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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
PHY 2511
UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
©Copyright
This module has specifically been written for distance education students of the University of Zambia.
The program may use the module in all reasonable ways. However, the copyright remains with the
author. No part of this module may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
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retrieval system, without permission in writing from the author.
I would like to sincerely thank Dr. Mweene for his acceptance to allow me use material from his
module for Fast Track Teacher Education Programme. Without his good gesture, this module could
not have been completed in time as some of the materials presented here were directly taken from his
module which already has a structure for a course in Classical Mechanics, Analytical Mechanics and
Special Theory of Relativity for a programme such as the one for distance education.
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Contents
Contents i
Module overview 3
Welcome to Classical Mechanics Module (PHY 2511) ................................................... 3
CLASSICAL MECHANICS Module. Is this module for you? ........................................ 3
Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills ........................................................................................................................ 4
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 6
Assignments ...................................................................................................................... 6
Assessments ...................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 1 10
Chapter 2 30
Chapter 3 50
Chapter 4 72
How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.
Study skills.
Activity icons.
Units.
Unit outcomes.
New terminology.
A unit summary.
Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with
a list of additional resources at the end of this Module; these may be
books, articles or web sites.
Your comments
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Module overview
7.
3
Module overview
Timeframe
This is the module for Classical Mechanics that you will study during your programme.
The other module in the field of Mechanics is PHY 2522-called Analytical Mechanics
and the Special Theory of Relativity. Both modules should be completed in the second
year of study.
The modules cover material (work) for one academic year. For both in each unit, the
time frame required to study the material adequately is indicated. The time indicated is
How long? not the time for lectures but time for self study. Lectures may take less or more time
than indicated. It is advisable to study PHY 2511 first before proceeding to PHY 2522,
however, there are units in PHY 2522 which can be studied independent of those units in
the PHY 2511 module
Study skills
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
http://www.how-to-study.com/
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar. A part from the given web site addresses, there is
a free book at bookboon.com entitled-“Strategies to Fight Exam Stress
and Achieve Success” ISBN 978-87-7681-917-0 by Will Stringer. This
is an excellent book which gives you guidance on many aspects of
preparing for an exam.
5
Module overview
Need help?
You may find some resources on other website or contact Prof. Reccab
Ochieng Manyala at the Department of Physics, School of Natural
Sciences, University of Zambia. E-mail address: reccabo@yahoo.com.
Help
for matters related to the course. You are also free to consult with any
academic member of staff in the Department of Physics; they are always
willing to help students. In case I am not the one taking you in this
course, you will consult with the lecturer concerned. Though we have
endeavored to make this unit “mistake free” as much as possible, there
could be some mistakes. We encourage you to point out these mistakes
to your course mates so that they do not get the wrong ideas. Please also
point out the mistakes to the lecturer concerned during the course.
Assignments
The Director,
University of Zambia
6
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
LUSAKA
Assessments
3. Tutorials 5% 5%
Note. In the case where only one test is given, the test will account for
20%.
Please ensure that you avail yourself for all these assessment items
because they will account for your final grade.
7
8
Margin icons
While working through this module you will notice the frequent use of
margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a
new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this Module.
This module has been written with you as a learner in mind. On the left
margins of each page, reasonable spaces have been left. This is not for
the beauty of the module but the spaces are for you to interact with the
module. You can carry out calculations in the spaces provided, you can
make short note in these spaces or even make comments and put
reminders to help you in your study of this course.
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
9
10
Chapter 1
Unit 1 Vectors and their Applications
You are supposed to spend a minimum of 10 hrs to complete this unit. The
10 hrs does not include time for the exercises which you are advised to do
at your own pace in a reasonable manner
OBJECTIVES
(1) The first objective of this unit is to introduce the learner to the coordinate systems that are
most common in the solution of problems in Physics.
(1) Differentiate between the coordinate systems that are commonly used in solution of physics
problems.
(3) Recognise and identify the correct and appropriate coordinate system to use for a particular
problem.
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1.0 Introduction
To solve many problems in Mechanics or Physics for that matter, it is
often necessary to be able to specify the position of its constituents. This
is a very important stage in the search for a solution because the wrong
choice of coordinates may render the problem difficult or not solvable at
all. The position of the constituents of a system requires the use of
specific coordinate system. We shall make a formal study of the different
options available to be able to solve problems in this module. The four
most commonly used coordinate systems are: the Cartesian or
rectangular coordinate system, the Plane polar coordinate system, the
Cylindrical coordinate system and the Spherical polar coordinate system.
11
12
P x, y, z
z
Y
Each of the coordinate axes has a unit vector which gives its direction.
where is the angle between the vectors. Since the unit vectors are
iˆ ˆj iˆ kˆ ˆj kˆ 0 (1.2)
Again for any two vectors A and B their cross product defined as:
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
r x, y, z (1.6)
The length of a vector is called its magnitude. For the position vector the
magnitude is given by
r r r r x2 y 2 z 2 1
2
(1.7)
For a moving point P , the coordinates change with time and are therefore
functions of time. The velocity of the point P is the time derivative of
the position vector and is therefore given by
dr ˆ dx ˆ dy ˆ dz
v i j k (1.8)
dt dt dt dt
v v v v x 2 y 2 z 2 1
2
(1.10)
13
14
r r 62 (5) 2 22 8.06 m
as r 4t 6t 2 iˆ t 3 2 ˆj 3t 5t 2 kˆ . Calculate for t 2 s the
position, the velocity and the magnitude of the force acting on the
particle.
iˆ4 12t ˆj 3t 2 kˆ3 10t
so at t 2 s , v 20iˆ 12 ˆj 23kˆ
F F 48 482 102
2
1
2
68.6 N
line labeled X which extends to the negative side. From the origin again
draw a vertical reference line labeled Y and extending in both positive
and negative directions (see Fig. 2).
Y P
O X
The position of the point P is measured from the origin defined by the
parameters r (the length from O to P) and the angle which the line OP
makes with the horizontal reference line in the counter-clockwise
direction. The coordinates of P are then given as r , . It is possible to
obtain transformation equations which connect the plane polar
coordinates and the Cartesian coordinates using Fig. 3. The reference line
coincides with the positive x axis. By simple trigonometry, we
establish that
x r cos (1.12)
y r sin (1.13)
r x2 y 2
1
2
(1.14)
and
y x y
arctan cos1 sin 1 (1.15)
x x2 y2 x2 y2
15
16
In terms of the Cartesian unit vectors iˆ and ĵ , the radial unit vector is
Fig.4: Relation between unit vectors r̂ , ˆ and iˆ, ˆj .
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
that rˆ ˆ 0 . From these equations, we can solve for the Cartesian unit
vectors to obtain
and
r rrˆ (1.20)
d
r (rrˆ) rrˆ rrˆ (1.21)
dt
d
rˆ (iˆ cos ˆj sin )
dt
iˆ sin ˆj cos
(iˆ sin ˆj cos )
ˆ (1.22)
Hence
vr r (1.24)
and
17
18
v r (1.25)
These are respectively called the radial and angular components of the
velocity and are mutually orthogonal. The radial component vr is the
v r 2 r 2 2
1
2
(1.27)
a
dv dr d
dt dt dt
rrˆ rˆ
(1.28)
dr drˆ d dr ˆ d ˆ dˆ d
rˆ r r r
dt d dt dt dt dt dt
rrˆ r ˆ rˆ rˆ r rˆ
That is,
a r r rˆ r 2r ˆ (1.29)
2
v v2
r 2 r (1.32)
r r
which is called the centripetal acceleration arising from the motion in the
direction. Furthermore, if r is held constant in time then, r r 0
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Example 1.3: What are the polar coordinates of the point (2, 7) ?
Solution: Using equation (14), we find r (2)2 72 1
2
=7.28. From
7
Eq. (15) we find arctan 105.9 . Therefore
0
2
(r , ) (7.28, 105.9).
Note: When the tangent is negative, the required angle could be in the
second or fourth quadrant. The correct quadrant is determined by which
component of the position vector is giving rise to the negative sign. If it
is the x component as in this case, the angle is in the second quadrant. If
it is the y coordinate, the angle is in the fourth quadrant.
r x2 y 2 1
2
b
1
2
sin 2 t b 2 cos2 t 2
b
and
t
Description of the motion: the particle is moving on the circumference of
a circle of radius b centred on the origin. The angular velocity of the
particle is constant value . The acceleration is
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20
a r r rˆ r 2r ˆ
b 2 rˆ b 2 rˆ
vectors ˆ , ˆ, ẑ .
The unit vectors are in the directions of the increasing vectors associated
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
x cos (1.33)
y sin (1.34)
zz (1.35)
x 2 y 2 2
1
(1.36)
y y x
tan 1 sin 1 cos1 (1.37)
x x2 y 2 x2 y2
The unit vectors in this system are ˆ , ˆ and k̂ . Here ̂ is the same as
ˆ ˆ ˆ kˆ ˆ kˆ 0 (1.38)
kˆ kˆ or ẑ ẑ (1.41)
ˆ ˆ kˆ, ˆ kˆ ˆ , kˆ ˆ ˆ (1.42)
dˆ ˆ dˆ
and ˆ (1.43)
d d
21
22
where is the distance of P from the Z-axis and gives its angular
rotation from the X-axis, while z gives its elevation above the XY plane.
Thus we may write the velocity vector, keeping in mind that ˆ ˆ ( ) ,
as
v r
d
dt
ˆ kˆz
d dˆ d dz ˆ dkˆ
ˆ kz
dt d dt dt dt
ˆ (ˆ) zkˆ
dkˆ
where 0.
dt
Hence,
Using Eq. (1.23) from the previous section with r replaced by and
v2 v v ˆ ˆ zkˆ ˆ ˆ zkˆ
2 22 z 2 (1.46)
and
v 2 22 z 2
1
2
(1.47)
a
dv d
dt dt
ˆ ˆ zkˆ
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
a 2 ˆ 2 ˆ zkˆ (1.48)
Example 1.5: A bead slides on a wire bent into the form of a helix. The
motion of the bead is given in cylindrical coordinates by
b, t , z ct , where b, , and c are constants.
Determine the velocity and the acceleration of the bead.
Solution:
and
a b 2 ˆ
z r cos (1.49)
23
24
unit vectors r̂ , ˆ, ˆ . (b) Orientation of unit vectors r̂ , ˆ, ˆ relative
x cos (1.50)
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
y sin (1.51)
r sin (1.52)
r x2 y 2 z 2
1
2
(1.55)
2 x2 y 2 (1.56)
tan (1.57)
z
Therefore,
x2 y 2
tan 1 (1.58)
z
y
tan 1 (1.59)
x
coordinates are r̂ , ˆ, and ˆ as shown in Fig. 6 (a) and (b). Also
shown are the unit vectors iˆ, ˆj , and zˆ ( kˆ ) , and ̂ . The unit
vector ˆ lies in the XY plane, while rˆ, ˆ, ˆ , and zˆ all lie in one
vertical plane. In terms of the Cartesian unit vectors, the unit vectors of
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26
the spherical polar coordinate system are as follows. The radial unit
vector is
For the unit vector in the direction, the z component is easily deduced
to be sin . To obtain the x and y coordinates of this unit vector, we
shine a light on it from the top parallel to the Z axis. The shadow of the
unit vector ˆ in the XY plane has a length cos so that its x and y
components are cos cos and cos sin respectively. As a result
The unit vectors are mutually orthogonal and therefore obey the
following rules
rˆ ˆ rˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ 0 (1.63)
rˆ ˆ rˆ ˆ
sin
ˆ ˆ ˆ
rˆ cos (1.65)
ˆ ˆ
0 ˆ rˆ sin ˆ cos
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
We can now find expressions for velocity and acceleration by making use
of the preceding relations. Thus
drˆ drˆ
v r (rrˆ) rrˆ( , ) rˆ r
d d dr
rrˆ r (1.67)
dt dt dt dt dt
Hence we obtain
Similarly,
a v r
dv d
dt dt
rrˆ rˆ (r sin )ˆ (1.70)
and
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28
1.5 Summary
In this unit we have familiarized ourselves with some of the most
common coordinate systems used to solve problems in Physics. There
are a number of other coordinate systems, but they are generally used at
higher level. A good mastery of the particular coordinate systems treated
in this unit will be sufficient for any problems you as the learner will
encounter in this course.
1.6 Exercises
1.0 A honey bee homes in its hive in a spiral path in such a way that
the radial distance decreases at a constant rate, so that r b ct , while
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1
r b, t , 1 cos 4t
2 4
Determine the speed of the ant as a function of time and describe the sort
of path represented by this equation.
29
30
Chapter 2
Unit 2 Particle Dynamics in One Dimension
You should be able to cover this unit in 20 hrs. This time period does not
include the time for solving problems in the exercises. You may solve the
exercises at your own convenient pace.
OBJECTIVES
(2) To teach the learner how to solve one-dimensional problems involving position and velocity
dependent forces.
(3) To teach the learner how to solve the dynamical problem in two and three dimensions.
(4) To acquaint the learner with the properties of motion under a conservative force.
30
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
2.0 Introduction
The fundamental problem of mechanics is to determine how a particle
moves under the action of a particular force. For example, the motion of
a particle of mass m along a straight line which we may consider to be
the x axis under the direction of a force directed along the x axis ,
constitutes a one dimensional problem. Newton’s second law is the
fundamental equation for treating problems in dynamics.
F
a (2.1)
m
Newton’s second law (Eq. 2.1), leads in two or three dimensions to the
vector equation. In Cartesian coordinates, two dimension equations is
equivalent to two component equations and in three dimensions to three
component equations.
These are
d 2x d2y d 2z
m Fx , m Fy , m Fz (2.2)
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
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32
d 2r
m F mr (2.3)
dt 2
mr 0 (2.4)
In other words
dv
m 0 (2.5)
dt
mv C (2.6)
write
mv p0 (2.7)
Eq. (2.7) tells us that the linear momentum p mv is constant when the
force is zero. The equation is therefore a statement of the law of
conservation of linear momentum and states that: The linear momentum
of a particle which is isolated so that no force acts on it is conserved.
dr
v p0 / m v (2.8)
dt
dr v0 dt (2.9)
r v0t D (2.10)
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
mx F ( x, t ) (2.11)
mx 0 (2.12)
x 0 (2.13)
33
34
x v0t x0 (2.14)
mx k (2.15)
Using
dv
x (2.16)
dt
and following the procedure of Eq. (2.9), we are able to write this as
k
dv dt (2.17)
m
whose solution is
v at A (2.18)
A v0 (2.19)
v at v0 (2.20)
Using
dx
v (2.21)
dt
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1 2
x at v0t B (2.23)
2
x x0 when t 0 (2.24)
B x0 (2.25)
1 2
x at v0t x0 (2.26)
2
1 2
x at v0t (2.27)
2
1 2
y gt v0t (2.28)
2
1
s ut at 2 (2.29)
2
35
36
k
2 (2.31)
m
x 2 x (2.32)
x x0 sint (2.33)
where is called the phase angle. We shall analyze this further when
we carry out detailed study on simple harmonic oscillators
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Substituting the initial conditions in Eqs. (2.35) and (2.36), we obtain the
following system of equations
x0 sin A (2.37)
x0 sin A (2.39)
x0 cos 0 (2.40)
x02 sin2 x02 cos2 x02 sin2 cos2 A2 (2.41)
so that
x02 A2 x0 A (2.42)
A
tan (2.43)
0
37
38
The smallest angle for which this is true is / 2, which means that
x A sin t A cost (2.44)
2
mxx F ( x) x (2.46)
dx dx
mx F ( x) (2.47)
dt dt
or
1 2
mx F ( x)dx E (2.49)
2
Rewriting this as
1 2
mx F ( x)dx E (2.50)
2
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
The second term on the left-hand side is called the potential (energy and
is denoted by V (x) and defined as
V ( x) F ( x)dx (2.51)
1 2
mx V ( x) E (2.52)
2
The equation is telling us that the sum of the two energies on the left hand
side is always constant. It is a statement of the conservation of energy.
We can solve for the velocity from Eq. (2.52) and obtain
x
2
E V ( x ) (2.53)
m
dx
2
E V ( x ) (2.54)
dt m
or
dx
dt (2.55)
2
E V ( x )
m
dx
t (2.56)
2
E V ( x )
m
39
40
Example 2.4: Starting from the fact that a particle moving under a
constant force F ( x) k obey the stated principles above, show that if it
starts from the origin with velocity v0 at time t 0 , then its motion can
dx
t (2.58)
2
E kx
m
Since
bx bx 2
1 2 1
2 dx (2.59)
b
it follows that
1
m 2 2
t ( E kx) (2.60)
k m
so that
1
m 2 2
( E kx) t (2.61)
k m
1 2
E mv0 (2.62)
2
Employing this in Eq. (2.61) and remembering that this condition arises
when t 0 , we obtain
mv0
(2.63)
k
Hence
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1
m 2 2
mv0
( E kx) t (2.64)
k m k
k 2 mv 2 E
x t v0t
2m 2k k
k 2 mv 2 mv02
x t v0t (2.67)
2m 2k 2k
mv 2 mv02
(2.68)
2k 2k
Hence
1 2
x at v0t (2.69)
2
41
42
Example 2.5: Using the same approach as in example 2.4 above. (a)
show that for a simple harmonic oscillator in which the force is
2E
F ( x) kx , the position at any time is given by x sin (t t0 ) .
k
If the amplitude is b , (b) show that the total energy is given by
1 2
E kb .
2
1 2
V ( x) kxdx kx (2.70)
2
so that
dx
t t0 (2.71)
2 1 2
E kx
m 2
Therefore
1
m 2
dx
t t0
k
b 2
x2
(2.72)
where
2E
b (2.73)
k
x b sin (2.74)
With
we have
1 1
m 2
b cosd m 2
t t0
k
b cos k (2.78)
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1
k 2
(t t0 ) (2.79)
m
and
k 12
x b sin (t t0 ) (2.80)
m
Recalling that
1
k 2
(2.81)
m
sin (t t0 )
2E
x (2.82)
k
(b) We know that the total energy must be the sum of the kinetic
energy and the potential energy, that is
1
Etotal KE PE KE kx2 (2.83)
2
We need to work out the kinetic energy and also obtain the maximum
potential energy.
1 2
KE mx (2.84)
2
x b cos (t t0 ) (2.85)
1 2 2 1
Etotal mb cos2 kb2 sin 2 (2.86)
2 2
43
44
We now use Eq. (2.81) to eliminate m and 2 from the first term of this
expression. The result is
1 2 1
Etotal kb cos2 kb2 sin 2 (2.87)
2 2
Factoring out the common terms in Eq. (2.87) and using the trigonometric
identity cos2 sin2 1 , where in this case, we finally get
1 2
Etotal kb (2.88)
2
dv
F (t ) m (2.89)
dt
F (t )dt mv(t ) mv
0
0 (2.90)
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
The integral on the left-hand side of Eq. (2.90) is called the IMPULSE
and it is equal to the change of momentum imparted to a body by a force
F (t ) acting over a certain interval of time.
t
dx F (t )
v(t ) v0 dt (2.91)
dt 0
m
t
F (t )
t t
x x0 v(t )dt v0t dt dt (2.92)
0 0 0
m
Provided the form of F (t ) and the initial conditions are given, the
position as a function of time can easily be obtained.
We shall consider as an example the case where the force is constant. For
this case we have
t
F Ft
v(t ) v0 dt v0 (2.93)
m0 m
and
t
F
m 0
x(t ) x0 v0t dt (2.94)
or
Ft 2
x(t ) x0 v0t (2.95)
2m
at 2
x(t ) x0 v0t (2.96)
2
45
46
For x0 0
at 2
x(t ) v0t (2.97)
2
The other time-dependent forces that we are not going to discuss here are
the step forces. However, just to understand what these step forces are,
we provide a brief discussion.
dv
F (v ) m (2.98)
dt
or
dv dx dv
F (v ) m mv (2.99)
dx dt dx
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Knowing the form of the force F (v ) , either of the two equations Eq.
(2.98) or (2.99) may be solved to analyze the motion, that is, to calculate
x as a function of time t .
2.3 Summary
In this unit we have learned how to treat dynamical problems in one
dimension. The methods that have been presented are instructive and
therefore need to be generalized to the case of two and three dimensions.
This is the task in the next unit. From a formal point of view, the
equations that have been given can be used to obtain exact solutions of
the problem; however, there are many practical difficulties in
implementing them. For example, the integrals that need to be performed
may be intractable, but there are so-called numerical methods for treating
such cases. As far as we are concerned in this unit we have been able to
solve the one dimensional problem under position dependent-force
completely.
2.4 Exercises
2.0 A pendulum of length l is pulled to the side and by an angle 0
(ii) Show that if the angle of swing is small, the pendulum performs
simple harmonic motion.
47
48
v0
x (1 e kt )
k
(i) Obtain the velocity and the force acting on the particle
(iv) F ( x) F0 sin kx
F ( x) 7t 5 3t 2 2
in Newtons. Calculate
V ( x) ax2 (b x)
F ( x) kx2
48
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1
mb3 2
T
8k
cx
(i) F ( x) F0 cx (ii) F ( x ) F0 e (iii) F ( x) F0 coscx
49
50
Chapter 3
Unit 3 Particle Dynamics in Two and Three
Dimensions
You should be able to cover this unit in 20 hrs. This time period does not
include the time for solving problems in the exercises. You may solve the
exercises at your own convenient pace.
OBJECTIVES
(1) To use the knowledge acquired in unit 2 to tackle problems in two and three dimensions
(1) Solve two and three dimensional problems involving position dependent forces.
(4) Solve specific standard conservative force problems in two and three dimensions.
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CLASSICAL MECHANICS
(9) Use the Del. Operator to generate the components of angular momentum in three dimensions.
3.0 Introduction
In the previous unit, we studied the dynamics of a particle in one
dimension. Many important dynamical systems fall in this category. But
nature is three-dimensional and we naturally have to extend our
discussion to the case of particles moving in three dimensions. There are
also important situations where two-dimensional motion exists. In this
unit we generalize the theory we developed earlier to the case of two and
three-dimensional motion.
mr F (r , t ) (3.1)
mx Fx
my Fy (3.2)
mz Fz
In some cases the form of the force may warrant that the motion be
treated using a different coordinate system. If spherical polar coordinates
are used, then the component form of the equation of motion is
51
52
F f (r )rˆ (3.4)
m(r r 2 ) f (r )
(3.5)
m(r 2r) 0
mv v F v (3.7)
We know that
v2 v v (3.8)
and
d (v 2 ) d dv dv dv
(v v ) v v 2v (3.9)
dt dt dt dt dt
52
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1 d (v 2 ) dv
v (3.10)
2 dt dt
1 d (v 2 ) dr
m F (3.11)
2 dt dt
which yields
1
m d ( v 2 ) F dr (3.12)
2
1
m v 2 F dr E (3.13)
2
K V (r ) E (3.14)
V (r ) F r (3.15)
53
54
GMm
Fr (3.16)
r2
GMm
mr (3.17)
r2
r Rx (3.18)
It is clear from the above equation that r x , since the radius of the
earth R is constant. Eq. (3.17) may then be written as
GMm
mx Fx (3.19)
( R x) 2
GMm
V ( x) dx
( R x) 2
(3.20)
GMm
Rx
1 2 GMm
E mv (3.21)
2 Rx
54
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1 2 GMm 1 2 GMm
mv0 mv (3.22)
2 R 2 Rx
2GM 2GM
v02 v 2 (3.23)
Rx R
2GM 2GM
v02 (3.24)
RH R
2GM
v0 (3.25)
R
From
GMm
mg (3.26)
R2
the equation which holds at the surface of the earth, the acceleration due
to gravity g can be written as
GM
g (3.27)
R2
v0 2 gR (3.28)
55
56
dW F dr (3.29)
rf
W F dr (3.30)
ri
rf r
V (r ) F dr F dr F dr C (3.31)
r rf
56
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1 d (v 2 ) dr
m F (3.32)
2 dt dt
d 1 2 dr
mv F (3.33)
dt 2 dt
By defining
1 2
K mv (3.34)
2
dK F dr (3.35)
Therefore
dK F dr (3.36)
Since the right-hand side of this equation is the work done on the particle
by the force, we see that this equation states that the work done on a
particle by a force increases the kinetic energy of the particle by the same
amount.
Example 3.1: A body of mass 3 kg and velocity 2.3 m/s is acted upon
2
5 x 2 2 x3
2
K 5 x 2 x dx
2
4.667J
3 0
(3.37)
0 2
57
58
1 2
The original kinetic energy was K i mv i 7.935J . This shows that
2
if we add the difference to this value we should obtain the final energy.
This works out to be K f 12.602 J .
2K f
vf 2.90 m/s (3.38)
m
evaluated along the path of the particle. The exact value of the integral
depends on the path taken by the particle between the initial point ri and
the final point r f . However, for certain forces, this integral is path
rf
F dr U (r ) U (r )
ri
f i (3.39)
F dr dU U (r ) (3.40)
F dr F dx F dy F dz
x y z (3.41)
58
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
G G G
dG dx dy dz (3.42)
x y z
dG G (3.43)
U U U
Fx , Fy , Fz (3.44)
x y z
so that
U U U
F dr dx dy dz (3.45)
x y z
V (r ) U (r ) (3.46)
Then
dV (r ) dU (r ) F dr (3.47)
and
59
60
V (r ) F dr (3.48)
V V V
Fx dx Fy dy Fz dz dx dy dz (3.49)
x y z
V V V
Fx , Fy , and Fz (3.50)
x y z
V ˆ V ˆ V ˆ
F i j k (3.51)
x y z
By defining
ˆ ˆ ˆ
i j k (3.52)
x y z
V ˆ V ˆ V ˆ
F V i j k (3.53)
x y z
dV ( x)
Fx (3.54)
dx
The negative sign in Eq. (3.53) implies that the particle is urged to move
in the direction of increasing potential energy rather than in the opposite
direction
60
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Suppose the potential energy function exists so that Eq. (3.50) holds, then
we can take the derivative of Fx with respect to y and the derivative of
Fx 2V Fy 2V
, (3.55)
y yx x xy
Fx Fy
(3.56)
y x
F dr Fx dx Fy dy Fz dz (3.58)
We can now introduce the cross product of the del operator on F given
as
F F F F F F
F z y iˆ z x ˆj y x kˆ (3.59)
y z x z x y
This is sometimes written with a change of sign in the second term and
the terms in the bracket switched giving
F F F F F F
F z y iˆ x z ˆj y x kˆ (3.60)
y z z x x y
61
62
F 0 (3.61)
since each term vanishes separately. This is the condition for a force to
be conservative.
iˆ ˆj kˆ
F (3.62)
x y z
Fx Fy Fz
mr F (3.63)
Taking the cross product of this equation with the position vector gives
r mr r F (3.64)
The right-hand side is the moment of the force F about the origin. We
want to analyze the left-hand side.
dv dp
r F r m r (3.64)
dt dt
d dp dr dp
(r p ) r pr v p (3.65)
dt dt dt dt
62
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
d
rF (r p ) (3.66)
dt
dL d dr dr
(r mr ) mr r m (3.67)
dt dt dt dt
This is similar to Eq. (3.65) and the first term vanishes and we conclude
that
dL d dr
(r mr ) r m r F M (3.68)
dt dt dt
Thus the moment of the force F , about the origin is equal to the time
derivative of the angular momentum. If the moment is zero, then
dL
0 (3.69)
dt
L constant (3.70)
L rp (3.71)
and its direction is given by the right-hand rule. We move our right hand
as if we are manipulating a screw driver. If the rotary motion is from the
vector r to the vector p then L points in the direction in which the
screw would go
63
64
iˆ ˆj kˆ
L rp x y z (3.72)
px py pz
Therefore
Lx ypz zpy
Ly zpx xpz (3.73)
Lz xpy ypx
F f (r )rˆ (3.74)
dL
rF M (3.75)
dt
dL
0 (3.77)
dt
so that
64
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
L constant (3.78)
We see that the angular momentum of a particle moving under the effect
of a central force is a constant. This result is important and implies that
far from being three-dimensional, central force motion takes place in a
plane. The proof of this is as follows.
L rp (3.79)
it is a vector at right angles to the plane containing the position vector and
the linear momentum. But since L is constant, it is in particular constant
in both magnitude and direction. Hence the plane containing position
vector r and the velocity vector v is fixed in orientation because if this
orientation is changing, then L would also change. At all times the
particle has a position vector lying in this fixed plane. We conclude that
motion under a central force always takes place in a plane of fixed
orientation.
Central force motion owes a great deal of its importance to the fact that
the gravitational force is central. Thus the motion of the earth about the
sun is characterized by a fixed angular momentum and is planer. The
motion about the moon is the same. In fact any celestial body orbiting
another moves in a plane. Another important central force is the
electrostatic force between charged particles. These two forces, the
gravitational and electrostatic, are among the most important in nature.
where we have used the definition and property of the dot product of two
vectors as given by Eq. (1.1). Using the expressions for the components
of the acceleration in spherical polar coordinates, we find from Newton’s
second law
mr F (3.81)
65
66
which follow from Eq. (1.71) and (3.3). If we chose polar coordinates
r , in the plane of motion, only the first and second equations in Eq.
(3.82) hold and can be rewritten as
m(r r 2 ) f (r )
(3.83)
m(r 2r) 0
Now from
r rrˆ( ) (3.84)
we have
v
d
rrˆ( ) r rrˆ rˆ (3.85)
dt
as given by Eq. (1.23). The acceleration follows from Eq. (3.85) and is
a r r rˆ r 2r ˆ (3.86)
66
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
d d dL
(mr 2) (mrr) 0 (3.89)
dt dt dt
mr 2 L 0 (3.90)
T V E (3.91)
T
1 2 1
2 2
1
mv m rrˆ rˆ rrˆ rˆ m r 2 r 2 2
2
(3.92)
or
T
1
2
1
m r 2 m r 2 2
2
(3.93)
1 2 1 2 2
T V mr mr V (r ) E (3.94)
2 2
rf
V (r ) V (r ) F dr (3.95)
ri
Now from
mr 2 2 L (3.96)
67
68
1 2 L2
T V mr V (r ) E (3.97)
2 2mr 2
2 L2
v r E V (r ) (3.98)
m 2mr 2
Therefore
r
dr 2
2 L 2
m
t (3.99)
E V (r )
r0
m 2mr 2
The integral can be evaluated and the resulting equation solved for r (t ) .
t
L
0 (3.100)
0
mr 2
We have thus so far obtained the solutions of Eq. (3.83) in terms of the
four constants L, E , r0 and 0 which can be evaluated when the
initial position and the velocity in the plane are known. Furthermore the
potential energy function can have many forms such as the Yukawa
potential in nuclear particles the potential function is taken to be of the
form
ke ar
V (r ) (3.101)
r
GMm GMm
V (r ) 2
dr C (3.102)
r r
68
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
3.8 Summary
In this unit, we have generalized to the case of two and three dimensions
the methods seen in unit 2 for handling dynamical problems. From the
knowledge gained, it is now possible to treat such important problems
such as the revolution of the planets about the sun and motion of charged
particles in an electric or magnetic field force. The theory we have
developed so far can be use very conveniently to point particles and the
dynamics of aggregate of particles and rigid bodies will be presented later
in the module.
3.9 Exercises
3.0 Show that the velocity and acceleration of a particle moving
in a circle are perpendicular if and only if the particle is moving
with a constant velocity.
x x0 at 2 , y bt 2 , z ct
(b) Find the force F and from it the torque N acting on the
particle
(c) Verify that the angular momentum theorem
dL / dt r F N is satisfied.
69
70
U ( x)
Wd 2 x 2 d 2
x 4 8d 4
kx3
F kx
a2
x3
F k x 2
a
70
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
v2
vdv
d m .
v1
PR
71
72
Chapter 4
Unit 4 Simple Harmonic Motion
You should be able to cover this unit in 20 hrs. This time period does not
include the time for solving problems in the exercises. You may solve the
exercises at your own convenient pace.
OBJECTIVES
(1) To teach the learner how to treat both free and damped harmonic oscillators.
(2) To teach the learner how to obtain the frequency of vibration of disturbed systems.
(2) Write down the equation of motion for the identified system in (1) above.
(3) Solve the problem of the system whose equation has been written in (2) above.
(4) Obtain solutions of free, underdamped (weakly damped), overdamped (strongly damped) and
critically damped systems.
72
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
(5) Calculate amplitudes, frequencies, positions, velocities and accelerations of different oscillating
systems.
4.0 Introduction
All around us there are objects which vibrate or oscillate. Swings in
playgrounds, musical instruments, water waves, atoms and molecules
moving in matter are some examples of vibrations and oscillations. A
force acting on a particle displacing it from its equilibrium in the
direction opposed to its displacement will always result in to and fro
motion. If the magnitude of this force is f (x ) , where x is the
displacement then for vibratory motion to occur, we must have
ma f (x) (4.1)
where m is the mass and a is the acceleration. Since the force f (x)
always pulls the mass m back towards the position of equilibrium, it is
called a restoring force.
f ( x) kx (4.2)
73
74
k
(4.4)
m
x 2 x (4.5)
angle rotated is 2f . We can also say that the period of oscillation is
1 / f . In this period, the angle rotated is 2 . If the angular velocity is
, we see that time taken for one revolution is 2 / . The connection
between and f is therefore
2 1
T (4.6)
f
f (4.7)
2
74
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
x e t (4.8)
where is to be determined.
x et (4.9)
x 2 e t (4.10)
2 2 (4.12)
are both solutions of the SHM differential equation. Since the equation is
linear the general solution will be a linear combination of these two
solutions with arbitrary constant coefficients, that is
The two constants can be determined from the so-called initial conditions
x(t t0 ) x0 (4.15)
75
76
and
x (t t0 ) v0 (4.16)
x(t t1 ) x1 (4.17)
x(t t2 ) x2 (4.18)
or in the form of
x (t t1 ) x1 v1 (4.19)
where
x0 sin ( A B) (4.23)
and
76
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
x0 cos i( A B) (4.24)
x x0 cos(t ) (4.25)
x(t ) A sin t
0 Time
Period T
down the y axis, the shadow of the particle will be seen on a horizontal
screen placed below the x axis at any distance not greater than x0 . It
77
78
period of this motion corresponds to the time it takes the particle to make
one complete revolution. The angular frequency is just the angle through
which the particle rotates in unit time. This is clearly 2f , the
expression for (Eq. (4.6) or (4.7)).
x x0 sin(t ) (4.26)
are given by
dx
x x0 cos(t ) (4.27)
dt
and
d 2x
x x0 2 sin(t ) (4.28)
dt 2
The maximum value of the velocity x0 is called the velocity amplitude
78
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1 2
Etotal E mx V ( x) (4.30)
2
For a spring
F kx (4.31)
and so
1 2
V ( x) kxdx kx (4.32)
2
Hence
1 2 1 2
Etotal E mx kx (4.33)
2 2
dE d 1 1 d
1
mxx kxx mxx kxx 0
dt dt 2 2 2 dt
mxx mxx kxx kxx 0
1
(4.34)
2
mxx kxx mxx kxx 0
2
2
mx kx 0 (4.35)
1 2
PEmax kx0 (4.36)
2
79
80
1 1
KEmax mx 2 mx02 2 cos2 (t ) max
2 max 2 (4.37)
1
mx02 2
2
1 2 1 2
E mx kx
2 2
1 2 2
mx0 cos2 (t ) sin 2 (t )
2
(4.38)
1
mx 02 2
2
1
kx02
2
as we expected
Fig. 4.2 shows the distribution of energy versus displacement for simple
harmonic motion. Note that the potential energy curve
1 2 1 2 2 2
PE kx mx0 sin (t ) (4.39)
2 2
1 2 2
KE mx0 cos2 (t ) (4.40)
2
80
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
For any value of the displacement x the sum of the ordinates of both
curves equals the total constant energy E .
From the foregoing theory, we now take a look at the specific example of
a simple pendulum.
81
82
L cos L
h
h L L cos (4.41)
Therefore
1 2 1 2
Etotal E mx kx (4.43)
2 2
2
cos 1 (4.44)
2
and
sin (4.45)
x L sin L (4.46)
then
x L (4.47)
Hence
82
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1 2 2 1
E mL mgL 2 (4.48)
2 2
A B 0 or B A (4.51)
Thus,
x(t ) A e it e it
e it e it
2iA (4.53)
2i
R sin t
where R 2iA
83
84
the minimum, the potential does not change with position and therefore
satisfies
dV
0 (4.54)
dx
dV
F ( x) (4.55)
dx
at that point.
U (x ) E
a x0 b c x
84
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
When the particle is slightly displaced, the new position of the particle is
x and the value of the force at that point can be expressed in terms of its
value at x0 by means of the Taylor expansion. We have
dF 1 d 2F
F ( x) F ( x0 ) ( x x0 ) 2 ( x x0 ) 2
dx x0 2! dx x
0
(4.56)
1 d 3F
3 ( x x0 )3
3! dx x
0
If ( x x0 ) 1 , then only the first two terms are sufficient and we have
dF
F ( x) F ( x0 ) ( x x0 ) (4.57)
dx x0
dF d 2V
2 (4.58)
dx dx
d 2V
F ( x) 2 ( x x0 ) (4.59)
dx x0
d 2V
k 2 (4.60)
dx x0
F ( x) k ( x x0 ) (4.61)
85
86
mx F ( x) k ( x x0 ) (4.62)
This is just the defining equation for simple harmonic motion as already
presented by Eq. (4.3).
c1 c2
V ( x) (4.64)
x4 x2
where c1 and c2 are positive constants. Show that the period of small
oscillations about the position of stable equilibrium is
c1 m
T 2 (4.65)
c2 c2
86
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
dV 2c2 4c1
3 5 0 (4.66)
dx x x
2c1
x (4.67)
c2
Now
d 2V 20c1 6c2
6 4 (4.68)
dx2 x x
When
2c1
x (4.69)
c2
d 2V c23
0 (4.70)
dx2 c12
since the constants are both positive. Hence the point is a minimum.
d 2V
k 2 (4.71)
dx x x0
c23
k 2 (4.72)
c1
87
88
k c23 c c2
2
2 (4.73)
m mc1 c1 m
and
2 c2 c2
T 2 (4.74)
c1 m
Asint
0 x
Acost
The angle t is the angle which the position vector makes with the
positive x axis in the counter-clockwise direction. Hence the x and y
coordinates of the particle are
88
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
If when t t0 the position vector lies along the positive x axis, then
x A cos (t t0 ) (4.77)
y A sin (t t0 ) (4.78)
the velocity of the mass as it passes through the equilibrium position and
Solution: Let the stiffness (spring) constant be k and let the downward
direction be taken as positive. Then by Hooke’s law we have
kL1 mg (4.79)
and find
mg
k (4.80)
L1
k g
(4.81)
m L1
89
90
dy
y A sin t B cost (4.83)
dt
y L2 , y 0, when t 0 (4.84)
Hence
L2 A (4.87)
so that
y L2 cost (4.88)
2 1 g
y L2 sin t L2 sin T L2 L2 (4.91)
T 4 L1
therefore,
90
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
gL2
y (4.93)
L1
As the mass moves in a fluid, air or liquid, the frictional force is the
viscous force that produces the damping. As long as the speed of the
91
92
velocity. That is
The net force Fnet due to forces acting on the mass m as shown in Fig.
4.6 is
Using Newton’s second law and substituting Fnet mx in Eq. (4.95), we
get
92
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
b
(4.97)
2m
and
k
02 (4.98)
m
to obtain
x e t (4.100)
where is to be determined.
x et (4.101)
x 2 e t (4.102)
et 2 2 02 0 (4.103)
2
2 02 0 (4.104)
1 2 02 (4.105)
and
1 2 02 (4.106)
93
94
or
The following cases of this solution are of special interest and will be
discussed in some detail.
k b2
1
2
0
2
(4.109)
m 4m 2
k b2
1
2
0
2
m 4m 2
imaginary,
94
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
x(t ) et A1e i1t A2ei1t (4.110)
C
A B 2 C 2 and tan (4.113)
B
Thus we obtain
Of the three solutions given by Eqs. (4.110), (4.112) and (4.114), we shall
concentrate on Eq. (4.114). It may be pointed out that the constants A1
The solution given by Eq. (4.114) indicate that for a damped oscillator
the motion is oscillatory due to the existence of the cosine function, but
the amplitude of the oscillation decays exponentially as shown in Fig.
4.7. The natural angular frequency, 1 , or the frequency of the damped
95
96
1
2
1
1 2
2 2 2
0 1 2
0
0
2
0 1 (4.115)
20
2
2
0 1
2
20
If 0 , then
1 0
Case (II) Critically damped, 02 2 : For this case, the two roots given
1 2 (4.116)
and the general solution given by Eq. (4.108) takes the form
96
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
x tet (4.118)
2
0
2 et 0 (4.119)
increases such that 2 02 , then the roots 1 and 2 are real. If we
represent
2
02
1
2
2 (4.121)
x(t ) et A1e 2 t A2e 2 t (4.122)
97
98
where E (0) is the total energy at time t 0 and W f is the work done
1
dx
W f f dx f dt f v dt b v 2 dt (4.124)
dt 0
dE dW f
bv2 (4.125)
dt dt
98
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1 2 1 2
E (t ) K (t ) U (t ) mx kx (4.126)
2 2
and
x (t ) 1 Ae t sin(1t ) cos(1t ) (4.127)
1
E (t )
1 2 2t
2
A e m12 sin 2 (1t ) k cos2 (1t ) (4.128)
1 2 2t
E (t ) kA e (4.129)
2
1 2
E0 kA (4.130)
2
Thus
E ( t ) E 0 e 2 t (4.131)
99
100
amplitude decreases or decays et .
E0
E0e 2 (4.132)
e
or
2 1 (4.133)
That is,
1 2m m
(4.134)
2 2b b
We shall end our study of damped harmonic systems here. Another very
important and interesting system is forced harmonic oscillator (or driven
harmonic oscillator). Because of lack of time, you are asked to go and
read on this topic.
4.8 Summary
The harmonic oscillator in its various forms is one of the most important
problems in Physics. In this unit, the learner has been introduced to the
treatment of this problem for the case of free motion and three degrees of
damping. These topics should serve as a springboard for further study of
the problem in harmonic motion. Further problems include the driven
oscillator, the anharmonic oscillator and the oscillator damped by a force
with non-linear dependence of velocity.
100
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
4.8 Exercises
4.0 A block of mass m lying on a horizontal frictionless
surface is attached to two identical springs of spring
constant k as shown below.
(iii) Show that your solution found in (ii) above can also be
written as
B sin 0 t C sin 0 t
101
102
4.1 The springs of a car of mass 1,200 kg give the car a vertical
oscillatory period of 0.5 s when the car is empty. How far does the car
sink when the driver and three passengers, each of mass 75 kg, get in
the car?
kx
V ( x)
x a2
2
F (r )
r2
102