, this distributed capacitance causes no problems.
• In fact, it is beneficial, because it establishes, in effect, a neutral point for the system
and as a result, the phase conductors are stressed at only line-to-neutral voltage above
ground.
• Problems can arise under ground fault conditions.
• A ground fault on one line results in full line-to-line voltage appearing on the other
two phases.
• A voltage 1 .73 times the normal voltage is present on all insulation on the ungrounded
phases.
Phase A and B are now at full

line-to-line voltage above ground.
A B
Line-to-line voltage
A B
C
Each phase is
line-to-neutral Neutral point Phase C is now at ground
voltage above ground.. established Ground potential
C by distribution
Voltage relationships. capacitance..
(a) (b)
NORMAL OPERATION GROUND FAULT ON PHASE
• In addition to the cost of equipment damage, ungrounded systems present fault

locating problems.
• This involves a tedious process of trial and error; first isolating the correct feeder, then
the branch, and finally the equipment at fault.
• The result is unnecessarily lengthy and expensive downtime.
• Despite the drawbacks of an ungrounded system, it does have one main advantage.
• The circuit may continue in operation after the first ground fault, assuming it remains
as a single fault.
• This permits continued production, until a convenient shutdown can be scheduled for
maintenance
• The interaction between the faulted system and its distributed capacitance may cause
transient over-voltages (several times normal) to appear from line to ground during
normal switching of a circuit having a line to ground fault (short).
• These over-voltages may cause insulation failures at points other than the original
fault.
• In addition, a second fault on another phase may occur before the first fault can be
cleared.
• This can result in very high line to line fault currents, equipment damage and
disruption of both circuits.
• When there is a short circuit on phase C; IC --> o as its voltage to ground is zero.
• The voltage of the unfaulted phases increase to full line-to-line value with respect to
ground, and their charging currents increase proportionally.
• The charging currents shift accordingly and the sum of the charging currents in the
unfaulted phases is three times the normal value and appears in the ground, returning
to the system through the fault.
• If the fault can be interrupted, it will be at a current zero, current zero occurs at the
instant of a voltage maximum, if the fault momentarily clears, a H.V immediately
appears across the fault, and restrike of the fault will occur.
• In this moment, the excessive voltage charge of the capacitors on the unfaulted lines
has been trapped as a dc charge.
• When the arc restrikes again, the capacitors are again recharged by a line-to-line
voltage added to the trapped charge.
• This will lead to an insulation failure on another phase and a major two-ph-fault.
• The capacitive current in the two healthy phases increase to 3 times the normal value.
• The capacitive current in the faulty phase is 3 times its normal value.
• A capacitive fault current flows in the ground. An arc is maintained in the ionized path
of the fault ---> "arcing ground“
• Under fault: the voltage to earth of the two healthy phases rises from their normal
phase to neutral voltage to full line value ---> insulation break down.
• The protective relays may not operate due to small fault current.
Grounded System
All power systems of today operate with grounded neutrals.
It is important because:
1-The earth fault protection is based on the method of neutral grounding.
2-The system voltage during earth fault depends on neutral grounding.
3-Neutral grounding has its associated switchgear.
4-Neutral grounding gives protection against arcing ground, unbalanced voltage with respect
to earth, and protection from lightning.
The intentional connection of the neutral points of transformers, generators and rotating
machinery to the earth ground network provides a reference point of zero volts.
This protective measure offers many advantages over an ungrounded system,

including:
• Reduced magnitude of transient over-voltages.
• Simplified ground fault location.
• Improved system and equipment fault protection.
• Reduced maintenance time and expense.
• Greater safety for personnel.
• Improved lightning protection.
• Reduction in frequency of faults.
Solidly grounded systems:

• It is a simple and effective method of grounding and inexpensive.
• The neutrals of any star connected transformers, generators are connected to ground.
• It minimizes the magnitude of the over voltage that will appear on the unfaulted
phases during a ground fault, resulting in a reduction in the stress on insulation.
Solidly Grounded System

(a) Three-wire ungrounded system.
(b) Four-wire ungrounded system.
Solidly Grounded Systems

(c) Three-wire multigrounded system.
(d) Phasor diagram for normal operation.
(e) Phasor diagram for a ground fault.
Solidly Grounding
• A solidly grounded system is one in which the neutral points have been intentionally
connected to ground with a conductor having no intentional impedance.
• This partially reduces the problem of transient over-voltages found on the ungrounded
system, provided the ground fault current is in the range of 25 to 100% of the system
three phase fault current.
• However; if the reactance of the generator or transformer is too great, the problem of
transient over-voltages will not be solved.
• While solidly grounded systems are an improvement over ungrounded systems, and
speed the location of faults, they lack the current limiting ability of resistance
grounding.
• The destructive nature of arcing ground faults in solidly grounded systems is well
known and are caused by the energy dissipated in the fault.
• A measure of this energy can be obtained from the estimate of Kilowatt-cycles

dissipated in the arc :
• Kilowatt cycles = V x I x Time/1000.
Disadvantages:
• A solidly grounded system produces the greatest magnitude of ground fault current
when a fault to ground occurs and the destructive nature of arcing ground faults.
• The solidly grounded system has the highest probability of escalating into a phase-to-
phase or three-phase arcing fault, particularly for the 480 and 600V systems.
• A safety hazard exists for solidly grounded systems from the severe flash, arc burning
and blast hazard from any phase-to-ground fault.
• Controlling the fault current and clearing the fault promptly, the amount of damage at
the fault will be reduced.
Resistive Grounded Systems

• Resistance grounding is by far the most effective and preferred method.
• It solves the problem of transient over-voltages, thereby reducing equipment damage.
• It accomplishes this by allowing the magnitude of the fault current to be

predetermined by a simple ohm’s law calculation.
• Thus the fault current can be limited, in order to prevent equipment damage.
• I=V/R
Where: I = Limit of Fault Current.

V = Line-to-neutral Voltage of System.
R = Ohmic Value of Neutral grounding Resistor.
TRANSFORMER
NEUTRA
SYSTEM VOLTAGE
LINE NEUTRAL
NEUTRAL GROUNDING
RESISTOR
LINE TO NEUTRAL VOLTAGE EQUALS

SYSTEM VOLTAGE DIVIDED BY 1.732
Low Resistance Grounding
• Low resistance grounding of the neutral limits the ground fault current to a high level
(typically 50 amps or more) in order to operate protective fault clearing relays and
current transformers.
• These devices are then able to quickly clear the fault, usually within a few seconds.
• The importance of this fast response time is that it:

¾ Limits damage to equipment.
¾ Prevents additional faults from occurring.
¾ Provides safety for personnel.
¾ Localizes the fault.
• The limited fault current and fast response time also prevent overheating and
mechanical stress on conductors.
• Note that, like the solidly grounded neutral system, the circuit must be shut down after
the first ground fault.
• Low resistance grounding resistors are typically rated 400 amps for 10 seconds, and
are commonly found on medium and high voltage systems.
High Resistance Grounding
• High resistance grounding of the neutral limits the ground fault current to a very low
level (typically under 25 amps).
• It is used on low voltage systems of 600 volts or less, under 3000 amps.
• By limiting the ground fault current, the fault can be tolerated on the system until it
can be located, and then isolated or removed at a convenient time.
• This permits continued production, providing a second ground fault does not occur.
• High resistance neutral grounding can be added to existing ungrounded systems

without the expense of adding fault clearing relays and breakers.
• This provides an economical method of upgrading older; ungrounded systems.
• The resistor must be sized to ensure that the ground fault current limit is greater than
the system's total capacitance-to-ground charging current.
• If not, then transient over voltages can occur.
• By strategic use and location of ground fault sensing relays, trouble shooting can be
greatly simplified.
• High resistance neutral grounding combined with sensitive ground fault relays and
isolating devices, can quickly detect and shut down the faulted circuit.
• This provides operating personnel with the added safety that's essential in this
environment.
• High-resistance grounding helps insure a ground-fault current of known magnitude,

helpful for relaying purposes.
• This makes it possible to identify the faulted feeder with sensitive ground-fault relays.
• High-resistance grounding provides the same advantages as ungrounded systems yet

limits the steady state and severe transient over-voltages associated with ungrounded
systems.
• There is no arc flash hazard, as there is with a solidly grounded system, since the fault
current is limited to approximately 5A.
The reasons for limiting the current by resistance grounding may be one or more of the
following:
1) to reduce burning and melting effects in faulted electric equipment, such as switchgear,
transformers, cables and rotating machines.
2) to reduce mechanical stresses in circuits and apparatus carrying fault currents.
3) to reduce electric-shock hazards to personnel caused by stray ground fault currents in the
ground return path.
4) to reduce arc blast or flash hazard to personnel who may have accidentally caused or who
happen to be in close proximity to the fault current.
5) to reduce the momentary line-voltage dip occasioned by the occurrence and clearing of a
ground fault.
6) to secure control of transient over voltages while at the same time avoiding the shutdown
of a faulty circuit on the occurrence of the first ground fault.
System Type
High
Productivity Impact Solidly Low Resistance Resistance
Ungrounded Grounded Grounded Grounded
System System System System
Overvoltages Severe None Limited Limited

Equipment
Overcurrent - Damage
Damage
at point of fault Unknown Severe Minimal None
Maintenance Costs High Reasonable Reasonable Low
Continuous Operation Possible but not
with Ground Fault recommended Not possible Not possible Ideal
Relay Co-ordination
Downtime
(Appropriate Equipment
Tripped, Ease of fault
location) Difficult Difficult Good Excellent
Personnel Safety to Personnel Poor Good Reasonable Excellent
Reactance grounding system

• Elimination of the fault current that could cause the arcing ground condition.
• Normally it does not carry current.
• During fault: reactive component of current I = capacitive component of current I.
• No current at the fault, preventing restrikes and eliminates the cause of voltage
buildup.
Resonant grounding
• Using Peterson coil which is a tunable iron cored reactor connected between the
neutral and ground.
• The ground fault neutralizer is said to be effective in 70 to 80 % of the faults.
• In an ungrounded system arcing grounds takes place (fault on phase C):
Vph V ph I C = 3I = 3Vphωc
I= =
Xc 1 / ωc
I F = I A + I B = −3IC
I L = 3IC & IF + IL = 0
EC E
IL = − = −3 C = 3IC
XL XC
XC
∴ XL =
3
1
L=
3ω 2 c
Disadvantages of Ungrounded Systems:

Arcing Grounds:
• A temporary fault caused by falling branch, lightning surge, etc, creates an arc
between an overhead line and ground.
• The arc extinguishes and restrikes in a repeated, regular manner Æ arcing ground.
• Each line has an inherent distributed capacitance with respect to earth.
• The distributed capacitance discharges through the fault when the gap between point
of fault and ground breaks down.
• The capacitance again gets charged.
• Such repeated charging and discharging of line-to-ground capacitance resulting in

repeated arcs between line and ground is called Arcing grounds.
• Arcing grounds produce reverse voltage oscillations reaching 3-4 times normal value.
• The voltage of a healthy line above earth is increased by √3 times when an earth fault
occurs on a line.
• This causes stress on the insulation of all the machines and equipment connected to the
system.
• The voltage rise of the line above earth is sustained and thereby insulation failure
likely to occur through fault current may be negligible.
• The voltage of healthy lines above ground becomes equal to line voltage which is √3
times the phase voltage.
• Earth faults cannot be sensed and the earth fault relaying becomes complicated.
• The overvoltages due to induced static charges are not conducted to earth in
ungrounded systems.
• The voltages due to lightning surges do not find path to earth.
Advantages of Neutral Grounding:

• Arcing grounds are reduced or eliminated.
• The system is not subjected to overvoltage surges due to arcing grounds.
• The voltages of healthy lines with respect to earth remain at harmless value. They do
not increase to √3 time normal value.
• The life of insulation is long due to prevention of voltages surges or sustained

overvoltages. Thereby reduced maintenance, repairs, breakdowns and improved
continuity.
• The earth fault relaying is relatively simple. Useful amount of earth fault current is
available to operate earth fault relay.
• The overvoltages due to lightning are discharged to earth.
• The earth fault current can be controlled.
• Improved service reliability.
• Greater safety for personnel or equipment due to operation of fuses or relays on earth
fault and limitation of voltages.
• Life of equipment, machines and insulation is improved due to limitation of voltages.
Four electrode method

A
V
~
1 2 3 4
Earth Resistivity Measurement

Soil resistivity tests should be carried out before designing grounding systems.
Four-Electrode Method
• The most common method of measuring ρ employs four electrodes driven into the soil.
• The theoretical basis of this method depends on using four small electrodes.
• The electrodes are inserted into four small holes in the earth all to a depth of b m, and
spaced along a straight line of intervals a m, and making electrical contact with the
earth only at the bottom.
• A test current I is injected through the earth between the two outer electrodes and the
potential difference E between the two inner electrodes is measured with a
potentiometer or high impedance voltmeter.
• The ratio between the observed potential difference and the injected current is
referred to as the apparent resistance, which is a function of ρ and the electrode
geometry.
4π aR
ρ=
 2a 2a 
1 + − 
 
 a 2 + 4b 2 a2 + b2 
4π aR
ρ=
n
• n varies from 1 to 2 depending on the ratio of b/a.
• If b is large compared with a, then:

ρ = 4π aR
• If b is very small compared with a,
ρ = 2π aR
then:
ρ
R=
2π a
ρ = 2π aR
• The arrangement of four electrodes in a straight line at equal intervals is known as the
Wenner configuration.
• In homogeneous soil the resistivity is given by:
The Wenner configuration
A
↓ ↑
V
1 2 3 4
V
R =
I
Due to I going down:

Iρ  1 1 
V12 =  − 
2π  r a 
Iρ
1 1 
V13 =  r − 2a 
2π
Iρ  1 1 
V23 = −
2π  a 2a 
Due to I going up:
Iρ 1 1 
V4 2 =  r − 2a 
2π
Iρ  1 1 
V43 = −
2π  r a 
Iρ  1 1
V 23 = −
2 π  2 a a 
Iρ  1 1  (− I )ρ  1 1 
V23 = − + −
total 2π  a 2a  2π  2a a 
Iρ  1 1  Iρ
= − =
π  a 2a  2π a
V23 ρ
=R=
I 2π a
⇒ ρ = 2π aR
Measurement Of Ground Electrode

Resistance
When an electrode system has been designed and installed, it is usually necessary to measure
and confirm the ground resistance between the electrode and “true Earth”. The most
commonly used method of measuring the ground resistance of a ground electrode is the 3-
point measuring technique shown in Figure 1. This method is derived from the 4-point
method, which is used for soil resistivity measurements.
The 3-point method, called the “fall of potential” method, comprises the Ground Electrode to
be measured and two other electrically independent test electrodes, usually labeled P
(Potential) and C (Current). These test electrodes can be of lesser “quality” (higher ground
resistance) but must be electrically independent of the electrode to be measured. An
alternating current (I) is passed through the outer electrode C and the voltage is measured, by
means of an inner electrode P, at some intermediary point between them. The Ground
Resistance is simply calculated using Ohm’s Law; Rg = V/I.
Other more complex methods, such as the Slope Method or the Four Pole Method, have been
developed to overcome specific problems associated with this simpler procedure, mainly for
measurements of the resistance of large grounding systems or at sites where space for locating
the test electrodes is restricted.
Regardless of the measurement method employed, it should be remembered that the

measurement of ground resistance is as much an art as it is a science, and resistance
measurements can be affected by many parameters, some of which may be difficult to
quantify. As such, it is best to take a number of separate readings and average them, rather
than rely on the results of a single measurement.
When performing a measurement, the aim is to position the auxiliary test electrode C far
enough away from the ground electrode under test so that the auxiliary test electrode P will
lie outside the effective resistance areas of both the ground system and the other test electrode.
If the current test electrode, C, is too close, the resistance areas will overlap and there will be
a steep variation in the measured resistance as the voltage test electrode is moved. If the
current test electrode is correctly positioned, there will be a ‘flat’ (or very nearly so)
resistance area somewhere in between it and the ground system, and variations in the position
of the voltage test electrode should only produce very minor changes in the resistance figure.
The instrument is connected to the ground system under test via a short length of test cable,
and a measurement is taken.
Measurement accuracy can be affected by the proximity of other buried metal objects to the
auxiliary test electrodes. Objects such as fences and building structures, buried metal pipes or
even other grounding systems can interfere with the measurement and introduce errors.
Often it is difficult to judge, merely from visual inspection of the site, a suitable location for
the tests stakes and so it is always advisable to perform more than one measurement to ensure
the accuracy of the test.
1. Fall of Potential Method

This is one of the most common methods employed for the measurement of ground resistance
and is best suited to small systems that don’t cover a wide area. It is simple to carry out and
requires a minimal amount of calculation to obtain a result.
This method is generally not suited to large grounding installations, as the stake separations
needed to ensure an accurate measurement can be excessive, requiring the use of very long
test leads (refer to Table 1).
Normally, the outer test electrode, or current test stake, is driven into the ground 30 to 50
meters away from the ground system, (although this distance will depend on the size of the
system being tested - refer to Table 1) and the inner electrode, or voltage test stake, is then
driven into the ground mid-way between the ground electrode and the current test stake, and
in a direct line between them.
Maximum Distance from Minimum distance from

dimension ‘electrical ‘electrical center’ of
across ground center’ of ground system to
system ground system current test stake
to voltage test
stake
1 15 30
2 20 40
5 30 60
10 43 85
20 60 120
50 100 200
100 140 280
Table 1. Variation of current and voltage electrode separation with maximum ground system
dimensions, in meters.
Let E be the electrode whose resistance to ground is required to be measured and let P and C
be the auxiliary rods driven into the ground. A known value of current I is circulated between
C and E, and the voltage drop V between E and P is measured.
The resistance of the electrode E to the ground is V/I. The optimum location for the potential
electrode P is 0.62 of the distance from E to C when the distance D is at least 30 times the
depth of the electrode E.
Let the base of the electrode E be a hemisphere of (equivalent) radius r and the other two
electrodes designated as shown in the figure.
Figure 1. Arrangement of the Electrodes for the Fall of Potential Method
Figure 2. Resistance as a Function of the Distance from the electrode E
The potential at E due to the entering current is Iρ /2π r and due to the current leaving at C is
- Iρ /2π D. The total potential at E can be given by
Similarly the total potential at P due to the current entering at E and that leaving at C can be
given by
The net potential difference between E and P will be given by
V = VE -VP
If the resistance curve (Figure 2) between E and C is observed, it flattens beyond P (if located
optimally between E and C) and the resistance of the ground electrode between E and P and
that between E and C are nearly same. An upward bend in the resistance curve above, near
the point C is due to the resistance of the auxiliary rod C itself and does not affect
measurement of the resistance of the main electrode E.
Therefore the potential difference between E and C and between E and P will also be the
same. Hence, the measured resistance of the electrode E will be
where c = D/r and p = H/r.
But the resistance of the ground electrode is R∞ = ρ /2π r.
If the measured value R is to be equal to R∞ , the condition to be satisfied will be
p2 + pc + c2 = 0
From this, it follows that H = 0.618D will satisfy this condition. This indicates that for any
separation of the current electrodes (E and C), the true resistance of one of them is obtainable
when the potential electrode (P) is 61.8% of the distance toward the other.
The Fall of Potential method incorporates a check to ensure that the test electrodes are indeed
positioned far enough away for a correct reading to be obtained. It is advisable that this check
be carried, as it is really the only way of ensuring a correct result.
To perform a check on the resistance figure, two additional measurements should be made;
the first with the voltage test electrode (P) moved 10% further away from the ground under
test, and the second measurement with the (P) electrode moved 10% closer to the ground
under test.
If these two additional measurements are in agreement with the original measurement, within
the required level of accuracy, then the test stakes have been correctly positioned and the DC
resistance figure can be obtained by averaging the three results. However, if there is
substantial disagreement amongst any of these results, then it is likely that the stakes have
been incorrectly positioned, either by being too close to the ground system being tested, too
close to one another or too close to other structures that are interfering with the results. The
stakes should be repositioned at a larger separation distance or in a different direction and
the three measurements repeated. This process should be repeated until a satisfactory result is
achieved.
2. The 62% Method

The Fall of Potential method can be adapted slightly for use with medium sized grounding
systems. This adaptation is often referred to as the 62% Method, as it involves positioning the
inner test stake at 62% of the ground electrode-to-outer stake separation (recall that in the
Fall-of-Potential method, this figure was 50%).
All the other requirements of test stake location - that they be in a straight line and be
positioned away from other structures - remain valid. When using this method, it is also
advisable to repeat the measurements with the inner test stake moved 10% of the ground
electrode-inner test stake separation distance, as before.
The main disadvantage with this method is that the theory on which it is based relies on the
assumption that the underlying soil is homogeneous, which in practice is rarely the case. Thus,
care should be taken in its use and a soil resistivity survey should always be carried out.
Alternatively, one of the other methods should be employed.
3. Other Test Methods

Many other methods exist for taking ground resistance measurements. Many of these
methods have been designed in an attempt to alleviate the necessity for excessive electrode
separations, when measuring large ground systems, or the requirement of having to know the
electrical center of the system.
Three such methods are briefly described below. Specific details are not given here, but
instead the reader is referred to the relevant technical paper where these systems are
described in detail.
(a). The Slope Method

This method is suitable for use with large grounding systems, such as sub-station grounds. It
involves taking a number of resistance measurements at various ground system to voltage
electrode separations and then plotting a curve of the resistance variation between the ground
and the current. From this graph, and from data obtained from tables, it is possible to
calculate the theoretical optimum location for the voltage electrode and thus, from the
resistance curve, calculate the true resistance.
The additional measurement and calculation effort tends to relegate this system to use with
only very large or complex grounding systems.
(b). The Star-Delta Method
This technique is well suited to use with large systems in built up areas or on rocky terrain,
where it may be difficult to find suitable locations for the test electrodes, particularly over
long distances in a straight line.
Three test electrodes are used, set up at the corners of an equilateral triangle with the ground
system in the middle and measurements are made of the total resistance between adjacent
electrodes, and also between each electrode and the grounding system.
Using these results, a number of calculations are performed and a result can be obtained for
the resistance of the ground system.
(c). The Four Potential Method
This technique, developed by Dr G.F. Tagg, helps overcome some of the problems associated
with the requirement for knowing the electrical center of the grounding systems being tested.

CH (1) - (3) - High Voltage Cables

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3 rd Year – High Voltage Engineering (Prof. Dr.

How Shock Occurs

• The amount of current flowing through the body (measured in amperes).

Other factors that may affect the severity of shock are:

Shock & the Human Body

• LOW VOLTAGE DOES NOT IMPLY LOW HAZARD.

• In addition, shock is often only the beginning in a chain of events.

Ohm’s Law of Electricity

Our skin provides us with a natural barrier or resistance of

Table 3.1 Calculated electrical characteristics of human

V(volts) 12.5 31.3 62.5 125 250 500 1000 2000

Effects of Electrical Shock on the Human Body

50 Hz. Current Effect

Threshold of sensation Not Felt

Shock, not painful, can let go, muscular control

adjacent muscle loss

Painful, Breathing difficult, Severe muscle

Severe muscular contractions – chest muscles clamp

Burns & Other Injuries

* All three types of burns may be produced simultaneously.

Preventing Electrical Hazards

- There are various ways of

- These include: insulation;

Power cords are doubly insulated and should

Overloads occur when more current

if too many high current draw devices

* Another common way in which power

Working Safely with Electricity

Outlet Wire Color Conventions

Function of a Typical GFCI

Typical GFCI Outlet

Lock out/Tag out

Preventing Electrical Hazards

The objective of a grounding system is:

2. To assure correct operation of electrical/electronic devices.

3. To prevent damage to electrical/electronic apparatus.

4. To dissipate lightning strokes.

A safe grounding design has two objectives:

* Most soils behave both as a conductor of resistance R, and as a dielectric.

Types Of Ground Electrodes

* Three types of copper rods are available.

* This exposes the internal steel core to corrosion.

There are three components affecting grounding electrode

Ground Resistance Of An Electrode

Grounding point electrode

* It is assumed that the hemispherical base is completely buried in the soil.

Current flow from a hemisphere in a uniform earth

* This is the maximum resistance of the ground electrode.

* The general equation for the electrode resistance:

* r in cm = C of a sphere in cgs units.

Step and touch voltages

Step and Touch voltages near a grounded

E electrostatic stress (voltage gradient) :

Resistance of driven rods:

Where: ρ Soil Resistivity in m.

The rod is assumed as carrying current uniformly along its rod.

Earth resistance shells surrounding a vertical earth electrode

* The resistance of a single rod is not sufficiently low.

* A number of rods are connected in parallel.

* The rod is replaced by a hemispherical electrode having the same resistance.

* R for large power station = 0.5 ohm

Rod Electrodes in Parallel

* These are called “arrays of rod electrodes”.