DSLR

CHAPTER1

D S L R-introduction

A digital single-lens reflex camera (digital SLR or DSLR) is a digital

camera that uses a mechanical mirror system and pentaprism to direct light from the lens
to an optical viewfinder on the back of the camera.

The basic operation of a DSLR is as follows: for viewing purposes, the

mirror reflects the light coming through the attached lens upwards at a 90 degree angle.
It is then reflected three times by the roof pentaprism, rectifying it for the photographer's
eye. (Note that the diagram below incorrectly shows a non-roof pentaprism.) During
exposure, the mirror assembly swings upward, the aperture narrows (if stopped down, or
set smaller than wide open), and a shutter opens, allowing the lens to project light onto
the image sensor. A second shutter then covers the sensor, ending the exposure, and the
mirror lowers while the shutter resets. The period that the mirror is flipped up is referred
to as "viewfinder blackout". A fast-acting mirror and shutter is preferred so as to not
delay an action photo.All of this happens automatically over a period of milliseconds,
with cameras designed to do this 3–10 times per second.DSLRs are often preferred by
professional still photographers because they allow an accurate preview of framing close
to the moment of exposure, and because DSLRs allow the user to choose from a variety
of interchangeable lenses. Most DSLRs also have a function that allows accurate
preview of field. Many professionals also prefer DSLRs for their larger sensors
compared to most compact digitals. DSLRs have sensors which are generally closer in
size to the traditional film formats that many current professionals started out using.
These large sensors allow for similar depths of field and picture angle to film formats, as
well as their comparatively high signal to noise ratio.

The term DSLR generally refers to cameras that resemble 35 mm format

cameras, although some medium format cameras are technically DSLRs.

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 1 Dept. of

ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

1.1)Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Cameras

Convenience and customization are the two most important advantagesof digital camera
technology—but this new medium does retain some drawbacks. Most professional
photographers would admit that digital photographyhas come far enough in technology
and resolution that it matchesfilm—the dozens of Nikon F5s and Canon EOS1s at the
used camerastore is one clue. This means digital photography has reached the quality
most professionals require of their work. The technology itself has some shortcomings,
however:

■Resolution. Consumer-level digital camerasare not capable of higher resolutions than

What you would receive from a 35mm camerawith a third-rate lens.
■Color space. Digital cameras rely on acolor space, or mathematical representation
Of all colors. Most cameras use the sRGB(Red, Green, and Blue) color space. Other
color
Space definitions exist though that often aresuperior.
■Aliasing. Software and low resolution sensorswork together to degrade the resolution
of an image by blurring pixilation.
■Highlight disaster. Some digital camerascannot handle highlights in an
image,resulting in bright white streaks.
■Delays. Forget action or sports photographywith a consumer-level digital camera.
Stopping action at the exact momentyou desire is something of a guessing game and a
very expensive digital SLR(Single-Lens Reflex) is necessary.
■Wide-angle lenses. CCDs in digital SLRs are smaller than the standard35mm film
frame. The result is a magnification of lenses, so that a 35mmbecomes a 55mm. Wide-
angle is difficult unless you buy an exotic (that is,
Expensive) lens.
■Prints. Blame it on genetics or culture, but digital prints do not commandthe same
respect as regular prints.
■Battery drain. Digital cameras drain batteries faster than any electronicdevice. With a
small LCD screen, constant auto-focus, and flash, normalalkaline batteries barely survive
a “roll” of 36 pictures.
■Price. Low-end digital cameras currently match instamatic cameras in price,but above
this consumer level, a serious SLR digital camera body costs two tothree times as much
as a traditional camera body.

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 2 Dept. of

ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

1.2)Types of Digital Cameras

There are 3 Main classificationsof digital cameras

• Point and Shoot

• Prosumer
• Digital SLR

1.2.1)Point and Shoot digital Cameras (P&S)

- Commonly referred to as “consumer” digital cameras.

- Represent probably 90% of all digital cameras on the market

- Typically small, compact and lightweight

- Targeted at broad majority

- Typically very User-Friendly

1.2.2)Prosumer Digital Cameras

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 3 Dept. of

ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

- Common term used to describe advanced models of P&S(now also used to describe
many entry level DSLR's)

- Similar in shape and appearance to Digital SLR's

- Typically have extended zoom range (8-12X Optical Equiv)

- Typically combine user friendly

P&S features with more advanced manual features.

1.2.3)Digital SLR (DSLR)

SLR Stands for Single Lens Reflex

- Have larger sensors, resulting in greater image quality

- Tend to favor manual control, lacking many automatic settings found on P&S

- Much larger and heavier

- Ability to interchange system lenses

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 4 Dept. of

ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

CHAPTER 2

BASIC DSLR MODEL

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 5 Dept. of

ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

2.1)DSLR design principles

In the following sections, you can explore the innards of your digital SLR so thatyou can
better understand how to use all the nifty features your digital shooterincludes. At best,
these sections give you a better handle on why, sometimes,the results you get when you
press the shutter release aren’t exactly what you expect. At worst, you can find more
convincing excuses to give when you goof. In some ways, the basics of a dSLR have a
lot in common with the conventional film SLR, or indeed, any film camera. All these
picture-grabbers share some fundamental components, which I list in the general order of
their arrangement inside your camera, as shown in Figure

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 6 Dept. of

ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

A lens: Consisting of one or more optical components made of glass,

plastic, or ceramic; captures light and gathers it to a point of focus
inside the camera.
A viewing system (including flip-up mirror): Lets you see what the
camera sees so that you can compose your image and perform other
functions, such as evaluating depth-of-field.
An aperture: An opening inside the lens that you can (usually) adjust in
size so that more or less light is able to sneak through into the camera.
A shutter or other mechanism: Controls how long the light passing
through the lens can expose the film or sensor.
A light-sensitive component: Either film or — with digital cameras —
the sensor, which captures the illumination admitted through the lens
by the aperture for the time duration allowed by the shutter.
A medium for storing the captured image: The camera needs a way to
store the image until you remove it from the camera. With a film camera,
that medium is the film itself. For a digital camera, the storage is a solidstate
film card. Some of these components, especially lenses, are very similar for film
anddigital cameras. Indeed, many digital SLRs can use the same lenses built for
their film counterparts.

The working is explained in detail below:

A camera based on the single-lens reflex (SLR) principle uses a mirror to show in a
viewfinder the image that will be captured. The cross-section (side-view) of the optical
components of an SLR shows how the light passes through the lens assembly (1), is

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 7 Dept. of

ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

reflected into the pentaprism by the reflex mirror (which must be at an exact 45 degree
angle) (2) and is projected on the matte focusing screen (5). Via a condensing lens (6)
and internal reflections in the roof pentaprism(7) the image is projected through the
eyepiece (8) to the photographer's eye. Focusing is either automatic, activated by
pressing half-way on the shutter release or a dedicated AF button, as is mainly the case
with an autofocusing film SLR; or manual, where the photographer manually focuses the
lens by turning a lens ring on the lens barrel. When an image is photographed, the mirror
swings upwards in the direction of the arrow, the focal-plane shutter(3) opens, and the
image is projected and captured on the sensor (4), after which actions, the shutter closes,
the mirror returns to the 45 degree angle, the diaphragm reopens, and the built in drive
mechanism re-tensions the shutter for the next exposure. There is often a ring of soft
material around the focusing screen, which helps to both cushion the impact of the
mirror slapping up and helps seal the mirror box from light entering through the eye
piece.[1] Some high end cameras incorporate a shutter into the eyepiece to further
eliminate light that may enter there during long exposures

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 8 Dept. of

ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

2.2)DSLR optical viewfinder vs. digital point-and-shoot camera LCD

Depending on the viewing position of the reflex mirror (down or up),
the light from the scene can only reach either the viewfinder or the sensor. Therefore,
many older DSLRs do not provide "live preview" (allowing focusing, framing, and
depth-of-field preview using the display), a facility that is always available on digicams
although today most DSLRs offer live view.

The advantages of an optical viewfinder are that it alleviates eye-strain sometimes

caused by electronic view finders (EVF), and that it constantly shows (except during the
time for the sensor to be exposed) the exact image that will be exposed because its light
is routed directly from the lens itself. Compared to ordinary digital cameras with their
LCDs and/or electronic viewfinders the advantage is that there is no time lag in the
image; it is always correct as it is being "updated" at the speed of light. This is important
for action and/or sports photography, or any other situation where the subject or the
camera is moving too quickly. Furthermore, the "resolution" of the viewed image is
much better than that provided by an LCD or an electronic viewfinder, which can be
important if manual focusing is desired for precise focusing, as would be the case in
macro photography and "micro-photography" (with a microscope).

Compared to some low cost cameras that provide an optical viewfinder that uses a small
auxiliary lens, the DSLR design has the advantage of being parallax-free; that is, it never

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 9 Dept. of

ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

provides an off-axis view. A disadvantage of the DSLR optical viewfinder system is that
while it is used it prevents the possibility of using the LCD for viewing and composing
the picture before taking it. Some people prefer to compose pictures on the display – for
them this has become the de-facto way to use a camera. Electronic viewfinders may also
provide a brighter display in low light situations, as the picture can be electronically
amplified; conversely, LCDs can be difficult to see in very bright sunlight.

CHAPTER3
WORKING OF A DSLR
Fig3.1)When DSLR is not Capturing Image
The photographic lens located in
front of the camera directs lights into the
camera body. Light is then reflected by
the mirror to the pentaprism and finally
travels to the viewfinder where
photographers can observe the scene.
Notice that the mirror is flipped down
and the shutter covers the image sensor
from recording lights.

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 10 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

Fig3.2)When Capturing an Image

The image capturing process starts
when the shutter release button is pressed.
Notice the mirror is flipped up from its
original position, allowing light to travel to
the sensor area. The shutter that covers the
image sensor is now fully opened, and the
image sensor is exposed under light and will
be capturing the image.

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 11 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 12 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

CHAPTER4
The Image Sensor – The Introduction

FIG 4.1 IMAGE

Image Sensor is the key device in DSLR, and serves the same function of capturing
images as traditional films
Image sensor is basically a silicon chip containing millions of light sensitive element
called photosite, and is covered by a layer of color filter

4.1)The CCD Image Sensor

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 13 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

 invented in 1969 and introduced

to the public in 1974.

 most common sensor used for TV cameras.

 When reading from such a

sensor, the pixel values (charges) are transported across the sensor, line by line, and
then shifted into an analog-to-digital converter, turning each pixel’s value into a digital
value

 two specific problems:

manufacturing
Producing CCD sensors is very expensive, as special laboratories and machines are
required to manufacture these sensors.
power drain
CCD sensors also consume power at a rapid rate. Even though the CCD chips in
consumer-
level cameras are only 1/3-inch across, they still drain power quickly.

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 14 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

4.2)CCD and Color: Using a Color Mask

CCDs are monochromatic devices. They simply measure the amount of voltage
acquired by each pixel. To capture color, a filter must be placed in front of the CCD
that separates visible light into primary colors. This filter is called a mask, or array.
The most popular mask in use today for digital cameras is called a Bayer mask.
CCD sensors that use a Bayer mask can only acquire one color per pixel

Green pixels outnumber red and blue by a ratio of 2:1. The reason for this is that
human vision is most sensitive to green, which is why 50 percent of the pixels in a
CCD are dedicated to this color.
A Bayer mask isn’t the most efficient way to capture color for several reasons:
■ Three pixels are required for each ”virtual” pixel. Three separate pixels
devoted to red, green, and blue are combined in software to create a virtual
pixel in the center of these sensors. The end result is a virtual pixel that represents
the light and color at that point in the CCD. The problem is that pixels
are wasted in this system, and the space between pixels adds up over the
width of the CCD. In addition, only a percentage of green is captured. The
lost part of green results in a loss of sharpness.
■ A square shape isn’t the most efficient. By placing three pixels together to create
a virtual pixel in the center, the amount of space between the actual pixels
and the virtual pixel is sizable. Fuji has developed a SuperCCD technology
using hexagonal pixels to reduce this blank space, but even this technology
results in a loss of sharpness.
College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 15 Dept. o
f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
 DSLR

■ Software interpolation—software must combine imperfect red, green, and

blue values into an imperfect color. During this software-driven interpolation,
color artifacts and mosaic problems can appear (see Figure 2.4).
Programmers have been successful at reducing common mosaic problems,
but this issue still occurs.
■ In addition, the inaccurate sensors used with a Bayer mask require ”blur filters”
to reduce color artifacts. The random appearance of artifacts and the
requisite blur filters force the software to reduce sharpness.

4.3)The Image Sensor – The Bayer Layer

Bayer Layer is a common type of color filter
used in a DSLR.
It refers to a specific arrangement for the red,
blue, and green color filters.
Bayer Layer contains twice as many green
filters as blue and red to best simulate the
human sight. It is because human eyes are
most sensitive to green lights.
Once the incoming light hits the Bayer Layer,
each single color filter on the layer will allow
one specific color to pass through to the image
sensor.

The upper layer is the Bayer layer. The

lower layer is the image sensor.
4.4)The Image Sensor – The image capturing process

FIG 4.4.1 PROCESS OF IMAGE

Once the light passes through the Bayer layer, the photosites located beneath will
start recording the brightness of the light by accumulating a charge. The charge goes
higher when the image sensor is exposed longer under lights. Each charge will become a

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 16 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

single pixel after processing, and all pixels will finally form a digital image and be stored
in the memory card for future reconstruction and editing.

4.5)The Image Sensor – The size

There are two common sizes of image sensor used by DSLR.

135 size image sensor has a dimension of 36mm × 24mm and is also called the full-
frame sensor.
APS-C size image sensor has a dimension of 22mm × 15mm.
The size of an image sensor has no effect on the size of the captured image, but affects
the size of scene that will be captured.
Megapixels – Determine the total size (Dimensions) of the image recorded by camera
- More MP does not always mean a better picture
- Digital Image dimensions do not equal print dimensions
- For example a full quality image from an 8 megapixel camera
will produce a digital image measuring approximately 9X14 inches but printing
standards say that you should not print to “Photo Quality” any larger than 8X10

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 17 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

4.6)How the digital sensor works

- Each digital image is made from millions of tiny squares, known as pixels.
- Essentially, an image is recorded by tiny microlenses (pixels) which make up the
cameras sensor

4.7)RESOLUTION

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 18 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

CHAPTER5
USE OF LENSES
The ability to swap optics is the reason why the word lens is so important in the
abbreviation SLR. Some factors to consider when choosing a camera include
 Lens quality: Are the lenses of a particular vendor known for their quality,both
optically and mechanically (what’s known as build quality)?Does this vendor
offer multiple lens lines that include economy lenses,which might be a little less
rugged but affordably priced, as well aspro-style lenses that have the ultimate in
sharpness and ruggedness?Depending on the type of photography you do, trading
off a little weightand replacing a few metal parts with tough plastic might be
important.Or, you might require lenses that can take punishment and still
deliversparkling results.
 Focal length ranges: Somevendors are stronger in thetelephoto lens department
andweaker when it comes to providingwide-angle lenses. Canon,for example,
sells an amazingarray of long lenses, many with built-in image stabilization, and
offered at amazing prices. Nikon has some exquisite wide-angle lenses. Some
vendors do a better job with certain kinds of zooms than others. Make sure that
the vendor of the camera you’re contemplating offerslenses in the focal lengths
and maximum apertures that you require. If not, see whether you can fill in the
lenses you require from third-party vendors, suchas Tokina, Tamron, and Sigma.
These manufacturers’ optical offerings might be completely satisfactory — or
they might not. See whether the lenses you need are readily available at a price
that you can afford. Figure 3-6 shows a typical lens that’s often used as basic
optics for some Nikon dSLRs
 Special features: Focal lengths, zoom ranges, and maximum aperture
aren’t the only features that you want in a lens. You might need close focusing,
fast autofocus (which is partially dependent on the design of the lens), or the
ability to control the out-of-focus areas of an image. (Nikon, for example, has a
line of DC lenses that are great for portraiture because you can control how the
defocused areas look.).

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 19 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 20 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 21 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

CHAPTER7
Advancements in dslr technology over the past decade
 Movement Compensation
Refers to the cameras ability to correct small movements by the user while taking a
picture, in order to reduce the blur caused by camera shake. Veryuseful in low-light or
telephoto situations
Represented differently by different companies:
Nikon – VR – Vibration Reduction
Canon – IS – Image Stabilization
Pentax – SR – Shake Reduction
Sony – SSS – Super Steady-Shot

 Dust Reduction
Dust is more of a problem in DSLR's due to changing lenses
Once dust gets on your sensor, it can be difficult to remove
Dust reduction is essentially a mechanism which shakes the cameras sensor to free any
clinging dust particles
Special anti-static coatings or filters may also be used

 Live View

Refers to the ability to use the lcd screen on the camera the same way you would use the
viewfinder
Shots can be composed even while holding the camera away from your face
College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 22 Dept. o
f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

Originally only a feature in P&S, DSLR’s now use Live View also

 Facial Recognition
Camera detects faces in your frame based on color, contrast change, etc.
Focus is automatically adjusted so detail in faces is high
Color and contrast are automatically adjusted to create pleasing skin tones

 Scene Modes
Scene Modes are basically fully automatic modes designed specifically for a certain
situation. They typically place emphasis on one or more settings based on the typical
circumstances of the situation chosen.
Most digital cameras have very similar scene modes available
Backlight - eliminates dark shadows when light is coming from behind a subject, or
when the subject is in the shade. The built-in flash automatically fires to "fill in" the
shadows.
Beach/Snow - photograph beach, snow and sunlit water scenes. Exposure and white
balance are set to help prevent the scene from becoming washed out looking.ds. Use of
tripod recommended.
Fireworks Macro
Landscape Portrait
Night Portrait Sports.
Night Scene Party
Night Portrait
Night

 Metering Modes
The metering system within a camera measures the amount of light in a frame and
determines the best exposure. Many cameras have more than one metering mode and
each evaluates a scene in a different way. Essentially, by changing the metering mode
you are telling the camera to evaluate the scene in a different way.
Center-weighted metering
Currently the most common digital camera metering system. Center-weighted is the
metering system of choice on digicams that do not offer other metering modes.

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 23 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

Exposure metering is averaged over the entire frame with emphasis placed on the central
area. Used for general and portrait photography.
Matrix (evaluative) metering
A complex metering system whereby a scene is split up into a series of zones. Overall
exposure is based on evaluating each zone individually and taking an average of the total
light readings.
Spot metering
Spot metering covers just under 4 percent of the viewfinder area. It takes a precise
exposure reading only at the very center of the frame and disregards the rest. A spot
meter is used when a subject is backlit or has bright light upon it and the background is
dark -- for example, when there are extremes in brightness in a scene.
Partial metering
Partial metering is similar to spot metering but covers a larger area of the viewfinder,
about 13.5 percent. It is useful for taking portrait photos when the subject is back lit
Underexposure is minimized by metering on the face.
Both spot and partial metering are considered advanced settings. They give the skilled
photographer more control over exposure than do matrix and center-weighted metering.

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 24 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

CHAPTER8
ADVANTAGES
 Greater lens versatility

 Almost always better image quality

 Better performance

 Usually a more functional "shooter's" designGreater flexibility

CHAPTER9
DISADVANTAGES
 Increased complexity

 Generally bigger and heavier

 Higher price

 Generally inconvenient to use the LCD for framing

C H A P T E R 10
LEADING BRANDS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 GOT BANKRUPT AND ECLIPSED THEMSELVES FROM THE MARKET

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 25 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

 NO GOVT. RUN LABS HAS ACHEIVED SUCCESS AS THE PRIVATE

COMPANIES UNLIKE IN PC BUSINESS

C H A P T E R 11
CONCLUSION

The digital single-lens reflex (dSLR) is the great step upward for
photographerswho want to expand their creative horizons — or simply just getbetter
pictures. Whether you want to become a serious photo hobbyist, havea hankering to turn
pro, or want to take advantage of the improved controlthat digital SLRs give you over
your photography, discovering how to usethis tool of the future should be high on your
priorities list.The latest digital SLRs have features that no one had even dreamed of .All
the major bugs of the earliestdSLRs have been magically transformed into killer features
in the latestmodels. Today, you can preview your images by using Live View
featuresbefore you snap the shutter. Dust that collects on the sensor causes muchless of a
problem thanks to built-in sensor-cleaning features. You get betterimage quality than in
earlier models, thanks to higher resolutions (you cancommonly get 15 megapixels and
up, even in low-cost dSLRs), super-sensitivesensors that can capture images in near
darkness, and inexpensive but effectiveAnti-shake technology built into cameras or
lenses.Most recently, the only remaining drawback of digital SLRs — the fact thatyou
couldn’t shoot movies (long a common feature in point-and-shootcameras) — was swept
aside with the introduction of new models that grab HDTV-quality video with
sound.Best of all, all these capabilities are eminently affordable.

Digital SLRs in the$500-to-$1,000 range today can outshoot the $5,000

professional models offive years ago and are light-years ahead of even the best point-
and-shootmodels. The dSLR provides more control over what portions of your imageyou
want in sharp focus, boasts lower levels of the annoying grain effectcalled noise, and
operates fast enough to capture the most fleeting action.If that isn’t enough, you can
change lenses, too, adding super-wide perspectivesor the huge magnification possibilities
of long, long telephoto lenses toyour repertoire.Almost all the other advantages of digital
photography come with your digitalSLR camera, too. You can review your image
immediately, upload the photo to your computer, make adjustments, and print a
sparkling full-colorprint within minutes. You never need to buy film. You decide which
imagesto print and how large to make them. You can proudly display your
digitalphotographic work framed on your wall or over your fireplace. You can evenmake
wallet-sized photos, send copies to friends in e-mail, or create an onlinegallery that
relatives and colleagues can view over the Web.

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 26 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon
DSLR

C H A P T E R 12
REFERENCES

 http://www.adobe.com/cfusion/marketplace/index.cfm?MARKETPLA
CEID=2&OFFERINGTYPEID=5&EVENT=marketplace.categories&c

 www.cerious.com
 www.photodex.com
 www.photo.net

 www.dpreview.com

 www.luminous-landscape.com/reviews

 www.steves-digicams.com

 www.digitalreview.ca

 www.wikipedia.com

 Digital SLR Cameras & Photography by David D. Busch

College of EngIneerIng,Perumon 27 Dept. o

f ElectronIcs & CommunIcatIon