Child's cents-off sensitivity shaped by involvement, development and socialization

Journal of Product & Brand Management
Involvement, cognitive development and socialization: three antecedents of the child’s cents-off sensitivity
Isabelle Muratore
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Isabelle Muratore, (2003),"Involvement, cognitive development and socialization: three antecedents of the child’s cents-off
sensitivity", Journal of Product & Brand Management, Vol. 12 Iss 4 pp. 251 - 266
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An executive summary for
managers and executive Involvement, cognitive
readers can be found at the
end of this article development and socialization:
three antecedents of the child's
cents-off sensitivity
Isabelle Muratore
DeÂpartement Techniques de Commercialisation,
CREGO UniversiteÂ Montpellier II, BeÂziers, France
Keywords Children (age groups), Brand awareness, Marketing strategy,

Cognitive mapping, Influence
Abstract The main purpose of this article is to get a better understanding of the child's
cents-off sensitivity and his brand sensitivity in influence situations. This study, carried out
on 702 parents and 702 children, underlines the important influence of the child's product
involvement on his cents-off sensitivity and on his brand sensitivity. Moreover, this research
shows the non-linear influence of the child's cognitive development on his cents-off
sensitivity as well as the role of parents' socialization. Furthermore, it appears that the
child's cents-off sensitivity shapes his brand sensitivity and his influence strategies.
Introduction
Purchase decisions Because of the increasing importance of the child in family purchase
decisions and the significant expansion of promotional actions geared to
children, it seems relevant to study the child's cents-off proneness. Two
points lead us to study children's cents-off sensitivity. First, children have
their own classification of the different types of deals: they distinguish
between a free gift offered with the product, a competition or sweepstake
offered with the product, more of the product for the same price and cents-off
on a product (Muratore, 1998). So cents-off deals appear to be a specific type
of information for a child. Second, it seems that more than 50 per cent of
children are cents-off sensitive when they go to a store with their parents
(Muratore, 1999). It is for these reasons that this research aims at
understanding why children, aged between seven and 11 years, are sensitive
to cents-off when they go shopping with their parents. In other words, the
purpose is to find out why a child takes cents-off into consideration. This
research has two main objectives: first, to get a better understanding of the
child's cents-off deal representation and his cognitive processing of the
``cents-off'' information and, second, to comprehend the relationships
between a child's cents-off sensitivity and other key variables related to
product and brand.
After having defined the theoretical framework and put forward the research
hypotheses, we will present the methodology and the concept
operationalisation. We shall finally analyse the results.
Theoretical framework and research hypotheses

First, we will present the different links exposed in the review of the
literature concerning adults' deal sensitivity and different variables and then
we will present the characteristics which concern children in particular.
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The concepts
First, we will present the main concepts of the ``deal sensitivity'' reviewed in
the literature.
According to the review of the literature connected with deal proneness, deal
proneness can be defined as the consideration of the ``sales promotion''
variable by the consumer or influencer, in a given line of products.
Deal proneness The analysis relative to deal proneness (Froloff-Brouche, 1994; Chandon,
1997 and Lichtenstein et al., 1995, 1997a,b) brings to the fore the necessity
to take into consideration the variety of deals, that is, the different techniques
and not just the word ``deal'' which is a generic term. Indeed, as a consumer
can be sensitive, for instance to cents-off rather than free gifts, it is relevant
to speak about specific sales promotion techniques sensitivity. So, it seems
necessary to study separately children's sensitivity to the different deal
techniques.
The main authors, such as Lichtenstein et al. (1990) and Froloff-Brouche and
Ben Miled (1995) emphasise the fact that it seems difficult to study deal
sensitivity without taking into consideration product involvement and brand
sensitivity. These two concepts seem to be linked. Brand sensitivity can be
defined, according to Kapferer and Laurent (1992), as the consideration by

the consumer or influencer of the ``brand'' information in a given line of
products.
A theoretical model At this stage, it is possible to propose, as in the case of Froloff-Brouche and
Ben Miled (1995), a theoretical model structured around these three
variables: the child's cents-off sensitivity, the child's brand sensitivity, and
the child's product involvement. Nevertheless, explaining the child's cents-
off sensitivity only through the child's product involvement and the child's
brand sensitivity would lead us not to take into consideration the existing
differences between the adult and the child. In fact, three main characterisics
lead us to distinguish the child from the adult:
(1) Indeed, childhood is a period during which an individual structures
himself and acquires new capacities in the information process (Piaget
and Inhelder, 1966). More precisely, in agreement with Derbaix (1982)
and BreÂe (1993), the child's cognitive development is subordinated to a
double movement characterised by an increasing ability to reason on
quantitative and abstract data and a progressive decreasing of the effect
(Figure 1).
(2) Socialization, taken as the process of learning, through formal and non-
formal social interactions, favours the child's acquisition of normative
consumption behavior. This socialization process is characterized by
three main factors: parents, peers and media. Nevertheless, Carlson and
Grossbart (1988) note that between the ages of seven and 11, parents still
constitute the main factor of socialization.
Figure 1. Cognitive development
252 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003

(3) The child aged between seven and 11 is, above all, an influencer (a
prescriptor): he/she influences one or several individuals involved in the
buying process. Indeed, at this age, the child rarely buys alone. In the
main, he asks for something or he/she suggests, using influence
strategies in order to achieve his/her ends (Desjeux, 1991 and Hamou-
Poline, 1997).
Characteristics So the question is: in which ways do these characteristics allow us to offer a
theoretical model of cents-off sensitivity specific to the child? If product
involvement and brand sensitivity are key variables in the understanding of
the adult consumer's cents-off sensitivity, we have to integrate these
variables into a model taking into account the variables specific to children.
In other words, it seems relevant to consider the child's product involvement,
his brand sensitivity, plus his cognitive development and socialization as
factors liable to influence the child's cents-off sensitivity. In order to take the
child's influence behavior into consideration, it is also relevant to study the
influence strategies used. More precisely, we would like to know how the
child will use the presence of cents-off deals in his strategies of influence.
Research hypotheses
Since deal sensitivity can be defined as the consideration of the ``sales

promotion'' variable by the child (influencer), in a given line of products, it
is possible that the more the child is attracted by a range of products, the
more he is inclined to treat information connected to these products. In other
words, a child will be more likely to take the existence of a cents-off deal
into account if he is attracted by these products. It is the same process
concerning brands. Indeed, as regards the adult, according to Kapferer and
Laurent (1992) and Froloff-Brouche and Ben Miled (1995), involvement in a
product range is a minimum requirement for a potential brand sensitivity. So,
it is possible to put forward the following hypothesis: the more the child is
involved in a range of products, the more he is inclined to consider the
existence of different brands in this range of products.
H1. The more involved a child is in a range of products, the more cents-off
sensitive he is.
H2. The more involved a child is in a range of products, the more brand
sensitive he is.
Cognitive development The child's cognitive development comprises the acquisition of more and
more elaborate abilities in order to reason on quantitative and abstract data.
We can consider that the child will not be able to reason about the price of a
product until his cognitive abilities allow him to elaborate mental operations.
Consequently, the condition for potential cents-off sensitivity depends on the
existence of capacities which enable him to treat this kind of information. So,
according to this, it is possible to think that the child's cognitive capacities
determine in part his cents-off sensitivity.
H3. The more elaborate the child's cognitive abilities, the more cents-off
sensitive he is.
According to several authors (Ward et al., 1977; Bahn, 1986; Bahn and
Sirgy, 1991) the consideration of the brand (``brand'' information) seems to
necessitate a developed cognitive ability, so it is possible to assume that the
child's cognitive development determines, in part, his brand's sensitivity.
H4. The more elaborate the child's cognitive abilities are, the more brand
sensitive he is.
JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003 253

Child socialization Because parents are important in child socialization, it seems relevant to
consider in which way the child's cents-off sensitivity is influenced by
parents? We can assume two situations. First, parents who are cents-off
sensitive pay specific attention to products with cents-off when they go
shopping (i.e. indirect socialization: consumption learning is not directly
taught by parents, the child observes and then imitates his/her parents'
behavior). Second, parents who are cents-off sensitive teach their children
to take into account the existence of cents-off on products before buying
(i.e. direct socialization). While taking into consideration the child's cents-
off sensitivity in an influence situation (when he/she is in a store with one of
his/her parents), it seems interesting to estimate the impact of parents'
cents-off sensitivity on the child's cents-off sensitivity when they go to a
store together. In fact, we would like to understand the influence of the
parents' indirect socialization on the child's cents-off sensitivity when they
go shopping. So, it is possible to think that the more cents-off sensitive the
parents are, the more cents-off sensitive the child is, thanks to indirect
socialization.
H5. The more cents-off sensitive the parents are, the more cents-off sensitive
the child is.
According to McNeal (1992) and Gunter and Furnham (1998) deals create,
to a certain extent, the brand identity for the child. In fact the brand image is
built, in part, through the deals but, above all, through the free gifts that the
child associates with the product and more precisely with the brand. So, it is
possible to suggest that the more cents-off sensitive the child is in a range of
products, the more inclined he is to consider the brand in this range of
products. In other words, it might be thanks to cents-off deals that he will
discover and thus take into consideration the different brands.
H6. The more cents-off sensitive the child is, the more brand sensitive he is.
Literature review The review of the literature underlines that the child uses influence strategies
when he is in a store with his parents (Desjeux, 1991; Hamou-Poline, 1997).
More precisely, it seems that children use specific kinds of demands
depending on the promotional techniques (Muratore, 1998) used. In fact, it is
possible to suggest that the child uses an influence strategy depending on the
type of promotional technique: either he uses the existence of the deal in his
influence argumentation or he conceals the presence of the deal, through
suggesting a more admissible argument. So, two strategies are possible:
either the child conceals the presence of the deal, or he uses the presence of
the deal. According to the existence of the forms of sensitivity known as
sensitivity as a means (that is, the child uses the deal in order to imitate his
parents or to project a good image of himself), it is possible to assume that
the cents-off sensitive child (Figure 2) will use the ``cents-off'' argument in
Figure 2. Model of the child's cents-off sensitivity

his influence strategy rather than the ``product'' argument. He will do so in
order to show himself to be a astute shopper.
H7. The more cents-off sensitive the child is, the more likely he is to use a
``cents-off'' strategy, and the less likely he is to use a ``product''
strategy.
Methodology and concepts operationalisation

Method of data treatment
In order to test the hypotheses, 2,102 questionnaires have been administered
to children (7-11 years) and their parents. Finally, 1,404 questionnaires have
been analyzed (702 children questionnaires administered in the classroom
and 702 parent self-administered questionnaires). Each hypothesis has been
tested using two products: cereals and cheeses. With each questionnaire,
photographs of products (cereals or cheeses) with cents-off offers (on the
package) were shown.
Postulated relations Considering the different nature of the postulated relations between the
variables, that is, relations between quantitative variables but also a relation
between a quantitative variable and a qualitative variable (strategy of
influence constituted by two alternatives: ``cents-off'' or ``product'') two
methodologies have been used. Concerning the hypothesis H7 (the more

cents-off sensitive the child is, the more likely he is to use a ``cents-off''
strategy, and the less likely he is to use a ``product'' strategy) which deals
with a quantitative variable and a qualitative variable, a logistic regression
has been used. Concerning the others hypotheses (relations between
quantitatives variables), a structural equation modeling (through statistical
software) using four different methods of estimation (maximum of
likelihood, generalized least squares, asymptotic distribution free and
bootstrap through the maximum of likelihood) has been chosen.
For the maximum likelihood estimation (ML), two constraints have been
considered (Valette-Florence, 1998): first, the sample size must be larger
than 200 observations and, second, the data should follow a multinormal
distribution process. This hypothesis of multinormality of the variables is
rarely respected, and this is why several estimation methods have been used
in order to show the convergence or the non-convergence of the results.
Multinormality hypothesis Less sensitive to the constraint linked to the multinormality hypothesis, but,
considered as less robust, the estimation by the generalized least squares
(GLS) has been used. Requiring an important sample size (Baumgartner
and Homburg, 1996) but having less constraints linked to the
multinormality of the data (Sharma et al., 1989), the asymptotic distribution
free (ADF) also seems to be an interesting estimation procedure. Last, to
test the model stability on the basis of several samples generated from an
original sample (Laurent, 1986), a bootstrapping procedure is relevant. To
sum up, the use of several estimation methods should increase the validity
of the results.
Achievement of the measurement tools

Considering the lack of measurement tools[1] concerning the child's cents-
off sensitivity, a scale of measurement of this concept has been elaborated.
Through the review of the literature and a qualitative study, it seems that
three a priori dimensions structure the child's cents-off sensitivity contruct.
The ``play'' dimension remains important simply because play is such an
important part of children's daily lives. It seems that, by insisting on the

cognitive character, `ìnterest'' becomes another dimension in this concept.
The dimension of ``social desirability'' insists on the fact that children are
aware of the image they project and the benefits to be gained from asking
their parents to buy a product that contains a ``cents-off'' offer.
After having submitted the scale to several experts of sales promotion and
children, the items have been modified. Several principal component
analyses (PCA) have been achieved on three data collections, a confirmatory
factorial analysis (CFA) on 702 children attests to the good adjustment
quality of the child's cents-off sensitivity scale of measurement. Moreover,
the reliability and the convergent (CV) and discriminant (DV)[2] validities
are satisfying (Table I).
Brand sensitivity After having achieved a review of the literature and a qualitative study
concerning the child's brand sensitivity, a list of items has been generated.
Attestation of the structure which has emerged from the PCA achieved on
two data collections having been carried out, the CFA results show a good
adjustment quality as to reliability and validity satisfaction (Table II).
In spite of the existence of a scale measuring adult's deal proneness, it seems
necessary to use another meaurement tool. In fact, the measurement scale of
Froloff (1993) has been elaborated without taking into consideration the
different promotional techniques. Concerning the scales of Lichtenstein et al.
(1997a,b), even if these scales have been carried out for the seven
promotional techniques, these scales use, in fact, items linked to beliefs and
attitudes to deals. So a ``real'' adult's cents-off sensitivity scale of
measurement does not seem to exist. After having determined a list of items
inspired from the review of the literature and a qualitative study, and after
having achieved a PCA on two data collections, the CFA, effected on a
sample of 702 adults (parents of the children), leads us to take into
consideration the solution with two factors (Table III).
Model 2 Loadings Reliability

tested d. l. RMSEA RMR GFI AGFI Items (t) () CV DV
1 factor 10.75 0.08 0.01 1 0.99 It's funny to 0.80 (35.2) 0.85 0.58 0.58 >
2 look fora 0.26
It's fun to look for 0.78 (32.2)
I'm interested in 0.77 (34.02)
I'm proud to 0.71 (27.74)
suggest
Note: a All the items begin with ``When I'm in a store with my parents . . .'' and finish with
``. . . products that offer cents-off''.
Table I. Adjustment quality, reliability and validity of the child's cents-off

sensitivity scale (ADF estimation)

1 factor 10.90 0.8 0.02 1 0.99 I'm interesteda 0.88 (48.5) 0.87 0.63 0.63 >
2 I look at 0.79 (37.1) 0.38
I like to look at 0.75 (32.3)
It is fun to look at 0.74 (32.3)
Note: a All the items begin with ``When I'm in a store with my parents . . .'' and finish with
``. . . the brands of cereals/cheeses''
Table II. Adjustment quality, reliability and validity of the child's brand
sensitivity (ADF estimation)

Model 2 Items Reliability
tested d. l. RMSEA RMR GFI AGFI (2 factors) Loadings (t) () CV DV
1 factor 91.7 0.25 0.10 0.96 0.80 My attention is 0.83 (31.71) 0.79 0.66 0.66 >
2 givena 0.42
My glance is
attracted by 0.79 (28.64)
2 factors 3.56 0.06 0.01 1 0.98 I'm looking for 0.92 (36.81) 0.84 0.73 0.73 >
1 I am on the 0.42
look-out for 0.79 (29.77)
a
Note: All the items begin with ``When I'm in a store . . .'' and finish with ``. . . products that
offer cents-off''
Table III. Adjustment quality, reliability and validity of parents' cents-off

sensitivity (ADF estimation)
The difference between the two dimensions which have emerged from the
PCA is explained by the following fact: parents' active cents-off sensitivity
expresses an active search for cents-off in stores whereas parents' passive
cents-off sensitivity constitutes a passive taking into account of this type of
deal. In concrete terms, if the fact of looking for cents-off expresses a
dynamic step from the consumer (we can imagine him looking for cents-off
offered on in-store products), the fact that the attention of the consumer is
attracted by cents-off shows that the consumer has not initialized a form of
behavior concerning cents-off deals, but that these deals constitute stimuli
which lead the consumer to take cents-off into consideration. Concerning the
items, the difference between the active and the passive sensitivity is
conveyed by the use of the active form for the first dimension (`Ì am on the
look-out for'' and `Ì'm looking for'') and the passive form for the second
(``my attention is given'' and ``my glance is attracted'').
The young influencer In this study, we would like to understand the interest or the attraction of the
young influencer for a product (i.e. to measure the child's product
involvement). A scale of measurement carried out by Derbaix and PeÃcheux
(1997) has already been validated and only one dimension of the two
dimensions postulated seems to be relevant for our research. In fact, even if
the authors bring to the fore two factors structuring the concept (an
`àttraction'' dimension and an `àdvice'' dimension), the items of the second
dimension appear to be an effect of the `àttraction'' dimension of the
involvement. In other words, the `àdvice'' dimension seems to be, rather
than a component of the involvement, one of its consequences. The items of
the `àttraction'' dimension of Derbaix and PeÃcheux (1997) constitute a
relevant operationalisation of involvement and the indexes from the CFA
such as reliability and validity are satisfying (Table IV).
Cognitive psychology proposes tests in order to measure the child's
cognitive development. But because of the child's limited attention span, the

a
1 factor 11.56 0.8 0.02 1 0.98 I often want to 0.80 (31.7) 0.83 0.56 0.56 >
2 I am attracted by 0.74 (32.8) 0.29
I am interested in 0.73 (31.9)
I like it 0.72 (31.8)
Note: a All the items begin with the product category considered, for example, ``cereals . . .''
Table IV. Adjustment quality, reliability and validity of the child's product
involvement scale (ADF estimation)

addition of such a test, making the questionnaire longer, would have required
a lot of concentration. So, as several authors have already done (Roedder,
1985; Roedder-John and Cole, 1986; Roedder-John and Lakshmi-Ratan,
1992; Peracchio, 1993; Gregan-Paxton and Roedder-John, 1995; Gunter and
Furnham, 1998) it is relevant to consider the `àge'' variable as an indicator
of the cognitive development. In fact, even if regressions are noticed during
the development, it has been proved that the older the child is, the more
elaborate the child's cognitive abilities are. In concrete terms, we can suggest
that the child's age (seven, eight, nine, ten or 11 years old) constitutes an
indicator of his cognitive development.
Influence stategies In order to understand the influence strategies used when there are cents-off
deals, two alternatives have been agreed upon: a ``cents-off'' strategy versus
a ``product'' strategy. Nevertheless, in order to take into consideration
children who do not influence their parents in-store, it seems useful to allow
a third possible option: `Ì say nothing''.
More precisely, the variable is measured as following. We will ask the child:
`Ìmagine that you are in a store with your parents and that there is a cents-
off deal offered on a box of cereals, what do you say to your parents? (1) buy
it because there is a cents-off deal; (2) buy it because it is good; (3) you say
nothing''.
Results
Test of the model
Limits In order to minimize the limits linked to the estimation methods, the model
has been tested through different methods of estimation (ML, GLS and ADF)
and samples. GLS and ADF have been used on the whole sample and ML
has been used on five different samples: the entire sample, the sample from
bootstrapping, the sample of the cheese questionnaire respondents, the
sample of the cereals questionnaire respondents, and the sample of the
logistic regression (partial sample)[3].
The main indexes of the adjustment quality of the model confirm that the model
is well adjusted to the empirical data. Moreover, the indexes perfectly converge
between the seven estimations procedure so the model is robust (Table V).
The logistic regression model is correctly adjusted. Once the model has been
respecified, integrating successively the exogenous variables of the
theoretical model, this process has not shown better adjustment. Indeed, on
the one hand, the child's cents-off sensitivity vartiable improves the
specified model (Chi2/dl = 51.40/1) significantly and, on the other hand, no
other variables have a significant impact on the influence strategy in the
presence of cents-off (Table VI).
Gamma Gamma
2 (d. l.) RMSEA RMR GFI AGFI NFI NNFI CFI 1 2
ML 284.70 (113) 0.05 0.05 0.96 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.97 0.96
GLS 261.76 (113) 0.04 0.07 1 1
ADF 300.03 (113) 0.05 0.05 0.98 0.97
Bootstrap ML 165.09 (113) 0.05 0.97 0.95
Cereals ML 206.18 (113) 0.05 0.06 0.94 0.91 0.92 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.96
Cheeses ML 229.85 (113) 0.05 0.06 0.93 0.90 0.92 0.95 0.96 0.96 0.95
Partial ML 259.42 (113) 0.05 0.05 0.95 0.93 0.93 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.96
Table V. Test of the structural equation modeling of the child's cents-off

sensitivity

Global Predictive Predictive
-2 log Goodness predictive power (cents- power (product)
Model likelihood of fit power (%) off) class (%) class (%)
Tested 698.97 529.17 61.93 65.36 58.06
Specifieda 694.74 530.91 63.83 68.21 58.87
Note: a The respecified model consists of introducing, step-by-step all the exogenous
variables of the model and then, finally, the child's cents-off sensitivity in order to be
able to estimate the improvement linked to the introduction of this variable thanks to
Chi2 (dl)
Table VI. Adjustment of the logistic regression model of the child's cents-off
sensitivity
Hypotheses test
The study of the dependence coefficient of the test of H1[4] (the more
involved a child is in a range of products, the more cents-off sensitive he/she
is) underlines the positive impact of the child's product involvement on his
cents-off sensitivity (0.416; 10.69)[5]. In fact, the more the child is attracted
by a type of product, the more he/she is inclined, when he/she goes shopping
with his/her parents, to take into account cents-off on this range of products.
The hypothesis is therefore validated whatever the estimation method used.

Conformity In conformity with H2, which postulated that the more involved in a range of
products the child is, the more brand sensitive (on the brand of this range) he
is, the results for the seven estimation methods underline the positive impact
of the child's product involvement on his brand sensitivity (0.503; 13.45).
Involvement appears to be an important condition in the fact that the child
takes into account, when he goes in a store with his parents, the presence of
different brands on a range of products in which he is involved. It seems, that
as for the adult consumer (Kapferer and Laurent, 1992; Froloff-Brouche and
Ben Miled, 1995), the child is all the more brand sensitive, since he is
involved in the range of products.
As the dependence coefficient of H3 (the more elaborate the child's
cognitive abilities, the more cents-off sensitive he is) is negative (±0.194;
±4.83), H3 is not validated. The impact of the child's cognitive development
on his cents-off sensitivity seems, contrary to what we have postulated,
negative and this for each estimation method. Such a result is unexpected.
Indeed, because cents-off deals appear as a variable which necessitates
abilities concerning quantitative data, it would have been legitimate to think
that the more the child has elaborate cognitive abilities allowing him/her to
treat this kind of deal, the more cents-off sensitive he/she is. So how can we
interpret that the more elaborate the cognitive abilities of the child are, the
less cents-off sensitive he/she is?
Interpretation It is possible to try to interpret this result as follows: the child treats the
``cents-off deal'' information as a qualitative and not as a quantitative
characteristic of the product when he/she is younger. Then he/she is able,
when his cognitive capacites are more developed, to treat this kind of
information as a quantitative characteristic (i.e. considering it as quantitative
data). Consequently, the child being attracted by the cents-off deal (through
the socialization process for example) when he/she is young because he/she
treats this type of information as a positive sign coming from the product,
when his cognitive capacities are more important, he/she can treat this kind
of information thanks to a mathematical process and, so, show less attraction
or interest for this kind of deal. To be clear, if the children having the less
developed cognitive capacities are more cents-off sensitive than those having

more important cognitive capacities, it is probably because being younger
and having fewer cognitive abilities, they show interest for this deal
considering it as an interesting qualitative characteristic, perhaps because
their parents are interested in cents-off and children try to imitate their
parents. On the contrary, older children, being well developed in a cognitive
point of view in order to treat cents-off as quantitative data, are not interested
in this kind of deal, because the quantitative value of this deal does not
attract them. In fact they are aware that they are not buyers and therefore the
financial advantage does not concern them.
Cognitive abilities The test of H4 (the more elaborate the child's cognitive abilities are, the
more brand sensitive he/she is) is not significant, so we may say that,
contrary to what we have postulated, the fact that the child takes into account
the variable ``brand'' in a range of products does not require more important
cognitive capacities. This result can be explained as follows: brand does not
seem to be treated as abstract data by the child. In fact, if the child is brand
sensitive it is because ``brand'' information is perceived by the child as an
attractive qualitative characteristic: for the child, the brand is ``the first name
of the product''. So, in contradiction to Bahn's conclusions (Bahn, 1986 and
Bahn and Sirgy, 1991), who explained that the consideration of `` brand''
information requires elaborate cognitive abilities, we can say that the

consideration of brands by the child when he/she goes in a store with his
parents is independent of his cognitive capacities.
Concerning H5, according to which the more cents-off sensitive the parents
are, the more cents-off sensitive the child is, it has been tested for the two
dimensions of the construction (active sensitivity and passive sensitivity). It
seems that parents'cents-off active sensitivity has a positive influence on the
child's cents-off sensitivity (0.195; 3.30). Indeed, all the estimation methods
show that the more cents-off sensitive parents are in an active way, the more
cents-off sensitive the child is. Moreover, the H5 test leads us to conclude
that the link between the passive dimension of parents' cents-off sensitivity
and the child's cents-off sensitivity is not significant: five estimation
methods out of seven converge.
Direct and indirect In order to understand these results, it is necessary to recall that the child's
socialization socialization follows two main paths, a direct one where parents teach their
child how to be an intelligent shopper and the other, indirect, where parents
encourage their child to act in such-and-such a way when they are in a store
with him. Based on the two dimensions of the parents' socialization it is
possible to say that the parents' cents-off active sensitivity expressing itself,
in-store, by the active search of products with deal, is ``visible'' for the child.
Indeed, a parent who says he/she is on the look-out for cents-off deals in a
store will probably have an active behavior consisting of looking for in-store
deals. It is thanks to (active) behavior that parents socialize their child
(indirect socialization). When one of the parents says that his attention is
attracted by products on sales promotion (passive sensitivity), he/she just
talks about an inside state which does not involve behavior. So, the child
cannot observe whether his dad or his mum or both of them are receptive to
promotional signs in a store and it is difficult to observe the perception of an
object by someone. The passive consideration of a deal on a range of
products does not lead the child to be indirectly socialzed.
To be clear, it seems that the more parents are looking for products which
offer cents-off deal in store, the more a child, through an indirect
socialization process leading him to imitate his parents' behavior, is cents-off
sensitive when he/she goes in-store with his parents.

Concerning, H6 (the more cents-off sensitive the child is, the more brand
sensitive he/she is), the results reveal that the child's cents-off sensitivity has
a positive impact on the child's brand sensitivity (0.264; 6.34). So, in
accordance with McNeal (1992) and Gunter and Furnham (1998), cents-off
contribute to make the child more brand sensitive.
The results of H7 (the more cents-off sensitive the child is, the more likely
he/she is to use a ``cents-off'' strategy, and the less likely he/she is to use a
``product'' strategy) show, as it was postulated, that the more cents-off
sensitive the child is, the more he/she is likely to use a `` cents-off'' strategy.
The child seems to be aware that he/she should use the presence of a cents-
off offer if he/she wants to persuade his parents to buy a product. It seems to
be a good argument which shows him to be an intelligent shopper.
Conclusion and discussion

Cents-off sensitivity The object of this work has been to acquire a better understanding of the
child's cents-off sensitivity. The results of this research have led us to give
prominence to several important points.
First, it seems important to underline the non-linear character of the child's
cents-off sensitivity development. Contrary to what we had expected, cents-
off sensitivity does not increase from childhood to adulthood continuously.

Second, this study puts into prominence the important part of the product
involvement in the child's cents-off sensitivity. Indeed, involvement is a
strong antecedent of the child's cents-off sensitivity: it is a kind of ``filter''
which conditions for a large part information processing while shopping. So,
involvement appears to be a necessary condition for a possible consideration
of ``cents-off'' and ``brands'' when the child is in a store with his/her parents.
From a managerial point of view this kind of deal seems to be all the more
effective since it concerns products with which the child is involved. In
concrete terms, identifing the products most children are involved with (but
also the products they do not seem to be interested in) before proposing a
promotional action is important.
Third, if the review of the literature concerning the impact of socialization
factors on the child's (7-11 years) behavior lays stress on the decisive
position in the family, this work calls into question the impact of the parent's
socialization on the child. Nevertheless, this point of view only deals with
the influence of indirect socialization on the child's cents-off sensitivity. So
it should be interesting to look for other socialization factors able to make the
child more cents-off sensitive.
Association process Another important contribution of this study is validating McNeal (1992) and
Gunter and Furhnam (1998)'s intuition, which is that the (cents-off) deal,
through an association process, is in a position to make the child between
seven and 11 years old more sensitive to the ``brand'' information. In other
words, the child's cents-off sensitivity really seems to be an antecedent of the
child's brand sensitivity.
Finally, our results concerning the influence strategies used in the presence
of cents-off deals confirm the idea according to which the child builds real
influence strategies. More precisely, this work shows that, on the one hand,
the child is fully aware of his parents' expectations and that, on the other
hand, he/she uses cents-off with a strategic goal in mind.
In spite of these contributions, two main limits should be underlined in this
study. The first one concerns the cognitive development measure considered

through the child's age. While age constitutes an important indicator of the
cognitive development of the child (Belk et al., 1982; Peracchio, 1993; and
Gunter and Furnham, 1998), it nevertheless gives a linear vision of the
cognitive development.
The second limit concerns possible other antecedents of the child's cents-off
sensitivity that we have not taken into account. Indeed, the parents' direct
socialization (i.e. they teach their child to be an intelligent shopper) may
explain in part the child's cents-off sensitivity.
Conclusion In conclusion, these limits will constitute the main line of our future research
which will enable us, for example, to estimate the child's cognitive
development through a psychometric test but also to understand the impact
of parents'direct socialization on the child's cents-off sensitivity.
Notes
1. The process suggested by Churchill (1979) and by Gerbing and Anderson (1988), has
been followed for all the scales of measurement. Each scale has been pre-tested in a
qualitative way and at least two data collections have been achieved, which led us to use
exploratory factorial analysis. To sum up, only the confirmatory factorial analysis will be
presented.
2. Given that the construct is unidimensional, the discriminant validity is calculated through
the higher correlation of the model.
3. Given that the logistic regression has been achieved on a smaller sample (519 respondents
for 702 in the structural equations model) because of the three possibilities of the
qualitative variable (``product'' strategy, ``cents-off'' strategy or `Ì say nothing''),
children who do not influence have been removed because their answers are not relevant
for this study. Nevertheless, in order to test the adjustment quality of this model and the
dependence score of the hypotheses of the structural equation model on the same sample,
the structural equation model has also been tested on the logistic regression sample.
4. Each hypothesis is proposed at 0.000.
5. For the whole tested hypotheses, the dependence coefficient and the t test, indicated in
brackets, concern the ML estimation of the model on the whole sample. The results of the
other estimations methods are in the Appendix.
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&
Appendix
Synthesis of the results by estimation

GLS ADF Bootstrap ML Cereals ML Cheese ML ML (partial)
H1: The more involved a child is in a range of products, the more cents-off sensitive he is
0.411 (9.91) 0.448 (11.59) 0.465 (4.67) 0.391 (7.25) 0.442 (7.97) 0.338 (7.25)
H2: The more involved a child is in a range of products, the more brand sensitive he is
0.449 (12.50) 0.536 (14.25) 0.612 (6.45) 0.592 (11.16) 0.435 (8.32) 0.521 (12.05)
H3: The more elaborate the child's cognitive abilities are, the more cents-off sensitive he is
±0.158 (±3.62) ±0.167 (±4.44) ±3.12 (±2.97) ±0.200 (±3.70) ±0.180 (±3.08) ±0.274 (±5.86)
H4: The more elaborate the child's cognitive abilities are, the more brand sensitive he is
NS NS NS NS NS NS
H5: The more cents-off sensitive the parents are, the more cents-off sensitive the child is
0.193 (3.23) 0.196 (4.06) 0.322 (2.06) 0.221 (2.48) 0.167 (2.11) 0.273 (3.65)
(Active S) (Active S) (Active S) (Active S) (Active S) (Active S)
NS ±0.112 (±2.21) NS NS NS ±0.166 (±2.13)
(Passive S) (Passive S) (Passive S) (Passive S) (Passive S) (Passive S)
H6: The more cents-off sensitive the child is, the more brand sensitive he is
0.271 (6.42) 0.273 (6.82) NS 0.167 (2.52) 0.334 (6.29) 0.206 (4.00)
Table AI. Results of estimation methods

This summary has been Executive summary and implications for managers and
provided to allow managers executives
and executives a rapid
appreciation of the content ``Cents-off sensitivity'' ± part of the child's consumer education!
of this article. Those with a Everyone with children has been there ± not only does our child want
particular interest in the something but the discount offer is thrust in our face as further reasoning
topic covered may then read behind us making the purchase. But we do not always appreciate the extent
the article in toto to take to which the child understands the situation. Do children reach an
advantage of the more understanding of the offer before or after they truly appreciate monetary
comprehensive description value? And what are the factors that make children deal prone?
of the research undertaken Muratone presents a fascinating study looking at the evolution of what she
and its results to get the full calls ``cents-off sensitivity'' in children with the objective of
benefit of the material ``. . . understanding why children aged between seven and 11 years old are
present sensitive to cents-off when they go shopping with their parents''.
When does the child notice the deal?

The first observation made by Muratone is that `à child is more likely to take
the existence of a cents off deal into account if he is attracted by these
products.'' The child acts selectively by focusing on the products he wants
and will only notice deals when they are attached to these products.
Muratone's findings reinforce this observation, concluding that involvement

in the product or brand is a necessary condition for consideration of
cents-off deals. The child is unlikely to notice or be interested in the cents-off
deal on washing powder (unless he's a very unusual child) but will certainly
notice the deal in the case of pop or sweets.
This is not a surprising discovery and it would be interesting to see whether
the same involvement requirement is also a factor in adult deal proneness? It
would seem a reasonable hypothesis to say that we are less likely to notice
deals if we are not interested in the product category. What occurs in
adulthood, we might argue, is that the range of products where we have an
involvement increases. However, it could equally be argued that in some
cases the deal proneness takes over and has a profound influence on
shopping behaviour regardless involvement.
Does the child need to understand money to appreciate the deal?

On one level the child has to understand that the cents-off deal has
something to with money and, this being the case, we can expect that
appreciation of money's significance increases as the child gets older. But
understanding the deal and understanding money are not one and the same
thing. The child works out pretty early on that a cents-off deal is a good thing
but this does not necessarily occur at the same time and in the same way as
an understanding of value.
Muratone shows that ``. . . cents-off sensitivity does not increase from
childhood to adulthood continuously.'' We are not dealing with a straight
line progression of understanding but a cognitive development that occurs in
irregular steps. The child's cognitive capacities do determine ± to a large
extent ± the degree of ``cents-off sensitivity'' but the development of deal
proneness does not develop at the same time or in the same way as the
child's understanding of value.
Do children pick up deal proneness from their parents?

The idea of socialization is recognized as an important element in the
development of children. Here, Muratone examines `ìndirect socialisation''
± the idea that the child picks up particular habits and behaviour through

exposure to them. The child is not taught about deals but picks up deal
proneness by observing parental behaviour.
As with the impact of involvement and cognitive development, it seems
reasonable for this effect to be seen as a factor in the development of the
child's ``cents-off sensitivity''. However, Muratone finds that indirect
socialization is not an important element in the development of the child's
deal proneness ± they do not pick up the habit from watching their parents
take advantage of cents-off deals. Muratone notes that her research
examined indirect socialization and not direct socialization but it is very
interesting to see that interest and understanding are far more important in
the development of deal proneness than the influence of parents. Equally, we
do not know whether peer influences are a factor in affecting the deal
proneness of children.
Brands and ``cent-off sensitivity''

The development of consumer behaviour in children is an important area of
study ± not so much because young children are big consumers but because
the development of this behaviour influences their attitudes to brands in later
life. Muratone suggests that ``the child's cents-off sensitivity really seems to
be an antecedent of the child's brand sensitivity.'' What we are seeing here is

that the use of ``cents-off'' offers targeted at children does not just contribute
to the development of deal proneness but also plays a role in `èducating''
children about brands.
This makes Muratone's study more significant ± far more that just an
interesting study looking at the development of children's consumer
behaviour. It seems to suggest that information about brands and
information about deals are not distinguished in the consumer's mind (the
young consumer in this case) but are linked. Such a finding is of profound
importance to marketers and not just marketers producing products likely to
be of interest to younger children.
(A preÂcis of the article `Ìnvolvement, cognitive development and

socialization: three antecedents of the child's cents-off sensitivity''. Supplied
by Marketing Consultants for Emerald.)

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Child's cents-off sensitivity shaped by involvement, development and socialization

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Keywords Children (age groups), Brand awareness, Marketing strategy,

Theoretical framework and research hypotheses

The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at

defined, according to Kapferer and Laurent (1992), as the consideration by

Figure 1. Cognitive development

252 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003

Since deal sensitivity can be defined as the consideration of the ``sales

JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003 253

Figure 2. Model of the child's cents-off sensitivity

254 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003

Methodology and concepts operationalisation

methodologies have been used. Concerning the hypothesis H7 (the more

Achievement of the measurement tools

JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003 255

Model 2 Loadings Reliability

Table I. Adjustment quality, reliability and validity of the child's cents-off

Model 2 Loadings Reliability

256 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003

Table III. Adjustment quality, reliability and validity of parents' cents-off

Model 2 Loadings Reliability

JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003 257

Table V. Test of the structural equation modeling of the child's cents-off

258 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003

The hypothesis is therefore validated whatever the estimation method used.

JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003 259

information requires elaborate cognitive abilities, we can say that the

260 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003

Conclusion and discussion

off sensitivity does not increase from childhood to adulthood continuously.

JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003 261

262 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003

et le bootstrap'', Recherche et Applications en Marketing, Vol. 1 No. 4 , pp. 57-70.

Synthesis of the results by estimation

Table AI. Results of estimation methods

264 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003

When does the child notice the deal?

Muratone's findings reinforce this observation, concluding that involvement

Does the child need to understand money to appreciate the deal?

Do children pick up deal proneness from their parents?

JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003 265

Brands and ``cent-off sensitivity''

be an antecedent of the child's brand sensitivity.'' What we are seeing here is

(A preÂcis of the article ``Involvement, cognitive development and

266 JOURNAL OF PRODUCT & BRAND MANAGEMENT, VOL. 12 NO. 4 2003

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