Nandini Gupta

ngupta@iitk.ac.in
L1
An interconnection of electrical elements.

dw( x)
Electric potential at a point : v ( x ) = ;w(x) is the potential energy of
dq
the charge q when located at point x.

Voltage v between two points a and b, is the work per unit positive charge
required to move that charge between the two points.
dw
v=
dq

If v is positive, a is at a higher potential Energy is delivered by a positive

charge in going from a to b, and energy gained going the other way.
Load: receives/consumes
energy.
Source: Delivers energy.

node: Point at which two or

more components or
devices are connected
together.
branch : A part of a circuit
containing only one
component, source, or
device between two nodes.
• Voltage Source Causes
the voltage across two
points to rise, with the
charge going to a higher
potential.
• Ideal Voltage Source:
Whose terminal voltage v is
a specified function of time,
regardless of the current i
through the source.

• Current source: dual of a

voltage source
• Ideal Current Source: Whose
current i is a specified
function of time, regardless of
the voltage v across its
terminals.
 Independent sources: Source Voltage or Current independent of all other
voltages and currents.
 Dependent / controlled sources: Voltage or current does depend on the
value of some other voltage or current.
Example: Voltage Amplifier

Voltage-controlled voltage source: VCVS

Voltage-controlled Current source:
VCCS
Current-controlled voltage source: CCVS
Current-controlled Current source:
CCCS
A function f(x) is called linear if the following holds:

f (ax1 + bx2 ) = af ( x1 ) + bf ( x2 )

linear circuit : composed of elements for which a sinusoidal input voltage

of frequency f, any steady-state output of the circuit (the current through any
component, or the voltage between any two points) is also sinusoidal with
frequency f. Note that the output need not be in phase with the input.

Slope = R
(+ve)

I
 Electric circuits: formed by Passive elements:
interconnecting various devices, sources,
and components. Resistance: Heating Effect
 Lumped elements: used to lump together Capacitance: Electric field effect
into a single element the effects Inductance: Magnetic field
distributed in space for convenience. effect
Passive elements:
Resistor: Current through this element is linearly proportional to the
potential across its terminals.
v
i = = Gv
R
Provided temperature is constant
The ratio of the change of
resistance per degree change of
temperature to the resistance at
some definite temperature,
generally 20o C
First (current) law. At any instant the algebraic sum of the currents at a
junction in a network is zero.

Second (voltage) law. At any instant in a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the
e.m.f.s acting round the loop is equal to the algebraic sum of the p.d.s
round the loop.
1 volt is that potential difference across a conductor
when passing a current of 1 A and dissipating energy
at the rate of 1 W

Energy Lost

Heat dissipated
Circulating currents are allocated to closed
loops or meshes in the circuit
rather than to branches.
• An equation for each loop of the circuit is
then obtained by equating
the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s round that
loop to the algebraic sum of
the potential differences (in the direction of
the loop, mesh or circulating
current), as required by Kirchhoff ’s
voltage (second) law.
• Branch currents are found thereafter by
taking the algebraic sum of the
loop currents common to individual
branches.
Application of Kirchhoff ’s first
(current) law at each junction
(node)
1. Choose a reference node to
which all node voltages can be
referred. Label all the other
nodes with (unknown) values of
voltage, V1, V2, etc.
2. Assign currents in each
connection to each node, except
the reference node, in terms of
the node voltages, V1, V2, etc.
3. Apply Kirchhoff ’s current law
at each node, obtaining as many
equations as there are unknown
node voltages.
4. Solve the resulting equations to
find the node voltages.ircuit, to
find the node voltages.
L2
In any network containing more than one source, the current in, or the p.d.
across, any branch can be found by considering each source separately and
adding their effects: omitted sources of e.m.f. are replaced by resistances
equal to their internal resistances.
An active network having two terminals A and B can be replaced by a
constant-voltage source having an e.m.f. E and an internal resistance r. The
value of E is equal to the open-circuit p.d. between A and B, and r is the
resistance of the network measured between A and B with the load
disconnected and the sources of e.m.f. replaced by their internal resistances.
A source of electrical
energy could be
represented
by a source of e.m.f.
in series with a
resistance.
The source appears as a source
of current (Is) which divides
between the internal
resistance (Rs) and the load
resistor (RL) connected in
parallel.
The ideal constant-voltage generator : one with zero internal resistance so that
it would supply the same voltage to all loads.
The ideal constant-current generator : one with infinite internal
resistance so that it supplied the same current to all loads.
The current which flows in any
branch of a network is the same as
thatwhich would flow in the
branch if it were connected across
a source of electrical energy, the
short-circuit current of which is
equal to the current that would
flow in a short-circuit across the
branch, and the internal resistance
of which is equal to the resistance
which appears across the open-
circuited branch terminals.
If the star-connected network is to be
equivalent to the delta-connected network,
the resistance between any two
terminals in delta configuration must be
the same as that between the same two
terminals in the star configuration.
 power transferred to load

Resistance matching is of importance in communications and electronic

circuits where the source usually has a relatively high resistance and to
transfer the largest possible amount of power from the source
to the load. In the case of power sources such as generators and batteries,
the internal resistance is so low that it is impossible to satisfy the above
condition without overloading the source
Voltage or current waveforms not constant in time.
Periodic waveforms: Time varying waveform repeating itself over
intervals of time T>0. f (t ) = f (t ± nT ), n = 1,2,3,........

f (t ) = A sin(ωt + φ )
 Each repetition of a variable quantity,
recurring at equal intervals, is termed
a cycle. The duration of one cycle is
termed its period.

The magnitude of a waveform at any instant in time .Instantaneous values

are denoted by lower-case symbols such as e, v and i.
 Average value of current =

Average value =

RMS value =

Form Factor =

Crest Factor =
L3
The projection of OA on the vertical axis represents to scale the
instantaneous value of the current.

The angular velocity of OA:

Instantaneous value:

Phasor diagrams are drawn with rms values rather than

maximum values.
The current lags the voltage . When one sine wave passes
through the zero following another, it is said to lag.
 dv(t )
p (t ) = v(t )i (t ) = cv(t )
dt
dv(τ )
t t
w(t ) = ∫ v(τ )dτ = C ∫ v(τ )
−∞ −∞
dτ
1 1
= Cv 2 (t ) − Cv 2 (−∞)
2 2

Stores an electric charge when its plates If the voltage across the capacitor does
are at different potentials. not change with time: what is the
farad (abbreviation F): the capacitance of a current through it?
capacitor between the plates of which
there appears a potential difference of 1 volt
when it is charged by 1 coulomb of C=
Q 1
; W = CV 2
electricity. V 2
Inductance: a change of current is accompanied by a change of
flux, and therefore by an induced e.m.f.. Stores magnetic energy.

A circuit has an inductance of 1 henry (or 1 H) if an e.m.f. of 1 volt is induced

in the circuit when the currentvaries uniformly at the rate of 1 ampere per
second.

If the current flowing through the

t
1 di (t )
p (t ) = v(t )i (t ) = Li (t )
L −∫∞
i (t ) = v(τ )dτ
dt
t inductor does not change with time,
1 1
∫ p(τ )dτ = 2 Li what is the voltage across the
0 t
1 1
= ∫ v(τ )dτ + ∫ v(τ )dτ w(t ) = 2
(t ) − Li 2 (−∞)
2
inductor?
L −∞ L0 −∞

t
1
= i (0) + ∫ v(τ )d W=
1 2
LI
L0 2
 V

 di di  V V 
VBC = L 1 + 2  = L BC + BC 
 dt dt   L1 L2 
1 1 1
= +
L L1 L2
L4
If the inductive reactance is greater than the
capacitive reactance, tan φ is positive and the
current lags the supply voltage by an angle φ; if less,
tan φ is negative, signifying that the current leads
the supply voltage by an angle φ. What happens
when they are equal?
I is shown to lag (or lead) the voltage
V by a phase angle φ.
1. Active component: I cos φ, which is
in phase with the
2. Reactive component : I sin φ, which
is in quadrature with the voltage.
The phase angle is a lagging angle if I1 sin φ1 > I2 sin φ2 and
is a leading angle if I1 sin φ1 < I2 sin φ2.
?!
The power associated with energy transfer from the electrical system to
another system such as heat, light or mechanical drives is termed active
power, thus the average given above is the active power of the arrangement.
The mean value of the power
over the complete cycle is
zero.
L5
The average power over the complete cycle is the active power, which is
measured in watts.
The product of the voltage and the current in an a.c. circuit is termed the
apparent power.
The power factor is considered to be lagging when the
current lags the supply voltage, and leading when the current
leads the supply voltage. This means that the supply
voltage is regarded as the reference quantity.
 active power =

Reactive power =

What happens if we do not take the conjugate?

An inductive load is assigned a positive impedance

An inductive load is said to consume reactive

power.
A capacitive load is said to generate reactive
power.
 The active power or the real power, is the rate
of energy conversion or dissipation taken as an
average over one or more complete cycles.
 The reactive power is the peak rate of energy
storage in the reactive elements of a circuit.
The average rate of energy storage is zero, the
energy continually flowing into and back out
from the reactive components.
 The apparent power is the product of the
r.m.s. voltage and current and is related to the
active power by the power factor.
The power factor of a load can be improved (increased) by introducing
additionalequipment, which absorbs var in the opposite sense to that of
the load.

If the load is inductive (lagging power factor) : add a capacitive load

(leading power factor).
If the load is capacitive (leading power factor) : add an inductive load
(lagging power factor).

Ideally, a power factor of unity is desirable.

In practice, the cost of power factor correction equipment has to be
balanced against the resulting savings in electricity charges.
A 60-Hz, three-phase motor draws 25 kVA at 0.707 lagging power factor from a
220-V source. It is desired to improve the power factor to 0.9 lagging by
connecting a capacitor bank across the terminals of the motor.
L6
 At resonance, the voltages across L and C can be very much greater than the
applied voltage:

Q is termed the Q factor or voltage magnification

Energy is dissipated as I2R losses in the resistance of the circuit as the energy is
passed backwards and forwards between L and C.

The lower the value of R, the lower is the power dissipated in the
resistor. The value of Q is in turn higher and the more defined is the
resonance peak.
 half-power points

half-power points
 All methods apply.
 Use impedances instead of resistances.
 The total reactance is zero.
This will be achieved if the reactance of the
load is equal in magnitude to that
of the source but opposite in nature.

The internal source impedance is R + jX and the load impedance

is R − jX, i.e. one is the conjugate impedance of the other.

If the phase angle of the load cannot be varied, the maximum power
occurs when the magnitude of the load impedance is equal to the magnitude
of the source impedance.