The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology (1996) 25.
3 and 4: 177–206
Ships fastenings: a preliminary study revisited
Mike McCarthy
Department of Maritime Archaeology, Western Australian Maritime Museum, Cliff Street,
Fremantle WA 6160, Australia
Introduction
During the inspection and/or excavation of
a wooden-hulled shipwreck, the archaeolo-
gist will often come across a wide variety of
ship’s fastenings. These can vary greatly in
size, form and material and can be found
in place on hull timbers, or out of context
on, or under, the sea floor. Some of these
are illustrated below.
Not only are there many fastening types,
but the terms used to describe them can
vary, and can cause confusion in the read-
ing of artefact registers, shipbuilding texts
and catalogues. With respect to transla-
tion, David H. Roberts (Jean Boudriout’s
English-language translator) was led to
comment that ‘such terms are [often] im-
possible to translate, each country having
its own peculiarities’ (Boudriout, 1986:
140). This also poses real problems for
those interested in comparative studies.
A preliminary study, intended to pro-
mote discussion on the subject by identify-
ing ship’s fastenings and the terminology
generally used to describe them was pre-
sented but not widely disemminated
(McCarthy, 1983). This article presents
that study to a wider audience in the hope
that it will stimulate discussion and interest.
The 1983 study
Two major sources were used in the origi-
nal study. These were the collections of the
Maritime Archaeology Department of the
Western Australian Maritime Museum
and the literature which was then available
to this author. The latter was:
1057–2414/96/030177+30 $25.00/0
1782 Contract for building of a 24 gun RN
Frigate.
1780s Le vaisseau de 74 cannon (Boudriot,
1977) and the 1986 English translation.
1793 Allgemeines Wörterbuch de Marine
(Röding, 1793).
1798 The Frigate Essex papers (Smith, 1793).
1815 Universal Dictionary of the Marine
(Falconer, 1815).
1822 The Shipwright’s Vade Mecum (Steel,
1822).
1862 Specifications for shipbuilding (Com-
missioner of Patents, 1862).
1874 Australian Lloyds, Rules and Regula-
tions (Australian Lloyds, 1874).
1874 Naval Architecture (Thearle, 1874).
1877 Illustrated Marine Encyclopaedia
(Paasch, 1877).
1920s Wooden Shipbuilding (Desmond, 1919).
1940s–60s International Marine Dictionary (de
Kerchove, 1961, First Edition, 1948).
1966 HMS Victory, Building (Bugler, 1966).
1966 Boatbuilding (Chapelle, 1966).
The literature available at the time was
obviously limited, as was the range of
fastenings themselves. A notably absent
source was data taken from intact hulls,
such as the Edwin Fox in New
Zealand. The practice of sewing or lacing
planks was also not included in the 1983
study. Entitled ‘Ships fastenings (a prelimi-
nary study)’, the 1983 article initially ident-
ified nearly 90 English-language terms
specifically relating to ship’s (as opposed to
boat’s) fastenings (Appendix). Omitted
from the study were those terms normally
used only in small craft such as ‘wire
nail’ or ‘carriage bolt’. A ‘wire nail’, for
example, is defined as a ‘round shank nail
occasionally used in boatbuilding when
? 1996 The Nautical Archaeology Society
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4
the planking is made of softwood or is
under 5/8 inch (15 mm) in thickness (de
Kerchove, 1961: 922)’. The terms found
were then arranged in a chronologically-
based table which attempted to reflect the
use of contemporary terminology, rather
than the date of publication. This was done
in order not only to ascertain, what were
the most commonly used terms over the
period, but also as an attempt to gauge
their period of origin. Bugler generally
refers to repairs done to HMS Victory in
the 1960s and his terminology does not
necessarily reflect 18th-century usage.
Boudriot, on the other hand, appears to
use contemporary terms in his French-
language description of the 74-gun ship
and de Kerchove covers the early to mid
20th century up to the printing of his
second edition in 1961 (First Edition,
1948). Chapelle, though concentrating on
boatbuilding, provides a useful modern
focus in that he also refers to shipbuilding
techniques. In the main, the author used
English-language sources, but the works of
Boudriot (1977), Röding’s Wörterbuch
(1793), and de Kerchove’s Maritime
Dictionary (1961) were also consulted for
some European-language equivalents.
The original table, which appears in
abridged form below as Table 1, listed
most of the terms found. It also illustrated
the evolution of some terms and the
decline of others over the relatively short
200-year period under scrutiny. One
example is the ‘penny’, a term initially used
at the beginning of the study period as an
indicator of cost per hundred and size, to
then become solely an indicator of size
(Sickels, 1972: 69). Other examples are
the terms ‘dump’ and ‘drift’. The former
appears to have entered the literature
around the mid 19th century and the latter
had traditionally been used in shipbuilding
to signify the difference between the size of
a bolt and the hole into which it was to be
driven. For instance, if a bolt be 1/8 of an
inch larger than the hole intended for it,
178
the bolt was said to have 1/8 inch ‘drift’
(Falconer, 1815: 127). To have a degree
of drift was standard practice. However,
20th-century American use (Desmond,
1919: 204; de Kerchove, 1961: 243;
Chapelle, 1966: 173–175) indicates that the
term came to be used for a specific fasten-
ing, as in ‘drift-bolt’. The term is now
found elsewhere. In translating Jean
Boudriout’s work, for example, David
Roberts uses the term ‘drift’ to denote the
body or shank of a bolt (Boudriot, 1986:
140).
The table also showed that many terms
such as treenail, nail, spike, spike nail, deck
nail, clinch nail, bolt, rag bolt, eyebolt,
ringbolt, hook bolt, clinch bolt, butt bolt,
chain bolt, preventer bolt, plate and staple
(a keel fastening) persist throughout the
200-year period. These terms, by virtue of
their longevity, self-evident nature, and
(apparently) widespread application are
clearly appropriate for use in modern reg-
isters and catalogues and are easily trans-
latable, while others appeared less suitable
for various reasons, as discussed below.
The re-presented study
There are some changes from the original
study in what follows. Other texts have
been consulted, though they are but a
small indication of the possibilities.
Another change is in the form of the
suggestions for future research. Those fas-
tening types used in the process of ship
construction, but removed at some stage
before launching, such as ‘ribband nail’,
‘clamp nails’, ‘wrain (or wring) bolts’, are
omitted. Similarly, ‘toggle bolts’ (used to
secure the ensign staff) or ‘pump bolts’
(being bolts that act to secure the pump
spear to the pump brake or to act as a
fulcrum for the pump brake itself), do not
appear. These are found described by de
Kerchove (1961), Falconer (1815), Steel
(1822) and others in the reading list.
The original fastenings table has been
abridged to include only those fastening
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS
types found on more than one occasion
in the 1983 literature (Table 1). It has been
augmented, however, with an Appendix
which contains a list of all the fastening
types encountered.
As can be seen from the table, not only
did terminology evolve in the period of
study, but it is evident that the fastenings
found could be subdivided into two main
categories: metallic and organic
fastenings. These could then be distilled
further into surprisingly few subsections.
Metallic fastenings, for example, can be
divided into nails, bolts and miscellaneous.
Metallic fastenings
(i) Nails: Nails, spikes, sheathing nails.
(ii) Bolts: Short bolts, through bolts,
bolts with specially designed heads
and ends, specific purpose bolts,
threaded bolts, and screws.
(iii) Miscellaneous: Staples, plates and
rudder braces.
Nails
The American shipbuilder, Charles
Desmond, defined a nail as a ‘small
pointed piece of metal, usually with a head,
to be driven into a board or piece of
timber, and serving to fasten it to the other
timber (Desmond, 1919: 207); they can be
‘square or round in section and made
of either iron, copper, or mixed metal’
(Falconer, 1815: 291). Later, they were
made of iron or copper/zinc alloys. In
shipbuilding, large square-sectioned nails
are called ‘spikes’. In the mid to late 19th
century, the equivalent large round-
sectioned nails were known as ‘dumps’.
With the exception of ‘dumps’ (which can
also be categorised as a ‘short bolt’) nails
generally fall into two main categories,
nails and spikes, each of which can be
subdivided further. Small nails (those used
in fastening sheathing) are called ‘sheath-
ing nails’. Those used for metallic sheath-
ing could be called ‘sheathing tacks’.
Nails
Nails can be described by cost, weight or
size, or by terms which could include pur-
pose, material and mode of manufacture
(Mercer, 1960: 235).
(i) Cost: Five for a penny (Röding, 1793:
653).
(ii) Weight: ‘30 pound nails’ (Röding,
1793: 653), where 1000 of the type weigh 30
pounds (approx. 15 kg).
(iii) Size: Nails of ‘Thumbs’ (Röding,
1973: 653), where a ‘thumb’ (French,
pouce, Dutch, duym), is around one inch
or 25 mm long. Boudriot (1977: 140) refers
to ‘Clous de 7 pouces’, that is nails 7
thumbs long, or about 7 inches (180 mm).
As indicated, the cost of a nail came
to be used synonymously with its length.
Falconer (1815: 291) states that two
shilling or ‘Twenty four penny nails’
(Clous de trois pouces et demi) . . . [are] . . .
about three inches and a half in length’
(87 mm). Here he is apparently referring to
the cost per hundred (Sickels, 1972: 69).
Falconer also provides a scale in which
2-penny nails are about 1 inch (25 mm) in
length; 6-penny nails are 1Y inches
(37 mm); 10-penny are 2X inches (56 mm);
24–penny (about) 3Y inches (90 mm). As
indicated, the practice has continued into
modern times and into regions where the
penny is not a recognized item of currency.
Chapelle (1996: 242), for example, states
that ‘penny’ is an expression of length and
that the standard penny lengths and inch
(c. 25 mm) equivalent are: 2 penny equals 1
inch; 3 penny equals 1X inches; 4 penny
equals 1Y inches; 5 penny 1Z inches; 6 penny
equals 2 inches and 10 penny equals 3
inches. The penny equivalent also appears
in the context of WWII wooden ship-
building methods (Lankford & Pinto,
1969). The term is also used in the con-
struction industry. Sickels (1972: 69), for
example, indicates that 50 penny nails were
5 inches (125 mm) long and 60 penny nails
were 6 inches (150 mm) long. The slight
variations in size for the various penny
179
 Table 1. Fastenings commonly appearing in the 1983 literature

180
1782 1864
Contract 1790 1793 1799 1815 1822 1862 Australian 1874 1890 1919 1948 1966 1966
of 1782 Boudriot Roding Smith Falconer Steel Patents Lloyds Thearle Paasch Desmond de Kerchove Bugler Chapelle

NAILS x x x x x x x x x x x
Nails described by:
(i) Cost x x x x
(ii) Weight x x
(iii) Size x x x x x x
(iv) Purpose and form
Brads x x x x x
Clasps x x x
Clinch nails x x x x x x
Copper nails x x
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Dumps x x x x x x
Doubling nails x x x
Filling nails x x x
Flat nails x x
Lead nails x x x
Plate nails x
Port nails x x
Round headed nails x x
Rudder nails (bolt) x x x
Scupper nails x x x
Sheathing nails x x x x x
Spikes x x x x x x x
Boat nails x x
Boat spikes x
Deck nails x x x x
Double deck nails x x
Single deck nails x x
Spike nails x x x x
Weight nails x x x

Bolts x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Short Bolts x x x x
Blunt bolts x x
Dumps x x x x x x
Lost point bolts x x x x
Rag bolts x x x x
 Table 1. Continued

1782 1864
Contract 1790 1793 1799 1815 1822 1862 Australian 1874 1890 1919 1948 1966 1966
of 1782 Boudriot Roding Smith Falconer Steel Patents Lloyds Thearle Paasch Desmond de Kerchove Bugler Chapelle

Through bolts x x x x x x
Forelock bolt x x x x
In & Out Bolts x x x
Rivet x x
Span Shackle x x
Clinch bolt x x x x x x x
Bolts with special head
Eye bolt x x x x x x x x x x x
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

Fender bolt x x
Hook bolt x x x x x
‘P’ bolt x
Ring bolt x x x x x x x x x
Shoulder bolt x
Stopper bolt x x
Specific purpose bolts
Bilge bolts x x
Butt bolt x x x x x
Chain bolt x x x x x x x
Drift bolt x x x
Frame bolts x x x
Preventer bolt x x x x x x x
Throat bolts x x x x
Threaded bolts
Lag bolts x x
Screw bolts x x x
Stud bolts x
Through bolts with nuts x
Screws x x
Miscellaneous
Staples x x x x x x
Plates x x x x x
Treenails x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

181
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4
equivalents between Falconer and Chapelle
is to be expected over time and across
geographic boundaries.
(iv) Form and purpose: By the 20th cen-
tury, the names used to describe nails came
to ‘express for the most part the uses to
which they are applied’ or ‘their form’
(Desmond, 1919: 207). The naming
conventions (some of which were purely
regional) produced such a large variety of
terms that Desmond identified ‘about 300’
sorts of wrought or forged nails alone
(1919: 207). When it is considered that
wrought or forged nails were only one of
his three categories (the others being, cut
or pressed nails, and cast nails) it becomes
apparent that there is a myriad of possible
terms for nails alone. In reducing this
number to those generally used in early
shipbuilding applications (as opposed to
boatbuilding and the construction indus-
try) many categories of nails become
irrelevant to this study. It needs to be
noted, however, that they can be found in
maritime archaeological applications, as
cargo or as fastenings for furniture and
fittings.
Descriptions, such as diamond-head,
round-head, rose-head, button-head or
nail-head, and square shank chisel point,
are found in the shipbuilding literature (de
Kerchove, 1961: 763). A number of these
descriptive terms are used in Figures 6 and
7. The shanks of fastenings can also appear
‘ragged’ by the process of obliquely strik-
ing the shaft of a nail or bolt with a sharp
tool to make a series of raised indents or
barbs (Figs 2, 5, 11). As indicated, the form
often reflected the purpose, though there
was often disagreement in terminology, as
is evident in the discussion which follows.
Brad Lead nail
Clasp Plate nail
Clinch nail Port nail
Dump Pump nail
Coopers flat Rudder nail
Filling nail Scupper nail
Flat nail Sheathing nail
182
Brad: A particular kind of nail ‘without
a head or shoulder on the shank. Used
when the nails are driven entirely into the
wood’ (de Kerchove, 1961: 94). Desmond
(1919: 207), on the other hand, states that
a brad is a ‘long thin nail with a flattish
head’. Falconer (1815: 291) indicates that
there are also ‘filling brads’ for the same
purposes as ‘filling nails’ described below,
that is to say they have a head.
Bradded or clasp headed nail: These nails
‘are used for clasping when driven into the
wood that their heads shall not be seen and
thereby render the work smooth so as to
admit a plane over it’ (Falconer 1815: 291).
Röding (1793: 653) refers to them as
‘clasps’. Paul Revere is noted in 1799 as
supplying brads for nailing on the rudder
braces’ for the frigate Essex (Smith 1974:
75). This appears anomalous.
Clasp: See brad above.
Clinch nail: This is a term for nails of
malleable metal which, after being driven
through from the outside, are bent over on
the inside of the frame (de Kerchove, 1961:
152).
Clout nail: de Kerchove (1961: 155) de-
fines a ‘clout nail’ as a flat circular-headed
nail with a partly round and partly square
section.
Doubling nail: Doubling is the process of
covering a ship’s bottom or sides, without
taking off the old planking (Desmond,
1919: 204). This occurred in repairs or
where the planking was too thin, or where
the shipwrights did not wish to remove
existing fastenings (Steel, 1822: 101).
Dump: A dump is a large round,
circular-section nail with a solid head (Figs
8–10). Thearle (1874: 230) refers to
‘dumps’ as ‘nails of mixed metal’, varying
in length from 7 inches long [180 mm] in 2
and a half inch plank [c. 55 mm] and in-
creasing one inch [25 mm] in length of
every Y-inch increase in the increase in the
thickness of the plank up to 12 inches
(300 mm). A 5 inch (125 mm) plank would
be fastened with a dump 12 inches
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS
Figure 1. Rudder nail (Possibly Lively, c. 1815, British).
[300 mm] long for example. According to
Thearle, dumps are generally between 5/8
(20 mm) to 1 inch or 25 mm thick. They
are also described as short bolts. See
the following.
Filling nail: ‘These are generally of cast
iron and driven very thick [close together]
into the bottom of planks or sheathing
board instead of copper sheathing’ (Steel,
1822: 118). Falconer (1815: 291) indicates
that they ‘have large clout heads, are one
inch thick and chiefly used for filling ships
bottoms . . .’ The remains of iron, square-
shanked, round-headed sheathing nails
were visible on a small portion of hull
found at the wreck of the VOC ship
Vergulde Draeck (1653–1656) excavated by
Jeremy Green.
Flat nail or Coopers Flat: These have
small flat shanks nearly one inch long and
were used to fasten tarred paper to the
bottom of ships before the sheathing was
applied (Falconer, 1815: 291).
Lead nail: These are ‘small round headed
nails for nailing of lead’ (Steel, 1822: 119).
Plate nail: ‘Plate nails have round heads,
are 2 inches (50 mm) in length and are used
chiefly to fasten bill plates to the bill-
boards and to hang scuttle hinges to the
port lids (Falconer, 1815: 291). A ‘bill-
board’ or ‘anchor bed’ is a ‘sloping support
or platform on the forecastle on which a
183
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4
Figure 2. Ragged rudder nail (Star, 1876–1880, Australian).
stocked anchor is stowed and secured
when at sea. It usually extends a little over
the side so as to throw the anchor clear
when let go’ (de Kerchove, 1961: 14).
Port nail: These are used for fastening
hinges to the port lids, also for fastening
plates to the bill-boards (Falconer, 1815:
291). They are ‘short stout nails with large
heads’ (Steel, 1822: 118).
Pump nail: These are ‘barely a half inch
long and used in the leather work and the
lower parts of common pumps’ (Röding,
1793: 95, 653).
Rudder nail: (Figs 1 & 2). These are
round fastenings ‘about 5 inches (125 mm)
in length with a full head and used for
fastening pintles to the rudder’ (Falconer,
1815: 291). They are also used for fastening
gudgeons to the ship. Steel (1822: 118), for
example, states that rudder nails are used
‘chiefly for fastening the pintles and
184
braces’. They also fit the category of short
bolts (see the following).
Scupper nail: These ‘are about an inch
(25 mm) in length, have broad heads and
are used for fastening leather and canvas
to the scuppers’ (Falconer, 1815: 291).
Röding (1793: 653) states that they are
used for nailing lead and leather and that
they have flat round heads.
Sheathing nail: (Fig. 3). ‘Sheathing’ is
broadly defined, by de Kerchove, as a
covering fastened to wooden, composite or
iron and steel hulls as a protection against
shipworm and marine growths (1961: 715).
Wooden sheathing was usually nailed over
felt, which was set in tar. Earlier in the
19th century, horsehair and pitch were
used ‘to set the wood’ (Ronnberg, 1980:
128, 137). According to Falconer (1815:
291) those sheathing nails used for fasten-
ing sheathing boards in ship’s bottoms are
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS
Figure 3. Sheathing nails (Rapid, 1807–1811,
American).
either of iron or copper. The latter, which
he calls ‘copper nails’, can be used for both
wooden and copper sheathing, are ‘made
of mixed metal of various lengths and
sizes; they have a flat round head, with a
square shank about one inch and a half
long’ (1815: 291). Steel states that those
used to fasten copper sheets ‘are of metal
cast in moulds, about one inch and a
quarter long; the heads are flat on
the upperside and countersunk below, the
upperside is polished to obviate the
adhesion of weed’ (Steel, 1822): 118).
There is scope for debate and these
definitions for sheathing nails are problem-
atic, as they have been coined at a period
of change in technology from wooden to
metallic sheathing and (within the latter)
from copper to copper alloys. There is also
a need to differentiate between the types of
Figure 4. Spike (Redemptora, c. 1888–1900,
American).
nails used to fasten boards, as opposed to
those used in metallic sheathing. Ronnberg
(1980: 128, 141, 137), for example, uses the
terms ‘sheathing nails’ and ‘coppering
nails’ to describe the fastenings used for
wooden and metallic sheathing on 19th-
century American merchant ships. Again
this poses a problem where copper alloy
sheathing is used. The terms ‘sheathing
nail’ and ‘sheathing tack’ could best be
utilized for these purposes. Clearly these
can be of various metals, notably copper or
copper alloy.
Tack (sheathing tack): The term ‘tack-
nail’ was in use around 1492 to describe
185
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Figure 5. Ragged spike (Data, 1879–c. 1895,

Finland).

a nail of 1Y inches in length (40 mm) in

length (Goodman, 1973: 438). This pro-
vides the historical antecedents for the use
of the term ‘sheathing tack’ to describe the
very small nails used in fastening metallic
sheathing to a vessel’s hull (e.g. Barto
Arnold, 1976: 129).

Spikes
A ‘spike’ (Fig. 4) is ‘a large, cut or wrought
nail of square section, made of galvanized
iron, steel, or composition. Also called
boat spike, spike nail, deck nail. Spikes
are used by boat builders for fastening
thick planking. They are shaped like Figure 6. Round-headed spike (Careening Bay
nails . . . ‘spike’ is loosely applied to large unidentified, c. 1880s).
nails, generally rose headed’ (de Kerchove,
1961: 763). There is some disagreement
over the minimum length of spikes. frigate Essex, were shorter (Smith, 1974:
Röding (1793: 136) states that they exceed 96). The discussion shows that there are
9 inches (225 mm) but the ‘spikes’ that the some antecedents for categorizing most
American, Paul Revere made for the large square-sectioned nails (deck nails,
186
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

Figure 7. Rose-headed spike (Rapid, 1807–1811,

American).

weight nails, double deck nails and so on)

as spikes. de Kerchove (1961: 763), states
that the length at which nails come under
the heading of spike is approximately 3
inches’. Some other authors start at 4
inches (100 mm). Boudriot noted that the
largest spike in his 74-gun ship was 15
inches or 400 mm long (Boudriot, 1986:
140).
Deck nail: ‘Deck nails or spike nails are
from four and a half inches (110 mm) to 12
inches (300 mm) long, having snug heads
and are used for fastening planks, and the
flat of decks’ (Steel, 1822: 118). These are
of different lengths and are used for fasten-
ing deck planks to the beams, carlings and
ledges, and for ‘doubling’ of shipping and
Figure 8. A Dump or short bolt (Jervoise Bay
unidentified, c. 1880s).
fastening planks to the beams (Falconer,
1815: 291). Doubling occurs in repairs,
where the planking or the hull itself is too
thin, or the shipwrights do not wish to
remove existing fastenings (Steel, 1822:
101).
Single deck nail: These are between 5
and 6 inches (125–150 mm) in length and
187
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4
Figure 9. Dump, or short bolt (James, 1812–1830,
American).
are used for fastening deck planks to the
beams, carlings and ledges (Falconer,
1815: 291).
Double deck nail: These are used for
‘doubling’ and for fastening planks to the
beams (Falconer, 1815: 291).
Weight nail: ‘Weight or spike nails are
various lengths and sizes and used for
fastening bulkheads to their respective
places’ (Falconer, 1815: 291).
Boat nails: These ‘are various lengths,
generally rose headed, square at the points
188
and made of both copper and iron’ (Steel,
1822: 119.
Boat spike: Boat spikes are from 3 to 14
inches (75–350 mm) long, with diamond,
button or nail head, with square shanks
and chisel point (de Kerchove, 1961: 763).
With respect to nails and spikes gener-
ally, it is evident that the first three catego-
ries above (that is, nails described by (i)
cost (ii) weight and (iii) size) cannot be
readily applied to shipwreck material
found in recent times. Nails described by
(iv) purpose or form can be best described
according to their form and/or metallic
content, unless they are identified as a nail
used for a specific purpose (such as,
sheathing nail, deck nail, scupper nail).
This may become evident by virtue of the
fastening’s context on wreck timbers. The
same applies to spikes, which are square
sectioned nails larger than three inches
(75 mm).
With respect to any attempt to reach
agreement on terminology suitable for
use in modern maritime archaeology and
associated disciplines, it needs to be noted
that there were many different categories in
the contemporary literature. An example is
Jean Boudriot’s category of ‘medium’ and
‘large nails’ (1986: 140). These are all
square-sectioned and range from 4 to 7
inches (100–175 mm) in the first instance,
and between 7 and 30 inches (175–810 mm)
in the second. The lower range of these
categories could possibly be considered
‘spikes’ and the upper range as square-
sectioned ‘short bolts’. A similar situation
occurs with thick round-sectioned nails,
other than wire nails or machine-made
nails of thin section. In England, these
came to be known as ‘dumps’, which can
be considered as both large nails or short
bolts.
Bolts
Bolts are ‘cylindrical or square pins of iron
or copper of various forms, for fastening
or securing the different parts of the ship’
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS
Figure 10. A Dump (Jervoise Bay unidentified,
c. 1880s).
(Steel, 1822: 87). In later years, they were
also made of various other metals, notably
copper alloy. A ‘pin’ is a ‘piece of wood
or metal, square or cylindrical in section
and sharpened or pointed, used to fasten
timbers together’ (Desmond, 1919: 208).
Falconer indicates that ‘the bolts are short
or long, according to the thickness of the
timber . . . they penetrate either quite
through . . . or to a certain determinate
depth’ (1815: 50). Bolts have many pur-
poses and appear in many forms, 38 of
which are listed in Paasch (1890: 7–10)
and 25 in de Kerchove (1961: 81) alone.
Some bolts are threaded with nuts and
washers.
Bolts found out of context and so where
their purpose is unknown, may be de-
scribed by form and subdivided for sim-
plicity into short bolts or through bolts
(Paasch, 1890: 13). The terms ‘short fasten-
ing’ or ‘through fastening’ were also found
in contemporary descriptions of the Naval
Steam Frigates of 1848 (Edson, 1976: 143).
As each of the two types can have specially
designed heads or shanks, short or through
bolts can be subdivided further into bolts
with specially designed heads and ends,
special purpose bolts and threaded bolts.
Boudriot (1986: 145) notes that the longest
bolts in the 74-gun ship are 4 m in length.
Short Bolt
A short bolt is one of short length, not
extending through the material which it is
intended to connect. Though the term
‘short bolt’ is not a universal one, it is
self-evident and more easily translatable
as a result. As an example of the difficul-
ties experienced by translators, Boudriot
refers to ‘cheville à point perdue’, which is
translated by Roberts as ‘round or square
pins with a lost point’. The term ‘blind
fastening’ is also used (Boudriot, 1986:
140).
Short bolts can either be blunt or
pointed and can have a wide variety of
heads as noted above. Röding (1793: 347),
refers to ‘scharf-bolzen or bolts with a
short point, or pointed bolts’. Bolts with-
out a sharp point are called ‘stuvbolzen’;
de Kerchove (1961: 71) refers also to a
‘blunt bolt’ as being ‘a bolt driven into a
plank and timber as a partial or extra
security. It is not driven right through the
timber and is therefore often referred to as
a short driven bolt. Also called dump bolt’
(see below).
Dump: (Figs 8–10). de Kerchove (1961:
249) defines a dump fastening as ‘a metal
fastening which does not go quite through
both pieces of timber, so that only one end
is visible. It is a ‘small round bolt with a
solid head and of the same thickness
throughout. Also called a dump’. de
Kerchove gives French and German
equivalents for dumps as ‘chevillage à bout
perdue; stumpfverbolzung. Paasch (1890:
8) defines a ‘dump bolt’ quite simply as
189
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Figure 11. A rag bolt (Eglinton, (1842–1852, Quebec).

190
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS
‘one of short length not extending through
the material’. According to Thearle (1874:
230), dumps fit the category of large nail
due to their cylindrical and (almost)
constant form. Thearle (1874: 232) also
refers to dumps as short bolts, however.
Desmond (1919: 60) refers to ‘dump bolts’
and to dumps, ‘welts’ and short bolts in the
same context.
‘Dump fastening’ is a particular method
of fastening which refers to the use of
one ‘dump’ to every four bolts in plank
fastening (Thearle, 1874: 230). It appears
illustrated also in Desmond (1919: 10).
Rag bolt: ‘an iron pin, having several
barbs cut onto its shank to retain it in
wood’ (Falconer, 1815: 378). ‘A sort of
bolt having its point jagged or barbed to
make it hold more securely’ (Steel, 1822:
123). Ragging, or the process of obliquely
striking the shaft of a nail or bolt with
a sharp tool to make a series of raised
indents or barbs, is also seen on spikes and
rudder nails (Figs 2 & 11).
Frame bolt: Frame bolts ‘are those by
which the frames are tied together horizon-
tally’. They are generally square but
sometimes are round (Paasch, 1890: 8).
According to Thearle (1874: 910), ‘they are
generally of square iron, not clenched,
short bolts connecting frames’ (see special
purpose bolts, below). If found out of
context these could be termed short bolts.
An example of a possible frame bolt
appears in Figure 17 (see discussion under
drift bolts).
Rudder nail: (Figs 1 & 2). These are
round fastenings about 5 inches (125 mm)
in length with a full head and used for
fastening pintles to the rudder (Falconer,
1815: 291). They are used ‘chiefly for
fastening the pintles and braces’ and
are all ‘short stout nails, with large
heads’ (Steel, 1822: 118). Paasch, (1890:
9) calls them ‘rudder pintle and rudder
brace bolts’. Either term (rudder nail
or rudder bolt) could be used in this
instance.
Through bolts
Through bolts pass completely through the
pieces they united (Figs 12 & 14). They are
cylindrical or square pins of iron, copper,
mixed metal, or copper/zinc alloy and are
of various forms. A ‘through fastening’ is
one ‘that passes completely through two
pieces of timber to be joined and is secured
either by a nut or by clinching on a clinch
ring’ (de Kerchove, 1961: 833).
Into the general category of through
bolt also fall the terms ‘clinch bolt’ (also
called ‘rivet’), ‘butt bolt’, keelson bolt,
crutch bolt; garboard bolt; in-and-out bolt,
up-and-down bolt and a host of other bolts
(Paasch, 1890: de Kerchove, 1961: 81),
each having a specific purpose or form (see
following).
Clinch bolt: A ‘clinch bolt’ is a bolt
having a head on one end and the other
end clinched (Röding, 1793: 345). de
Kerchove (1961: 152) defines a clinch bolt
as: ‘a long through fastening used by
wooden ship- and boatbuilders, having its
end rivetted over a washer or clinch ring
. . . used for fastening scarphed joints,
stems, deadwoods, keelsons, stringers,
clamps and knees’. Clinching (clenching) is
the operation of fastening the point of a
bolt, or nail, on a ring or rove of iron, by
hammering it so as to make it spread
(Falconer, 1815: 90). He defines a ‘clinch
ring’ as a round washer with a hole in the
centre over which the bolt is clinched. It is
also called clench ring. Bugler (1966: 13)
uses the term ‘rove’, de Kerchove (1961:
658) the term ‘roove’ to describe the dia-
mond shaped or square washer used with
iron fastenings. Röding (1793: 345) uses
the term ‘plate’ to describe a ‘rove’ (Figs 14
& 15). Finally, it needs be noted that a
‘rove’ in boatbuilding has a form different
from that in shipbuilding.
Rivet: (see fastening in Fig. 17). ‘A metal
pin clenched at both ends so as to hold an
intermediate substance with more firmness’
(Falconer, 1815: 408). de Kerchove (1961:
654), defines the term more in the context
191
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4
Figure 12. Forelocked eyebolt with ring (unknown).
or iron and steel shipbuilding, and it is in
that context that the term is most generally
used today.
Bolts with specially designed heads or ends
These can be through or short bolts. They
can have square, round, saucer, collar or
other specially designed heads according to
the purposes for which the bolt may be
intended. The ends can be forelocked or
clinched on rings, plates or roves to pre-
vent their drawing. They can also appear
threaded with washers and nuts (Steel
1822: 87; Falconer, 1815: 50; Paasch, 1890:
8; de Kerchove, 1961: 80–81). Some are
illustrated in Boudriot (1977; 1986: Cha.
Fastenings-Caulking)
Forelock bolt P Bolt
Span Shackle Ring bolt
Eye bolt Shoulder bolt
Fender bolt Stopper bolt
Hook bolt Toggle bolt
Forelocked bolt: (Fig. 12). de Kerchove
(1961: 302) defines a forelock bolt as ‘a
192
bolt having one end a slot into which a key
may be inserted to prevent the bolt being
withdrawn’. Steel, (1822: 105) refers to the
key being ‘a thin circular wedge of iron’
while Falconer (1815: 50) says it is a ‘flat
iron wedge’—a through bolt.
Span shackle: A span shackle is ‘a large
bolt driven through the forecastle, and
forelocked under the forecastle beam, both
under and upon the upper deck beam; on
the forecastle it has a square ring for the
head of the davit to fit in’ (Falconer, 1815:
491). At the time, Steel (1822: 133) stated
that it is ‘long since disused in the Royal
Navy as the davits are more commodiously
fixed in the fore channels’—a through bolt.
Eye bolt: (Fig. 12). Eye bolts and those
types which follow, can be either through
bolts or short bolts. They ‘have an eye
made at the end of the bolt to which
tackles etc. may be hooked. Some eye bolts
have a shoulder . . . as the ‘fish tackle eye
bolt’ which has a plate or long strap, made
under the eye to prevent it bearing into the
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS
Figure 13. A fender bolt (Jervoise Bay un-
identified, c. 1880s).
plank’ (Steel, 1822: 88). A ‘fish tackle’ is a
system used to hoist the anchor to the bow
(de Kerchove, 1961: 286).
Fender bolt: (Fig. 13). These bolts that
have the largest of round heads . . . [in
order] . . . to fend their timber work
from the shock . . . of any other vessel’
(Falconer, 1815: 50).
Figure 14. A clinch bolt with clinch ring (Jervoise
Bay unidentified, c. 1880s).
Hook bolt, P bolt, shoulder bolt, saucer
head bolt: These are a grouping, with self-
explanatory terms indicating the form of
their heads, hook bolt ‘a bolt having one
end in the form of a hook’ (Röding, 1793:
344); shoulder bolt, a bolt with a shoulder;
‘P bolt’, a bolt with a head in the shape of
the letter ‘p’ (Röding, 1793: 82).
Ring bolt: (Fig. 13). Ring bolts have the
rings turned into an eye made at the head
of the bolt. The rings are sometimes made
angular to receive many turns of lashing.
Stopper bolt: ‘Large ring bolts driven
through the deck and beams before the
main hatch for the use of the stoppers.
They are carefully clinched on iron plates
beneath’ (Steel, 1822: 136). Stoppers are
193
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4
Figure 15. A clinch bolt with rove (unknown).
short ropes with a knot attached to the eye
of the stopper bolt used to control the
anchor cable.
Specific purpose bolts
These can appear in the categories above
and can be both through and short bolts.
An example is the frame bolt, those by
which the frames are tied together hori-
zontally. Others, such as keelson bolts,
194
crutch bolt, garboard bolt, keel scarph
bolt also appear (Paasch 1890: 7–10; de
Kerchove, 1961: 81). However, unless
found in that context on a wreck or in
parent timbers, these bolts are difficult to
identify.
Butt bolt: A butt bolt is through fasten-
ing used to fasten a butt of plank. ‘It is
normally located in the next frame back of
the butt. Butts are usually cut upon the
middle of a [frame] timber, and are fas-
tened with one treenail and one short bolt
. . . and one through bolt called a butt
bolt in timbers nearest the butt timber’
(Desmond, 1919: 60).
Throat bolt: A bolt driven through the
throat of a knee or hook (de Kerchove,
1961: 832).
Chain bolt: ‘A large bolt to secure the
chains of the deadeyes for the purposes of
securing the mast by the shrouds’ (Steel,
1822: 94). These bolts which are driven
through the upper end of the preventer
plates and toelinks of the chains.
Preventer bolt: (Fig. 18). Bolts driven
through the lower end of the preventer
plates to assist the chain bolts in taking
the heavy strains of the rigging (Steel,
1822: 122). It is interesting to note in the
contract for the building of HM frigates
of 1782 that it allows for ‘chains or
chain plates as shall be directed’, indicat-
ing a change from ‘chains’ as commonly
seen in early vessels to the iron bar or
iron plate used for the same purpose in
later years. The use of the terms chain or
preventer bolts however, does not alter.
A preventer plate is the plate secured to
the lower end of a chain plate to assist
taking the stress of the rigging on the hull
(Fig. 18).
Drift bolt: As indicated, this term
appears to have its origins in early 20th-
century North America (Desmond, 1919:
204). It has continued in use on that con-
tinent; Chapelle (1966: 173) defines it thus:
a ‘drift bolt . . . the point is tapered . . . it is
not necessary to make a long taper, usually
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

Figure 16. A rudder gudgeon (Chalmers, 1851–1874, English)

less than half an inch being sufficient’. This
gives a rounded, blunt point. He also refers
to ‘through fastening drifts’, stating that
these are usually driven from the outside to
the inside of the hull where practical (1966:
175). The American René de Kerchove
defines a ‘drift bolt’ as a slightly pointed
bolt with a ‘washer or clench ring and
195
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

The term may not be generally under-

stood or easily translated, however, and as
Röding (1793: 345) states that bolts gener-
ally are thinner at one end to facilitate
driving, the terms ‘through bolt’ or ‘clinch
bolt’ might best be used by maritime
archaeologists in these circumstances to
describe a ‘drift bolt’.
A case does appear for the use of the
term ‘drift bolt’ when referring to a bolt
clinched on one end, tapered on the other,
and not necessarily passing entirely
through the timbers joined (de Kerchove,
1961: 243; Desmond, 1919: 204). de
Kerchove, for example, indicates that ‘drift
bolts’ are ‘always driven obliquely to the
seam they fasten’ in contrast to the process
of ‘square fastening’, often mentioned in
the text. He also states that they ‘are used
on keels, deadwoods, rudders, centre-
boards and similar places where there is
ample wood and [where] clinch bolts can-
not be used or are unnecessary’ (1961:
243). Here it appears as a specific purpose
short bolt, driven obliquely to the seam
which is used where clinch bolts cannot be
used, or where it is deemed unnecessary for
them to be used. When used in deadwoods,
where these bolts can be very long, the
term short bolt, though technically correct
in that it does not pass completely through
the timbers it serves to unite, could cause
some confusion.
Thus, it is suggested that for those wish-
ing to avoid apparently regional terminol-
ogy, such as the American term ‘drift-bolt’,
and the English term ‘dump’, where older
more generally-understood terms exist, the
terms short bolt and through bolt could
suffice in most cases.

Figure 17. An iron ‘drift bolt’ (unknown) (After Threaded bolts

Arnold & Clausen). These can be both short bolts and through
bolts. There are many terms used in order
to describe them, some of which can be
upset head on the exposed end’ (1961: quite confusing, as will be seen. Thearle
243). Illustrations appear in Barto Arnold (1874: 359), for example, refers to ‘through
(1976: 136). screw bolts . . . [with] . . . nuts hove up
196
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS
on them’. Desmond (1919: 97) refers to
‘through bolts with nuts’ for securing out-
side planking to a vessel’s frame. In reflect-
ing mid-20th century shipbuilding practice,
de Kerchove (1961: 691) stated that ‘for
most purposes galvanized iron screw bolts
are preferred in shipbuilding to clinch
bolts. They can be drawn up tighter and
are stronger. It is usual to burr the head
over after tightening up’. Lankford and
Pinto (1969: 136; 140) refer to ‘threaded
rod’ and ‘standard threaded bolts’ in their
mine sweepers as an alternative to ‘drift’
bolts. A ‘stud bolt’ is a bolt threaded at
both ends. One end is screwed into a
tapped hole in the base structure to which
attachment is to be made (de Kerchove,
1961: 802). The use of ‘threaded through
bolts’ with washers and nuts, became espe-
cially necessary with the advent of steam
and were necessary to better counteract the
associated forces and vibrations associated
with heavy steam engines. In analysing the
US naval steam frigates of 1848, Edson
(1976: 145), for example, quotes a contem-
porary source stating that ‘all through
bolts of iron above the waterline, will have
nuts and screws with washers’.
Paasch (1890: 9), refers to both ‘nut
bolts’ and ‘screw pointed bolts’, as does de
Kerchove (1961: 691), who defines a screw
bolt as ‘a bolt with one end threaded’. In
referring to the planking of composite
ships, Thearle (1874: 359, 368), states that
‘the bottom plank is connected to the
frames with nut and screw bolts. Hexago-
nal nuts are preferred to be of the same
material as the bolt and in thickness equal
to their diameter’. The heads are sunk one
and a quarter inches (30 mm) below the
planking if of iron and they are covered
with well seasoned wood ‘dowels’.
Threaded bolts are not always secured
with a nut. A lag bolt (Fig. 19), which is
also called a lag screw, for example, con-
sists of a ‘screw with a wood-screw thread
. . . with a square or hexagonal head’ (de
Kerchove, 1961: 429). Steel, (1822: 88)
refers to rudder braces being secured with
bolts and screws to the sternpost and
bottom planks. Chapelle (1966: 161)
agrees. He states that ‘pintles and gud-
geons . . . are through bolted except when
the end fastening of a gudgeon is in the
planking; there, a large screw is driven’.
Given the variations in the definitions
above, the terms threaded through bolt
(with nut, unless it is lost), or the term
screw bolt, where the bolt acts as a large
screw, could suffice. A lag bolt is a particu-
lar type of screw bolt with a square or
hexagonal head, as defined above (Fig. 19).
Wood screw: These appear similar to
the type common in carpentry and joinery
and though they are rarely found in ship,
as opposed to boatbuilding, Lankford
and Pinto (1969: 136) refer to the use
of ‘wood screws’ in use on their WWII
minesweepers.
Miscellaneous
Staples
Desmond (1919: 209) defines a ‘staple’ as a
bent fastening of metal formed as a loop
and driven in at both ends. Steel, (1822:
135) states that keel staples are generally
‘made of copper from 6 to 12 inches, or
with a jagged hook at each end. They are
driven into the sides of the main and false
keels to fasten them’. Though much larger,
and with ‘ragged’ or hook ends, keel sta-
ples appear somewhat like a modern paper
staple in shape. They are designed to allow
the false keel or ‘shoe’ to give way in the
case of a serious grounding without dam-
aging the keel itself (de Kerchove, 1961:
275).
Plates
A plate is a flat piece of iron, copper, brass
or mixed metal, either ‘single’ or ‘double’,
used in various configurations in a ship to
strengthen a part to which it is attached
(Falconer, 1815: 347). They are most evi-
dent at the stem and stern. Depending on
their form and shape, these particular
197
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

Figure 18. Chain and preventer plates and bolts.

‘plates’ are variously called horseshoe and dovetail plates. Illustrations appear in
clamps, horseshoe plates, gripe irons, gripe Le Bot (1977). A circular ‘gripe plate’
plate, stirrups, fishtail plates, fish plates made of a copper alloy was photographed
198
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS

in situ on the American China trader Rapid

(1807–1811), excavated by Graeme Hend-
erson (Fig. 20). The gripe in this instance is
the area around the junction of the stem
and the keel (de Kerchove, 1961: 338). A
stirrup is an iron or copper plate that turns
upwards on each side of a ship’s keel and
deadwood at the forefoot or the skeg
(Steel, 1822: 136). de Kerchove (1961: 238)
defines dovetail plates as ‘small plates of
gun metal let into the heel of a wooden
sternpost and keel to bind them together’.
All of the above fit the category of ‘double
plate’ that is, with a plate on either side of
the timbers joined. They are fastened with
through bolts clenched over the metal of
the plate at each end. Chain plates, on the
other hand, are generally ‘single’ iron
plates to which deadeyes are secured, re-
placing chains for that purpose. Preventer
plates are ‘stout plates or iron, bolted
through the sides at the lower part of the
chains, as an additional security’ (Steel,
1822: 122) (Fig. 18).

‘Rudder braces’, ‘rudder hangings’, gud-

geons and pintles, or ‘rudder irons’: (Fig.
16). These serve as the hinging mechanism
for a ship’s rudder. A variety of different
methods of fastening brace and pintle
straps have been found, including the use
of through bolts, ‘ragged’ rudder nails,
plain rudder nails or combinations of
these. Those found on the Rapid were all
‘rudder nails’, while common to many mid
to late 19th-century vessels encountered
by the author, is the practice specified in
Australian Lloyd’s (1874: 22) of through
bolting the two bolts nearest to the crowns
to the pintles and braces. As indicated,
screw fastenings in the form of screw bolts,
lag bolts, or screws are also common in
fastening gudgeons and pintles (Chapelle,
1966: 161) (Figs 16 & 19).
Organic fastenings:
(i) treenail
(ii) dowel
Figure 19. A lag or screw bolt (Chalmers, 1851–
1874, English).
Treenails (trenails, trunnels)
The term treenail appears in all of the
sources consulted in the 1983 study.
According to de Kerchove (1961: 860), a
treenail is ‘a cylindrical pin of hardwood
used for fastening planks or timbers. . . .
Treenails are used for outside planking
below the waterline. They are driven from
the outside through the ceiling, and are
wedged at both ends’. Falconer (1825:
579), states that treenails are long cylin-
drical pins of oak from 1–1Y inches in
199
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4
Figure 20. The gripe iron on the Rapid (1807–
1811) American. (Photo: B. Richards).
diameter (25–40 mm) and from 1 foot
(10 cm) to 3 foot inches (c. one metre) in
length, ‘used for fastening the inside and
outside of the plank of a ship to the
upright timbers’. Desmond (1919) refers to
the practice of end wedging each treenail
with hardwood wedges. This is performed
after the treenail is cut flush with the
planking to enable a more secure grip in
the timbers and to help make the fastening
watertight. A Royal Navy contract of 1782
requires all treenails to be ‘well mooted . . .
and all to be caulked or wedged at both
ends’. Mooting is the process of ‘making a
tree-nail exactly cylindrical to a given size
200
of diameter called the moot’ (Steel, 1822:
118). Australian Lloyd’s (1874: 21) requires
that treenails be ‘circular, being either
engine-turned, compressed, or planed’.
Dowels
A dowel, like a treenail, is a cylindrical
piece of dry hardwood (Steel, 1822: 102).
The difference appears to lie in their
application. While treenails ‘are used for
outside planking below the waterline’ (de
Kerchove, 1961: 860), dowels are used as
edge fastenings and in locating planking
and in other timbers. de Kerchove (1961:
238) indicates that dowels are ‘used for
additional security in joining two pieces of
timber together to prevent them from slip-
ping’. These timbers can vary from planks
through to frames, deadwood and scarphs
generally (Thearle, 1874: 177, 182, 187,
213, 219).
Dowels and treenails serve different pur-
poses. They can be found in association
with bolts and treenails along a strake of
planking. An illustration appears in
Thearle (1874: 233). According to Thearle,
dowels are also used in a practice ‘peculiar’
to the RN in ‘securing the plank above and
below a butt of wale’. He states that the
‘assistance given by the dowels, though
indirect, is nevertheless considerable’ as it
is ‘an important consideration to prevent
the plank from sliding over the face of the
timbers when the vessel is working heavily’
(1874: 233).
Coaks, tenons, keys, stopwaters and dowels
Coaks, tenons, keys and stopwaters war-
rant a brief comment, for though they do
not serve to fasten them, they are used in
the process of uniting timbers or appear
between them. The term dowel also re-
quires further discussion, for it appears in
contexts other than those above. With
respect to composite shipbuilding, for
example, Thearle states that the heads of
some iron fastenings are sunk one and a
quarter inches (30 mm) below the planking
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS
and they are covered with ‘well seasoned
wood dowels’ (1874: 368). A ‘stopwater’,
which prevents water passing into a ship
along a keel scarph (Desmond, 1919: 47), is
also defined in some circles as a ‘dowel of
white pine or other softwood driven in a
seam between the keels and one of the
adjoining parts where the wood is too thick
to allow caulking’ (de Kerchove, 1961:
792). In leading into the next section con-
cerning coaks, tenons and keys, Falconer
(1815: 126) stated that ‘dowelling among
shipwrights is a method of coaking formed
by letting pieces into the solid, or by
uniting two pieces together by tenons’.
Desmond, (1919: 142) defines a coak as ‘a
rectangular or round piece of wood let into
the surface of the two pieces of timber that
are scarphed together in such a manner
that a half of depth of coak will be in each’.
Coaking is defined as the ‘operation of
uniting two or more pieces together in the
centre by means of small tabular projec-
tions formed by cutting away the solid by
one piece into a hollow so as to exactly
make a projection onto the other in such
manner that they may correctly fit and the
butts preventing the pieces from drawing
asunder lengthways’ (Thearle, 1874: 149).
A tenon (table) is ‘the end of a piece of
wood shaped in the form of a rectangular
prism, which is received into a recess in
another piece, having the same shape and
size. This recess is called a mortise’ (de
Kerchove, 1961: 827). A key is a ‘slightly
tapered piece of wood to drive into scarfs,
to wedge deck planks, or to join any pieces
of wood tightly together’ (de Kerchove,
1961: 420).
As some indication of the use of these
particular terms, a contemporary descrip-
tion of the building of McKay’s clipper
Great Republic, which was launched in
1853, states that bilge keelsons were
‘coaged [coaked], scarphed, keyed, square
fastened with one and a quarter inch
[30 mm] iron and bolted edgeways’ (Edson,
1975: 23).
Further studies
The author was forced to shelve the
embryo fastenings study due to develop-
ments in other, more pressing, projects,
notably the excavations of the iron-hulled
SS Xantho (1848–1872) and the VOC ship
Zuytdorp (1702–1712), both of which
commenced soon after 1983 (McCarthy,
1990; 1993; 1996). Reports on these
nearly completed programmes are in
preparation. As a result, with the
exception of a few additions and changes,
the author has made little recent progress
on fastenings. However, a number or
areas of further interest are suggested
below.
The composition of fastenings
With respect to organic fastenings, de
Kerchove (1961: 860) refers to the use of
oak and teakwood in treenails, but states
that locust is the best timber due to its
‘greater durability, toughness and freedom
from shrinkage’. Desmond (1919: 207) pre-
ferred oak or locust and Thearle mentions
the use of variety of timbers, including
Australian and tropical hardwoods of
durable quality. The French 74-gun ship
used ‘ilex or holm-oak’ (Boudriot, 1986:
141). Treenails and dowels can therefore be
constructed of a wide variety of timbers,
especially where vessels are built or re-
paired in areas outside the jurisdiction
of underwriters or their agents. Lacings,
for example coir, hemp, or leather are also
expected to consist of a wide variety of
materials.
Metallic fastenings can be constructed of
a wide variety of materials as described, for
antiquity, by authors such as Tylecote
(1962; 1976; 1977) and in the period of this
study, c. 1760–1960, by numerous authors,
such as Flick (1975), Harris (1966), Knight
(1977), Rees (1971) and Staniforth (1985).
‘Galvanized’ or ‘plain’ iron was used in the
period as were copper and copper alloy
fastenings. These alloys are found under a
number of names, ‘mixt (mixed) metal’,
201
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4
bronze, ‘composition metal’, ‘compound
metal’, ‘naval brass’, gun metal, ‘yellow
metal’ and ‘Muntz metal’. These terms are
worthy of a study in themselves and there
are many discrepancies to be found in their
use. Paasch (1890: 10), for example, defines
a ‘yellow metal’ bolt as ‘a bolt of mixed
metal’ and Paul Revere wrote in 1800 of
his bolts and spikes being constructed of
‘composition metal’, which he categorized
as a copper and tin alloy (Smith, 1974:
73–75). Ronnberg (1980: 140), however,
refers to ‘composition metal’ as being
‘yellow metal’ or ‘Muntz metal’ (a copper/
zinc alloy).
There are real problems in applying such
terms to shipwreck material. Thus only
where the Muntz stamp appears can a
copper/zinc alloy be safely called ‘Muntz
metal’. Even where identifying marks exist,
care needs to be taken. Mixed (mixt) metal,
for example, was apparently first used in
1776 (Knight, 1976: 308) in some rudder
irons or braces and its use was required
in an Admiralty contract of 1782 for use
in HM 24-gun ships. This particular
document helps to provide an interesting
indication of the care needed in accepting
such documents verbatim and for the need
for metallographic analysis before the
application of general terms to describe
fastenings and sheathings according to
their (apparent) metal content. Forbes’
patent for ‘mixed metal’ for example,
allows it to be 100 parts of copper to
between 1–60 parts of zinc, depending on
the hardness sought (Patents for Inven-
tions, 1862: 27). Despite this, a rudder
gudgeon recovered from the wreck of the
24-gun HM Frigate Pandora (1788–1791),
which carried the broad arrow and the
founder’s name ‘FORBES’, was found to
have a bronze-like composition and traces
of iron arsenic and antimony in the ratio
87·3% copper, 6·9% tin, 0·24% lead and
0·04% zinc (MacLeod, pers. comm.).
Clearly it was made in a different period in
Forbes’ career.
202
Contemporary texts
There are many texts available for those
wishing to pursue this study further. The
trade catalogue will prove of value. The
Shipmaster’s Assistant and Commercial
Digest (1837: 646–672) contains a multi-
tude of dutiable goods imported into the
United States, including bolts, nails, spikes
and brads.
Shipbuilding texts and contemporary
descriptions are another important source.
For example, the General Admiral, a
Russian steam frigate built in New York in
1858 had copper, ‘composition’ metal, iron
bolts, galvanised iron, locust treenails,
lignum vitae coaks, and iron plates
amongst its fastenings (MacCormack &
Edson, 1972). The account of the building
of the 17th-century Prins Willem (Ketting,
1979) has also proved a useful indicator.
An illustration of the 13 separate fasten-
ings appearing in Ketting (1979: 133) gives
an idea of the types used in that particular
ship. Translated into English they appear
as: staple (not a keel staple), ragbolt or
barbed bolt with ring, gunport staple with
ring, heavy ragbolt, ‘headbolt’ with a
cotter (a forelocked bolt), ‘goatshorn’ (a
hookbolt with a ring), hookbolt, a ‘head-
nail’ or spike, a ring bolt with a cotter or
forelock (a forelocked ring bolt), an eye-
bolt with cotter (a forelocked eyebolt), a
round headed bolt with cotter (a round
headed forelocked bolt), nails or spikes of
various sizes. There are many other similar
texts. An important multi-language study
of ship’s fastenings (Bruzelius, 1990) has
appeared on the world-wide web. Its
author, Lars Bruzelius, has consulted 35
sources dating from 1570 to 1928, includ-
ing works in Spanish, Swedish, Dutch,
German, English and Danish. This will
prove an essential reference for further
studies. (See references.)
Excavations
From this author’s experience alone, it is
evident that fastenings can be found in a
M. MCCARTHY: SHIPS FASTENINGS
variety of situations. These range from in
and around a relatively intact hull in deep
water on sand such as HM Frigate
Pandora (1778–1791) (McCarthy, 1985a),
to scattered remains lying on a hard shal-
low reef, such as the barque Eglinton
(1848–1852) (McCarthy, 1985b). In the
latter instance the timber had totally dis-
appeared, leaving the metallic fastenings
out of context on the reef and in the
caverns below. There are many other exca-
vation studies, some of which contain
sections specifically dealing with the fasten-
ings found (for instance, Staniforth, 1985).
A recent analysis of ships fastenings un-
earthed by dredgers and subsequently de-
posited in the ‘Slufter’, a large-scale spoil
disposal site at the Port of Rotterdam
(Adams, van Holk & Maarleveld, 1990)
has also proved a useful Dutch–English
language source for describing fastenings
found largely out of context. Fastenings
can also be found spread over a wide
search area containing the remains of
many vessels from a number of different
shipbuilding periods. Barto Arnold (1976:
129–151) has identified sheathing tacks,
spikes, drifts, drift bolts, roves, clinch
rings, chain plate, chain bolts, preventer
bolts and screws amongst the scattered
material located in magnetometer searches
off the coast of Texas. He also used the
material to date and assist in the identifi-
cation of his sites. The only source of
disagreement this author would have with
Barto Arnold’s analysis would appear in
his use of the term ‘drift’ to describe a
wide range of short bolts and through
fastenings.
Fastenings as a tool in shipwreck
identification
There is considerable potential in the study
of fastenings in order to ascertain the age
and country of origin of a particular un-
identified wreck. Timber analysis is a tool
that has long been used as one indicator of
country of origin or repair and it has long
been standard practice to use the composi-
tion of fastenings as a dating tool (Barto
Arnold, 1876). Discussion on the develop-
ment of copper, zinc, copper alloy sheath-
ing and fastenings and the examination of
the development of patents such as that for
Muntz metal in the mid-19th century
(Flick, 1975; Harris, 1966; Knight; 1977;
Rees; 1971) has facilitated that process.
For example the Muntz Patent for bolts is
dated December 1832, and that for sheath-
ing is dated October 1846 (Patents for
inventions, 1862: 93; 148). There also ap-
pears to be some scope in using fastenings
as an indicator of country of origin. From
the author’s experience there appears to be
a difference in form between British fasten-
ings and those from French or American
vessels which have some similarities. Of
interest also, are the insights of D. H.
Roberts (Jean Boudriot’s English language
translator), who in noting that the nails on
the French 74-gun ship were of square
section, makes the comment that ‘most
English nails were of round section’
(Boudriot, 1986: 140).
The type of threads used on wooden
ship’s fastenings are another possible iden-
tification tool and they could assist with
dating. Of relevance to this possibility
(though in a different context), is the study
of the threads appearing on the wreck of
the iron-hulled SS Xantho (1848–1872).
(Garcia & McCarthy, in prep; McCarthy,
1996). The threads found on this vessel’s
ex-gunboat engine (built in 1861) are uni-
formly of the Whitworth standard, first
promulgated in Britain in 1841, while those
of its boiler and pumps (both manufac-
tured and fitted to the ship around 1871)
are not.
Modern shipbuilding methods
Studies of modern wooden shipbuilding
methods will also prove useful as a com-
parison. Lankford & Pinto (1969: 140)
provide an insight into the changes in
fastenings that had occurred up to the
203
NAUTICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 25.3 and 4

building of their WWII minesweepers, for
example. They stated that the most com-
mon’ types used on their vessels were
‘wood screws, lag screws’, bolts, threaded
rod, drift bolts and nails’. ‘Barbed drifts’
were also sometimes used for greater hold-
ing power. Nails (box nails) generally were
used as temporary fastenings prior to the
application of screws and bolts. Their fas-
tenings were, of necessity, non-magnetic
and generally comprised a ‘silicone
bronze’, though they were occasionally of
nickel-copper alloy or steel plate. The
wrecks of their minesweepers are also
expected to have threads which will
help distinguish them from those of other
nations.
Conclusion
The 1983 fastenings study ended with the
statement that ‘this obviously unfinished
attempt to catalogue the various types of
ship’s fastenings encountered in the litera-
ture available has only opened the door to
a greater understanding of the complexity
of the subject’ (McCarthy, 1983: 23). In-
tended as a discussion document, the 1983
study failed in that aim and for a variety of
reasons little progress has been made since.
What has been re-presented above, with
some minor additions, is also but a begin-
ning on which interested scholars may wish
to build.
Acknowledgements
Translations
German to English: Irene Gollop
French to English: Rosemary Harper
Dutch to English: Dr K. de Heer
Illustrations
Chris Buhagiar, M. McCarthy, Pat Baker,
Myra Stanbury.
Photograph
Brian Richards
Advice and Assistance
Jean Boudriot, Nick Burningham, Sue
Cox, Nigel Erskine, Dena Garratt, Jeremy
Green, Graeme Henderson, Mike Pollard,
Pierce Middleton, Russel Miners, Robert
Parthesius, Fairlie Sawday, Neil Shand,
Myra Stanbury, C. G. Scofield, J. Richard
Steffy, Marit van Huystee, Tom Vosmer.

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Appendix: Fastenings
bilge bolt fender bolt plate shoulder bolt
blind fastening filling nail plate nail single deck nail
blunt bolt fish plate port nail sister keelson bolt
boat nail fish tackle pointer bolt small nail
boat spike fish tackle eye bolt pound nail span shackle
bolt fishtail plate preventer bolt spike
breast hook bolt flat nail preventer plate spike nail
butt bolt fore and aft bolt pump bolt short driven bolt
butt through bolt forelock bolt pump nail square bolt
brad forelock bolt rag bolt standard threaded bolt
clamp bolt frame bolt ribband nail staple
clamp nail garboard bolt ring bolt stemson bolt
clasp gudgeon rod bolt sternson bolt
clinch (clench) bolt grip iron rivet stirrup
clinch nail hook bolt roove clench nail stopper bolt
clinch ring horseshoe roove stud bolt
clout nail horseshoe clamp round headed nail threaded bolt
chain bolt holding down bolt rove threaded rod
chain plate in-and-out bolt rudder hanging threaded short bolt
copper nail keel scarph bolt rudder iron threaded through bolt
coppering nail keelson bolt rudder nail throat bolt
coopers flat lag bolt rudder pintle bolt through bolt
crutch bolt lag screw rudder brace bolt through bolt with nut
deadwood bolt large nail saucer head bolt through fastening
deck bolt lead nail set bolt through fastening drift
deck nail limber strake bolt scarph bolt through screw bolt
double deck nail lost point bolt shackle bolt toggle bolt
doubling nail medium nail shelf bolt treenail
dovetail plate mortise screw bolt up and down bolt
deck bolt nail screw pointed bolt water way bolt
drift bolt nut bolt screw weight nail
dump nail ‘P’ bolt scupper nail welt
dump bolt penny nail sheathing nail wire nail
edge bolt pin sheathing tack wood screw
eye bolt pintle short bolt wrain (or wring) bolt

206