Building Vocabulary: Dictionary Consultation and the ESL Student

Author(s): Orsini Gonzalez and Orsini Gonzales

Source: Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Vol. 43, No. 3 (Nov., 1999), pp. 264-270
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the International Reading Association
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 Orsini Gonzalez

Building vocabulary:

Dictionary consultation and the ESL student

An informal study of ESL

college students highlights
the merits of dictionary use
and the interactive nature of
vocabulary acquisition.
©1999 International Reading Association
(pp. 264-270)
sight is a familiar one: An English as a second language (ESL)
student thumbs through a dog-eared dictionary searching for
that one troublesome English word in a reading assignment.
Encountering more unfamiliar words while reading, the same stu-
dent continues searching the dictionary, immersed in an act of dis-
covery and meaning. When asked why the dictionary is frequently
consulted, the student responds, "I have no choice. I know very lit-
tle English, and the dictionary is all I have to help me read." You
probably have witnessed this activity on many occasions and either
questioned the effectiveness of the practice or resigned yourself to
the inevitability of dictionary use in the ESL classroom.
In colleges throughout the United States, a linguistically diverse
undergraduate student body comprises immigrants, or the children
of immigrants, from Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean islands,
Russia, and Europe. All are eager to meet the challenges of master-
ing a new language - English.
Such is the case at the City University of New York where nearly
15% of the undergraduates have graduated from the New York City
high school system (either by way of bilingual programs or ESL in-
struction) and, on average, have lived 3 to 4 years in the U.S. (City
University of New York, 1994). The reading test scores of these stu-
dents vary widely, but their reading proficiency, on average, is in
the low-high-school to medium-high-school range. One feature they
have in common is their need to upgrade their English receptive vo-

264 Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 43:3 November 1999

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cabulary. In the words of one student, "I want to
know every English word, but they are so many."
In most content-oriented courses in traditional
U.S. colleges, undergraduates encounter much
discipline-specific, and often highly technical, vo-
cabulary with multiple underlying concepts in their
academic reading (Anderson & Nagy, 1991, 1992;
Simpson & Dwyer, 1991). A student's successful
comprehension of these college texts depends on
the effective and efficient strategies used for coping
with previously unknown words. For most English-
dominant students attending U.S. colleges and uni-
versities, general and technical vocabulary
development is a matter of course because they
have built strong, solid vocabularies in their native
language over many years. But for the ESL college
student, vocabulary development takes on a special
meaning (Block, 1992; Lay, 1995; Shih, 1992). As
more and more regular classroom teachers find
themselves teaching students whose native tongue
is not English, they seek a better understanding of
methods and strategies that will aid in their students'
vocabulary development (Hatch & Brown, 1995).
A dictionary, often the first valuable purchase
for language learning, provides the adult ESL
learner with opportunities for encountering and
acquiring new words (Knight, 1994; Lawson &
Hogben, 1996; Luppescu & Day, 1993). Comments
one student, "I need my Chinese-English dictio-
nary to help me understand new (English) words
that I see."
However, dictionary consultation has taken on
a secondary role in the ESL classroom and is
viewed by many teachers as an ineffective tool for
language learning. This article presents an infor-
mal study of this often misunderstood learner
strategy, explores related issues on vocabulary ac-
quisition, and shares a reading strategy - the use
of the newspaper. Several central questions will
be answered:
1. What kinds of words are bound to present
difficulties for ESL college students?
2. How efficient are ESL college students in
their search for word meanings in written context
using a dictionary?
3. Given the multiple meanings derived from
one word, how accurately do ESL college students
match dictionary definitions with words in context?
4. Does dictionary use help some students more
than others?
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flleetin? the reading needs of €SL students
Current practices in ESL vocabulary acquisition in-
struction place very little emphasis on dictionary
use (Block, 1992; Jimenez, Garcia, & Pearson,
1995, 1996; Shu, Anderson, & Zhang, 1995). In
fact, the reader's use of a dictionary while reading
to define unknown words is generally discouraged
by most educators, but some suggest that it be
used as a last resort (Haynes, 1993; Nation, 1990).
The primary concern for educators is that looking
up words frequently diverts the reader's attention
from the task at hand, interferes with short-term
memory processing, and thus disrupts the compre-
hension process. But what have we learned from
research on dictionary consultation to make these
assertions?
effectiveness of dictionary uta?e
Two investigations combining reading and second-
language word acquisition paved the way for the
observations presented here. The first examined
definitions derived from the dictionary used by
young word learners (McKeown, 1993). Adult sec-
ond-language learners seem to have dictionary
problems similar to the young native speaker
found in this study, specifically, the problem of
defining unfamiliar words in context.
In the first study, McKeown (1993) investigated
the characteristics of typical dictionary definitions
that prevent them from being useful to young
learners in order to develop more effective defini-
tions. For example, she noted that some dictionary
definitions exhibited weak differentiation, used
wording that had low explanatory support, or pre-
sented multiple pieces of information that con-
found the dictionary user. She argued that a
dictionary is a valuable asset for language learners
when it provides for understanding a context that
contains an unknown word. She described the in-
teraction of the text, dictionary, and learner as an
initiating event in learning a word.
McKeown's research examined the performance
of grade-school students in two experiments that
asked them to apply the word meanings acquired
from encounters with either dictionary or revised
definitions in the students' own written sentences.
In both experiments, in which response sentences
were judged acceptable or unacceptable, the results
Building vocabulary 265
indicated that subjects performed better with the re-
vised definitions over the unrevised ones.
From the findings of this study, McKeown un-
derscored the need for specialized dictionary for-
mats for novice language learners to avoid some
of the pitfalls inherent in regular dictionary defini-
tions. For instance, these definitions led students
to make some misinterpretations. The findings
also identified problematic features of typical dic-
tionary definitions that may confuse the novice
dictionary user.
The second investigation examined the acquisi-
tion of vocabulary by ESL college students in aca-
demic courses (Parry, 1991, 1993). Parry intended
her study to investigate the range of strategies
used by ESL students in building vocabulary
specifically from their readings in the few years, or
even semesters, of university study.
Her case study subjects participated in distinct
introductory anthropology classes and were told to
keep a list of any words they encountered from
their anthropology textbooks that caused them any
difficulty. Furthermore, they were asked to write
down what they guessed these words to mean
and, if they chose to look up the words in the dic-
tionary, to record the definitions that they found.
Two subjects in the study reflected opposing
approaches. One subject read rapidly, identified a
few words, and guessed quickly at the unfamiliar
words. The subject verified the meaning using a
dictionary but without referring back to the con-
text. Another subject plodded through the read-
ings and stopped at each unfamiliar word,
spending much time on the sentences before mak-
ing a guess. Dictionary consultation differed in
that the second subject checked definitions with
context.
Another interesting finding from this study is
that for all the students most of the words that
caused trouble were ones described as "bridging"
vocabulary, or words that "characterize formal
prose and often express relationship or other ab-
stractions" (Parry, 1991, p. 637). Parry concluded
that the major difficulty for advanced ESL students
is "that the further they progress the more they
will have to learn large numbers of words that
they will come across only rarely" (p. 635).
In summary, Parry's study (1991, 1993) present-
ed three important findings. First, a strong correla-
tion exists between how much people read and
266 m Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 43:3 November 1 999
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how many words they know. Wide and varied
reading influences the amount of words one en-
counters. Second, individuals may have different
strategies for inferring meaning from context, and
these strategies may affect the way in which they
learn new words. Included among these strategies
is prudent use of a dictionary. Last, the ESL sub-
jects in this study demonstrated a tendency for
misinterpretation whether inferring meaning from
context or using the dictionary.
Both McKeown's (1993) and Parry's (1991, 1993)
studies indicated that dictionary consultation as-
sumes a lexical, linguistic sophistication on the part
of the user. It demands that the user possess broad
semantic categories to relate the unfamiliar word.
Yet both studies show that adept dictionary skills
are necessary for native speakers and ESL learners
to facilitate the learning of unfamiliar words.
Word learning and the dictionary
Those ESL students selected for this investigation
were from the second or intermediate tier of ESL
language instruction in the City University of New
York. Almost half of the subjects had graduated
from the New York City high school system by
way of either bilingual programs or ESL instruction
and, on the average, had lived 3 to 4 years in the
United States. Of those selected for the study,
about 40% were Latino (Spanish was the dominant
language), 33% were Asian (Chinese, Korean, and
Bengali speakers), and 27% were Haitian (Creole
speakers). Upon admission to the college, they
were placed in an ESL reading course if they had
not achieved a predetermined cut-off score on the
university's language placement examination, the
CUNY Descriptive Test of Language Skills (DTLS).
All ESL students enrolled in my intermediate
college reading course for second-language learn-
ers were required to maintain weekly a collection
of three newspaper articles read at home from The
New York Times. Students selected articles accord-
ing to their interests and motivation (e.g., sports,
music, politics, science). Self-selected articles al-
low students to build background knowledge with
content-specific topics and domains, and thus pro-
mote ease with unfamiliar vocabulary. In addition,
newspaper topics are of high interest to students,
which further motivates reading.
 Students were instructed to write a brief sum- Examples of general utility words
mary or comments about each article. From each outrage bizarre
article students were told to select five unfamiliar endangered ailment
or unknown words in context, which they consid- deny hinder
ered necessary for comprehension, and to either deplore crew
guess from context or refer to the dictionary for briskly agony
meaning. Each word with its accompanying defini- eloquent fierce
tion was recorded along with the summary.
The second category, prose words, included
For 12 weeks students maintained their weekly
general items that appear in formal prose and of-
assignments in small notebooks. By the end of the
ten express relationships or other abstractions.
semester, each student had amassed over 36 arti-
Martin (1989) defined this category as "bridging
cles and over 180 vocabulary words with their re-
vocabulary." Approximately 31% of the problem
spective definitions. From this collection of over
words fell into this category.
75 notebooks, I proceeded to select every fifth
one, a total of 15 notebooks. Examples of formal prose words
In my analysis of the 15 notebooks, I considered henceforth antagonist
categories of vocabulary items to group by com- assertion condone

mon features (i.e., verbs, nouns, adjectives), and I integrity subdue

compared the lexical term definitions with the text culmination contend
representation or context. Student interviews aided aftermath cited
me with any questions or information necessary rhetoric prestige
for the research. For instance, I asked students
The third category found in the samplings was
about the amount of time taken for the task, the
very domain-specific terms; for example, terms as-
kinds of problems they encountered in performing
sociated with political events or the financial
the task, and for the kind (bilingual or monolin-
world. These words made up 28% of the sample.
gual) and name of dictionary used for their reading
activity. Examples of domain-specific terms
arrears dissident
subsidiary deadlock
flftermath
equity demographic
What kinds of words are bound to present diffi- underwrite forum

culties for ESL college students? One interviewee negotiations plaintiff

summarized this question in her terms,
"Understanding reading (in English) is difficult be-
cause so many words unknown." A careful analy-
sis of students' newspaper notebooks provided
more detailed insight into this question.
Four categories of words presented problems to
learners. They were general utility words, prose
words, domain-specific words, and inflected
words. As expected, the majority of the words
gleaned from the notebooks were high-frequency
(i.e., trip, huge, compete). The first category, gen-
eral utility words, characterized as common, basic,
and domain-specific and referred to as "second-
tier" words by Beck, McKeown, and Omanson
(1987), represented about 26% of the total words
from the sample. Second-tier words are of general
utility, appear across domains, and characterize a
mature language user's vocabulary.
ecological assailant
Words in the fourth category from the student
notebooks were taken with their inflectional forms
intact as instructed. These represented about 15%
of the total sample. Dictionary entries seldom in-
clude inflectional endings or prefixes, mainly due
to space considerations. In some cases, students
reported in later interviews that they were hin-
dered in their search for inflectional forms in their
dictionary. One student related his answer in gen-
eral terms, "Sometimes the dictionary is a little
confused and I don't understand the word."
Examples of inflected word forms
executing punches
obstructing strapped
nightmarish encouraged
disabled paradoxically

Building vocabulary ij 267

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 Text representations and student definitions
Uext representation: The Food and Drug
Administration will allow a San
Francisco group to continue
clinical trials of the experimental
AIDS drug compound Q, with
revision.
Student definition: Compound- to mix or combine.
2. Text representation: The police said they could not
confirm any deaths in the clash
in the black township of
Sebokeng.
Student definition: Clash - a loud confused noise.
3. Text representation: As an example of endangered
species Dr. Klemens cites stud-
ies of the common wood turtle
of North America.
Student definition: Wood - suitable for holding,
cutting, or working with wood.
How efficient are ESL students in their search
for word meanings in written context?
Approximately 79% of the word entries provided
acceptable definitions when matched with the text
representation. Approximately 2% of the entries
provided no definitions, and approximately 19%
provided unacceptable ones. The findings seem to
indicate that these adult learners had the lexical,
linguistic sophistication to use the dictionary. On
the other hand, nearly one word in five presented
problems to these learners. When subjects were
interviewed to account for the unacceptable defin-
itions from their entries, they generally demon-
strated an unfamiliarity with the morphological
construction of the target word. For example, one
subject did not identify the stem of punches to be
punch. As a consequence, the subject discontin-
ued the word search. Another student later com-
mented, "Sometimes I read too fast and easily
misunderstand a word." The more adept dictio-
nary user would scan for the entry and realize that
the closest definition could be found in the stem,
and that the inflectional endings only change the
grammar of the word.
268 Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 43:3 November 1999
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The question of student accuracy in the match-
ing of dictionary definitions with words in context
is also explored from the collected data. Three
samples with the original sentences from the text
representation and the students' written dictionary
definitions appear in the Figure.
In analyzing the examples in the Figure, I used
McKeown's (1993) four categories of definition
problems. Two of the categories, weak differentia-
tion and likely interpretation, appear to influence a
learner to accept an inadequate interpretation of a
word's meaning. The interpretation is either too
broad, as in the first case, or obviously imprecise,
as in the second. The other two kinds of definition
problems, vague language and disjoint compo-
nents, appear to introduce barriers that hinder the
learner from reaching any interpretation of a word's
meaning, because of weak information in one case
and disconnected information in the other.
The example with the word compound and its
somewhat general meaning stems from what
McKeown called "likely interpretation" where the
dictionary user's interpretation of a word is either
too broad or obviously inaccurate. The student
also fails to note the syntactic features inherent in
the surrounding words, such as "allow to continue
trials of," which needs an object to complete the
action (noun phrase, "the experimental AIDS drug
compound Q"). "Compound Q" is a descriptor
and not an action verb, as shown in the written
definition. The student has not matched the syn-
tactical sequence corresponding to the dictionary
definition.
The second sentence containing the lexical term
clash seems to be a morphological mismatch.
Apparently, the student perceived the word as
crash and therefore the definition corresponds to
that lexical term. This finding is similar to the find-
ings of Parry (1991, 1993). In her research, several
ESL college students kept notebooks of unfamiliar
words culled from their academic textbooks. They
extracted target words and the surrounding con-
textual sentences and attempted to unravel their
meanings. Many of Parry's students used the
dictionary for this task. She discovered learner
confusion about, or at least failure to use, mor-
phological and syntactic cues to derive word
meanings.
The third incorrect dictionary definition in the
Figure is an example of what McKeown called
"disjoint components," which offer multiple pieces
of information but provide no cues to the clear
representation of the word's meaning. Again, the
syntactic cues available to the reader from the text
have gone unheeded. Wood describes the kind of
turtle and therefore is more appropriately an ad-
jective. However, the learner has determined that
wood is a noun, and justifiably so. One can argue
that wood taken together with turtle forms a com-
pound noun. But the dictionary definition is in-
compatible in its sense of meaning in context: a
turtle "suitable for holding, cutting, or working
with wood."
To use or not to u$e the dictionary?
Does dictionary use help some ESL students more
than others? Interviews with my students divulged
that dictionary work was laborious but necessary.
Stated one student, "Reading newspaper take me
long time because I must use dictionary many
times. But I feel I must learn new word." Although
they perceived their task as time consuming, many
students welcomed the opportunity to interact
with text on their own terms. "I do not need
English teacher when I use my dictionary," volun-
teered one subject. For most students accustomed
to the read-and-look-up-words routine, the dictio-
nary activity was meaningful and focused their at-
tention on their vocabulary needs as well as their
perceived reading comprehension. As one student
claimed, "I use my dictionary and I don't worry
about time."
Still, for a small minority of students the activity
was frustrating because the dictionary did not pro-
vide adequate definitions. The more they used the
dictionary the more they had to define words. It
was a never-ending task. In the words of one stu-
dent, "I find word in dictionary. But meaning I do
not understand. I have to find other meaning (in
dictionary) to explain this word."
A variety of dictionaries were used ranging
from the abridged English/Native language lexicon
to the unabridged collegiate dictionary. Most stu-
dents had two or three, each dictionary corre-
sponding to their level of English language
progress. In some cases, students had specialized
dictionaries in content-specific areas such as ac-
counting, chemistry, computers, or architecture.
Others had quickly progressed to use a thesaurus.
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Most students concurred that the dictionary was
another tool in their arsenal of language learning.
Implications to C5L vocabulary learning
This article presented two activities: the use of a
newspaper and consultation with a dictionary that
was available to the ESL college student to inde-
pendently learn new vocabulary. The newspaper
activity summarized here allowed students to set
goals for their individual reading and to collect
and think about challenging words in meaningful
contexts. Newspapers are available to all students
and contain material of high interest to just about
anyone.
Persistent use of the dictionary allowed ESL
learners to compensate for their deficiencies in vo-
cabulary knowledge and become more fluent
readers. Specifically, these learners rely on text
schemata, syntax, and word analysis combined
with their world view and how it relates to the
text at hand. As literacy teachers we need to keep
the following points in mind:
• ESL students need to be taught prudent use
of the dictionary. Teachers can facilitate this
process by providing opportunities for dictionary
practice in the class and assigning tasks that will
foster better dictionary habits.
• Beginning ESL students benefit from a spe-
cially suited learner dictionary that (a) provides
definitions strong in differentiation, (b) has high
explanatory support, and (c) presents multiple
pieces of information in a clear manner for the
user.
• Dictionary use aids second-language learners'
vocabulary development. Dictionary consultation
is the initial step in learning a new word. It pro-
vides fast and reliable support for learners who
have vocabulary and language limitations.
• The use of interesting and meaningful read-
ing material, such as a newspaper, as a means to
both improve language skills and enhance vocab-
ulary learning is a strategy worth exploring in the
ESL classroom.
• Language learners compensate for their lack
of vocabulary by developing strategies that meet
their needs. Vocabulary learning growth in and
out of the classroom seems to be guided by stu-
dent familiarity with and exposure to extensive
and varied reading experiences.
Building vocabulary 269
 Overall, this study demonstrated that English as
a second language learners are capable and re-
sourceful with distinct learning tools at their dis-
posal for the educational tasks met in the
classroom. Moreover, this study illuminated the
significant role that specific learning strategies
play in successful vocabulary acquisition. These
ESL vocabulary learning strategies need to be re-
searched so that we may have a clearer perspec-
tive on the process of vocabulary acquisition.
An equally important consideration emerging
from this research is the depth of word knowl-
edge gained from reading. If left to their own re-
sources, how well will ESL students learn new
words? One constant remains apparent, ESL stu-
dents will continue to rely on the dictionary for
added support in their language learning.
Gonzalez teaches English as a second language
at City College of New York/CUNY, in New York
City, He may be contacted at 785 Lake Street,
Newark, NJ 07104, USA.
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