Heat and Mass Transfer

AU404 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER: Unit – 2
Unit 2
Derivation for heat flow, temperature distribution in plane wall; Critical thickness of insulation without heat
generation, Composite Medium, Thermal resistance concept, Its importance. Overall heat transfer coefficient.
Thermal contact resistance. Heat transfer in extended surfaces of uniform cross-section without heat generation,
Long fin, and short fin with insulated tip and without insulated tip and fin connected between two heat sources.
Fin efficiency and effectiveness.
Numerical problems.
 Application of 1-D steady-state heat conduction problems to determine temperature distribution

and heat flow in solids having geometries in the form of a slab (i.e., plane wall), cylinder,
sphere
 The temperature gradients exist along one coordinate direction only and
 That temperature within the solid does not vary with time.
 The concept of ‘thermal resistance’, analogous to electric resistance, is introduced to solve 1-

D, steady-state heat conduction with no internal energy generation
 The above concept is also utilized to determine 1-D, steady-state heat flow through layers of
slabs, cylinders and spheres.
 Heat flow problems involving the determination of Critical thickness of insulation and the use of
extended surfaces (i.e., fins) are examined.
2.1 The slab:
Consider a slab of thickness ‘L’ as shown in figure 2.1. The plate is sufficiently large in the y and z
directions in comparison to its thickness ‘L’ to ensure that the temperature gradients in the y and z
directions are negligible compared with that in the x – direction.
The temperature within the solid does not vary with time.
The temperature distribution T(x) within the solid is governed by the 1-D, steady-state heat conduction
equation.
Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201. 1

T1 T(x)
T2
0 X Fig. 2.1
L
For the case of constant ‘k’ and with an energy generation at a rate of g(x) W/m 3, the heat conduction
equation is given be,
d 2T ( x ) g ( x )
 0 2.1
dx 2 k
Which is valid over the domain of the slab confined to the region 0 < x < L.
Once the temperature distribution T(x) in the slab is established from the solution of the equation 2.1,
the heat flux q(x) anywhere in the slab is determined from the definition,
dT ( x )
q ( x )  k W / m2
dx
Here, we are concerned with the solution of heat conduction equation with or without energy
generation for a slab of thickness ‘L’ and the determination of temperature distribution T(x) within the
slab.
Consider the steady-state heat conduction equation for the case of constant ‘k’ and with a constant
energy generation at a rate of g0 W/m3, given as
d 2T ( x ) g0
 0
dx 2 k
d 2T ( x ) g0
Writing the above equation in the form of  
dx 2 k
Integrating the above equation twice, we get
dT ( x ) g
  0 x  C1
dx k
g0 2
and T (x)   x  C1x  C2
2k
2 Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201.

Where, C1 and C2 are integration constants.
Clearly, two boundary conditions are needed for the determination of these constants.
For a slab in the region 0  x  L,
 One boundary condition (B.C) is assigned for the surface at x = 0 and
 Another for the surface at x = L.
The boundary conditions can be
 Prescribed temperature,
 Prescribed heat flux, or
 Convection boundary condition
Note: Prescribed heat flux B.C to both the boundary surfaces is not considered.
Ex.: Consider a slab in which energy is generated while both boundary surfaces are kept insulated.
Then the steady-state condition can never be established. i.e., temperature rises continuously.
1. Consider a slab of thickness ‘L’. The boundary surfaces at x = 0 and x = L are maintained at
constant, but different, temperatures T1 and T2, respectively. There is no energy generation in the
solid, and the ‘k’ is constant.
a) Develop an expression for the temperature distribution T(x) in the slab.
b) Develop an expression for the heat flow Q through an area A of the slab.
The mathematical formulation of 1_D heat conduction is

given as,
T1 d 2T ( x )
T(x)  0 1 in 0xL
dx 2
T2 T ( x )  T1 at x  0 and
X
0 L T ( x )  T2 at x L
T1 T2 Integrating twice, we get

Q Q
L
R
kA
T ( x )  C1x  C2  2
Applying the B.C’s,

T2  T1
At x  0, C2  T1 and at x  L, C1 
L
Substituting these in equation 2, we get
x
T ( x )  (T2  T1 )  T1  3
L
i.e., for 1-D, steady-state heat conduction through a slab having a constant ‘k’ and no energy
generation, the temperature T(x) varies linearly with ‘x’.
The heat flux q through the slab is determined by differentiating the above equation 3 for T(x) w.r.t ‘x’
dT ( x )
and applying the definition of heat flux, q( x )  k W / m 2 , we get
dx
T1  T2
qk W / m2
L
When, T1  T2 , the RHS of the above equation is +ve, heat flow is in the +ve x – direction.
The heat flow rate ‘Q’ through an area ‘A’ of the slab normal to the direction of heat flow is
T1  T2
Q  A.q  A.k. W or
L
T1  T2 L
Q . where, R
R Ak
Here, ‘R’ is called the thermal resistance of the slab for heat flow through an area ‘A’ across a
temperature potential T1  T2 .
The concept is analogous to electric resistance in Ohm’s law.
2. Consider a slab of thickness ‘L’ as shown in figure. A fluid at a temperature T ∞1 with a heat transfer
coefficient h1 flows over the surface at x = 0, and another fluid at a temperature T ∞2 with a heat
transfer coefficient h2 flows over the surface at x = L of the plate.
a) Develop an expression for the heat flow ‘Q’ through an area ‘A’ of the plate.
b) Calculate the heat transfer rate through A = 1 m2 of the slab for T∞1= 1300C, T∞2= 300C, h∞1=
250 W/m2.0C, h∞2= 500 W/m2.0C, L = 4 cm, k = 20 W/m0C.

T∞ 1
Fluid flow
T∞2, h2
T1
T2
Fluid flow T∞2
T∞1, h1
X
0 L
T∞1 T1 T2 T∞ 2
Q Q
1 L 1
Ah1 kA Ah2

As there is no energy generation in the medium and only the heat flow rate through the plate is
required, it is more convenient to utilize the heat resistance concept for the solution of the problem.
Heat flow Q is by,
 Convection from fluid 1 to the surface of the plate at x = 0,
 Conduction through the plate, and
 Convection from the surface at x = L, to fluid 2
T1  T2
i.e., Q  Ah1(T1  T1 )  Ak  Ah2 (T2  T 2 )
L
T1  T1 T1  T2 T2  T 2
or Q  
1 L 1
Ah1 Ak Ah2
This is analogous to Ohm’s law, with each term in the denominator representing the thermal
resistance to heat flow of that particular layer.
By adding numerators and denominators of the above equation, we get
T1  T 2
Q
1 L 1
 
Ah1 Ak Ah2
The heat transfer rate Q through the area A of the slab can be calculated from the above equation.
T1  T 2
or Q
Rtotal
Where, the total thermal resistance to heat flow Rtotal is,
1 L 1
Rtotal   
Ah1 Ak Ah2
Thermal resistance for convection through fluid 2
Thermal resistance for conduction through the slab
Thermal resistance for convection through fluid 1
1 0.04 1 130  30
Rtotal    Q  12.5kW
1 250 1 20 1 500 8  10 3

3. Consider a slab of thickness ‘L’ and constant ‘k’ in which energy is generated at a constant rate of
g0 W/m3. The boundary surface at x = 0 is insulated (adiabatic) and that at x = L dissipates heat by
convection with a ‘h’ into a fluid at temperature T∞.
a) Develop an expression for the temperature T(x) and the heat flux g(x) in the slab.
b) Calculate the temperatures at the surface x = 0 and x = L, under the following conditions: L = 1
cm, k = 20 W/m0C, g0 = 8 x 107 W/m3, h = 4000 W/m2.0C and T∞= 1000C.
Solution:
 Since there is energy generation in the medium, hence the thermal resistance concept cannot
be utilized.
 Therefore, the heat conduction equation should be solved to determine the temperature
distribution.
 The mathematical formulation of this heat conduction problem is given by,
d 2T ( x ) g ( x )
 0 1 for 0xL
dx 2 k
and the B.Cs are
dT ( x ) dT ( x )
0 at x 0 and k  hT ( x )  hT at x L
dx dx
Integrating equation 1, once,
dT ( x ) g
  0 x  C1
dx k
Applying the B.C at x = 0, we get, C1  0
Integrating equation 1, twice, with C1  0 , we get,
g0 2
T (x)   x  C2
2k
 g 
Substituting the B.C at x = L, g 0 L  h   0 L2  C2   hT
 2k 
g0 2 g0 L
or C2  L   T
2k h
Then,
g0 2   x   g0 L
2
T (x)  L 1    T
2k   L   h
Physical significance:
 1st term on the RHS is due to energy generation in the solid
 2nd term is due to presence of a finite ‘h’ at the surface. For h   , this term vanishes and the
boundary surface at x = L is at the temperature T∞
The heat flux anywhere in the medium is determined from its definition as,
dT ( x )
q ( x )  k  g0 x
dx
T (0)  5000 C and T (L )  3000 C
4. An iron plate of thickness ‘L’ with thermal conductivity ‘k’ is subjected to a constant, uniform heat
flux q0 W/m2 at the boundary surface at x = 0. From the other boundary surface at x = L, heat is
dissipated into a fluid at temperature T∞ with ‘h’. Figure below shows the geometry and the
nomenclature.
a) Develop an expression for the determination of the surface temperatures T1 and T2 at the
surfaces x = 0 and x = L respectively. L = 2 cm, k = 20 W/m 0C, q0 = 105 W/m2, h = 500 W/m2.0C
and T∞= 500C.
Fluid flow
T∞, h
T1
Heat supply
T2
q0 W/m2
X
0 L
T1 T2 T∞
Aq0 Q
L 1
kA Ah
Since there is no energy generation in the medium and only the temperature of the boundary surfaces
are required, it is more convenient to utilize the thermal resistance concept.

T1  T2 T2  T T T
i.e., Aq0    1 
L 1 L 1

Ak Ah Ak Ah
T1  T
i.e., q0 
L 1

k h
 L 1 
From terms 1 and 2, T1     q0  T i.e., T1  350 C
0
 Ak Ah 
q0
From terms 1 and 3, T2   T i.e., T2  250 C
0
The Cylinder:
 1-D, radial heat flow in solids having a geometry in the form of a cylinder have numerous
engineering applications
Example:
 Heat removal by the coolant fluid, from a cylindrical fuel element of a nuclear reactor.
 Heat dissipation from a current-carrying wire.
 Heat flow across a thick-walled circular tube.
 Suppose there is an energy generation in the solid at rate of g(r) W/m 3, and the thermal
conductivity is considered constant, the temperature distribution T(r) in the solid is governed by
the following heat conduction equation:
1d  dT  1
 r dr   k g (r )  0 1
r dr  
which is valid over the cylindrical region.
 Once the temperature distribution T(r) in the cylinder is established from the solution of
equation 1, the radial heat flux q(r) anywhere in the solid is determined from the definition,
dT (r )
q ( r )  k W / m2 2
dr
 To determine the temperature distribution T(r) in the region, equation 1 is integrated, and
resulting integration constants are determined from the application of the B.C’s for the
problem.
 For constant energy generation, g0,

d  dT  g0
 r dr    k 3
dr  
The 1st and 2nd integration of equation 3, give respectively,
dT (r ) g C g0 2
 0r 1 and T (r )   r  C1 ln r  C2 4
dr 2k r 4k
 2 B.Cs are needed to determine the 2 integration constants C 1 and C2.
r2
r0 r1
0 r 0 r
Solid cylinder Hollow cylinder
Coordinates for 1-D heat conduction: Cylinder
Hollow cylinder:
The B.Cs at inner and outer surfaces can be a
 Prescribed temperature
 Prescribed heat flux or
 A convective boundary condition
Note: The case in which both boundary surfaces are subjected to prescribed heat flux is not
considered.
Solid cylinder:
 A B.C can be specified for the outer surface, but another B.C is needed at the center of the
cylinder
 Such a B.C is specified from the physical considerations of the temperature distribution in the
cylinder
i.e., Physically meaningful solution requires that the temperature not be infinite at r = 0. This
condition is satisfied if,

T (r )  finiteat r  0 1
In 1-D, radial heat flow in a solid cylinder, the temperature is symmetric about the center of the
cylinder. With this consideration, an alternative B.C at r = 0, can be given as,
dT (r )
 0 at r  0 2
dr
Either of the B.Cs 1 or 2 at the center of the cylinder can be used.
1. Consider a solid cylinder of radius r = r0 in which energy is generated at a constant rate of g 0 W/m3,
while the boundary surface at r = r0 is maintained at a constant temperature T2.
a) Develop an expression for the 1-D, radial, steady state temperature distribution T(r) and the heat
flux q(r).
b) Calculate the center temperature T(0) and the heat flux at the boundary surface r = r o = 1 cm, k =
20 W/m0C, g0 = 2 x 108 W/m3 and T2= 1000C.
The mathematical expression is given as,
1d  dT (r )  g0
r dr   k  0 at r  0  1 for 0  r  ro
r dr  
dT (r )
and the B.Cs are 0 at r 0 and T (r )  T2 at r  ro
dr
Integrating the equation 1, twice, we get,
dT (r ) g C g0 2
  0 r  1 and T (r )   r  C1 ln r  C2
dr 2k r 4k
Substituting the B.Cs, we get,
g 0 ro2
C1  0 and C2   T2
4k
Therefore, the temperature distribution T(r) in the cylinder is,
g0 ro2   r 2 
T (r )  1      T2
4k   ro  
The heat flux anywhere in the medium is determined from its definition as,
dT (r ) g0 r
q ( r )  k i.e., q(r )  W / m2
dr 2

By substituting the numerical, we get, T (0)  3500 C and q( r0 )  106 W / m 2

2. The inner surface at r = ri and the outer surface at r = ro of a hollow cylinder are maintained at
uniform temperatures T1 and T2 respectively. The ‘k’ is constant.
a) Develop an expression for the steady-state radial heat flow rate Q through the cylinder over a
length L.
b) Develop an expression for the thermal resistance of a hollow cylinder of length L.
The mathematical formulation for this problem is,
d  dT (r ) 
r dr   0  1 for ri  r  ro
dr  
and T (r )  T1 at r  ri
T (r )  T2 at r  ro
Integrating equation 1 twice, we get,
dT (r ) C1
 and T (r )  C1 ln r  C2
dr r
A simultaneous solution of these two equations gives,
T 2 T1 ln ri
C1  C2  T1  (T2  T1 )
r  r 
ln  o  ln  o 
 ri   ri 
The heat flow rate Q over a length L of the cylinder is,
dT (r ) dT (r ) C1
Q  q(r ).Area  k 2rL or Q  k 2LC1 Since, 
dr dr r
2kL
Q (T1  T2 )
Therefore,  ro 
ln  
 ri 
r 
(T  T ) ln  o 
where, R   i 
r
Rearranging, Q 1 2
R 2kL
r   2ro L 
ln  o  (ro  ri )ln  
or R  i 
r  2ri L 
2Lk (ro  ri )2Lk
1
and R The thermal resistance of hollow cylinder.
kAm

Ao  Ai
Where, Am 
A 
ln  o 
 Ai 
When, Ai  2ri L = Area of inner surface of the cylinder
Ao  2ro L = Area of inner surface of the cylinder
Am = logarithmic mean area
t  ro  ri = Thickness of the cylinder
3. A hollow cylinder with inner surface at r = ri and the outer surface at r = ro is heated at the inner
surface at a rate of q0 W/m2 and dissipates heat by convection from the outer surface into a fluid at
temperature T∞ with a heat transfer coefficient h. There is no energy generation and k of solid is
assumed to be constant.
a) Develop an expression for the determination of temperatures T1 and T2 of the inner and outer
surfaces of the cylinder.
b) Calculate the surface temperatures T1 and T2 for ri = 3 cm and ro = 5 cm, h = 400 W/m 2.0C, T∞ =
1000C, k = 15 W/m. 0C and q0 = 105 W/m2.
Solution: Since there is no heat generation in the medium, the thermal resistance approach may be
used.
ri
T1 T2
Fluid flow
ro at T∞, h
T1 T2 T∞
Q Q
R1 R2

T1  T2 T2  T
2ri Lq0  
 ro  1
ln  
 ri  2ro Lh
2kL
 ri ro r 
By equating the 1st and last term of the above expressions, we get, T1   ln  i  q0  T
k ri ro h 
ri
and equating 2nd and 3rd expressions, we get, T2  q0  T
ro h
By substituting the numerical, we get T1  352.20 C and T2  2500 C
The Sphere:
 The 1-D, steady-state temperature distribution T(r) in which energy is generated at a rate of
g(r) W/m3 is governed by the heat conduction equation,
1 d  2 dT  1
r   g (r )  0
r 2 dr  dr  k
 This equation must be solved over the domain of the sphere subject to appropriate B.Cs.
 Once the temperature distribution T(r) is known, the heat flux q(r) anywhere in the medium is
determined from the definition,
dT (r )
q ( r )  k W / m2
dr
 Consider for the case of constant energy generation ‘g 0’,
d  2 dT  g
 r    0 r2 1
dr  dr  k
Where, g0 = constant.
The 1st and 2nd integration of equation 1 give respectivey,
dT (r ) g C g 0 2 C1
  0 r  21 and T (r )   r   C2
dr 3k r 6k r
 2 B.Cs are needed to determine the 2 integration constants C 1 and C2.

ri
r r
0
ro ro
Hollow sphere Solid sphere
Coordinates for 1-D heat conduction: Sphere
Hollow sphere:
The B.Cs at inner and outer surfaces can be a
 Prescribed temperature
 Prescribed heat flux or
 A convective boundary condition
Solid sphere:
 A B.C can be specified for the outer surface, but another B.C is needed at the center of the
sphere
 Such a B.C is specified from the physical considerations of the temperature distribution in the
sphere
i.e., Physically meaningful solution requires that the temperature not be infinite at r = 0. This
condition is satisfied if,
T (r )  finiteat r  0 1
In 1-D, radial heat flow in a solid sphere, the temperature is symmetric about the center of the sphere.
With this consideration, an alternative B.C at r = 0, can be given as,
dT (r )
 0 at r  0 2
dr
Either of the B.Cs 1 or 2 at the center of the sphere can be used.

1. The inner surface at r = ri and the outer surface at r = ro of a hollow sphere are maintained at
uniform temperatures T1 and T2, respectively. The thermal conductivity ‘k’ of the solid is constant.
a) Develop an expression for the 1-D, steady-state temperature distribution T(r) in the sphere.
b) Develop an expression for the radial heat flow rate Q through the hollow sphere.
c) Develop an expression for the thermal resistance of a hollow sphere.
Solution: The mathematical formulation for this problem is,
d  2 dT (r ) 
r dr   0  1 for ri  r  ro
dr  
and T (r )  T1 at r  ri
T (r )  T2 at r  ro
Integrating equation 1 twice, we get,
dT (r ) C1 C1
 2 and T (r )    C2
dr r r
A simultaneous solution of these two equations gives,
ri ro roT2  riT1
C1   T1  T2  and C2 
ro  ri ro  ri
Applying the B.Cs at r = ri and r = ro, we get,

C1 C1
T1    C2 and T2    C2
ri ro
The temperature distribution T(r) becomes,
ri ro  r r r  ri
T (r )  T1  o T2
r ro  ri r ro  ri
The heat flow rate Q through the hollow sphere is determined from,
dT (r ) dT (r ) C1
Q  q(r ).Area  k 4r 2 or Q  4kC1 Since,  2
dr dr r
ri ro
Q  4k (T1  T2 )
Therefore, ro  ri

(T1  T2 ) ro  ri
Rearranging, Q where, R is the thermal resistance
R 4kri ro
2. A hollow sphere with inner surface at r = ri and the outer surface at r = ro is electrically heated at the
inner surface at a rate of q0 W/m2 and dissipates heat by convection from the outer surface into a
fluid at temperature T∞ with a heat transfer coefficient h. The thermal conductivity k of the soild is
constant and there is no energy generation.
a) Develop an expression for the determination of the inner and outer temperatures T1 and T2 of the
inner and outer surfaces of the sphere.
b) Calculate the surface temperatures T1 and T2 for ri = 3 cm and ro = 5 cm, h = 400 W/m 2.0C, T∞ =
1000C, k = 15 W/m. 0C and q0 = 105 W/m2.
Solution: Since there is no heat generation in the medium, the thermal resistance approach may be
used.
ri
r
0
Fluid flow
ro
at T∞, h
T1 T2 T∞
Q Q
R1 R2
T1  T2 T2  T
4ri 2 q0  
ro  ri 1
4kri ro 4ro 2 L
By equating the 1st and last term of the above expressions, we get,
 r ( r  r )  r 2 1 
T1   i o i   i   q0  T
 ro k  ro  h 
2
 ri  1
and equating 2nd and 3rd expressions, we get, T2    q0  T
 o
r h
By substituting the numerical, we get T1  2700 C and T2  1900 C

Composite medium:
 In many engineering applications heat transfer takes place through a medium composed of
several different layers, each having different thermal conductivity.
Ex.: a hot fluid flowing inside a tube covered with a uniform layer of thermal insulation. The
thermal conductivities of the tube metal and the insulation are different: hence environment
involves conduction through a composite medium consisting of two parallel concentric
cylinders.
Composite slab:
Ta
k1 k2 k3 Fluid flow
Tb, hb
T1
T2
T3
Fluid flow
Ta, ha T4
Tb
Q L1 L2 L3 Q
Ta T1 T2 T3 T4 Tb
Q Q
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
 Consider a composite wall consisting of three parallel layers in perfect thermal contact as
shown in figure.
 Consider, the heat flow rate Q through an area A of the slab.
 The equivalent thermal resistance concept is also shown in the figure.
By applying the thermal resistance concept, we can write,
Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4 T4  Tb
Q    
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Where various thermal resistances are defined as,
1 L1 L2 L3 1
Ra  , R1  , R2  , R3  and Rb 
Aha Ak1 Ak 2 Ak3 Ahb
By summing the numerators and the denominators of the individual ratios, we get,
Ta  Tb
Q W Where, R  Ra  R1  R2  R3  Rb
R

Since, the composite wall arrangement is a series arrangement; the individual thermal resistances are
connected in series.
A composite of two metals in parallel paths and the equivalent thermal resistance network:
A composite of two materials combined in parallel paths with the ends maintained at uniform
temperatures T1 and T2.
The total heat transfer rate ‘Q’

A1 k1
through this parallel arrangement
T1 T2
is given by,
A2 k2
T1  T2
Q
R
L
R1 
k1A 1
T1 T2
Q Q The equivalent parallel resistance
is,
L 1 1 1 Ak Ak
R2     1 1 2 2
k2 A2 R R1 R2 L L
Equivalent thermal resistance network approximating heat flow through a composite wall as 1-D heat
flow:
A composite wall of several different materials arranged in parallel and series paths.
Insulated
B RB
T1 RA RC RE T2
T1 A E T2 Q Q
C
RD
Insulated

Assumptions:
Flow path is approximated as 1-D, only if all the materials have the same thermal conductivity the heat
flow is truly 1-D and the analysis becomes exact,
Otherwise, a 2-D analysis is necessary unless ‘k’ in the composite do not differ significantly.
1. A1 = 0.2 m2, k1 = 20 W/m.K, A2 = 0.4 m2, k2 = 150 W/m.K, L = 0.5 m, T1 = 1500C, T2 = 300C.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer Q across the composite medium.
1 1 1 Ak Ak T1  T2
   1 1 2 2 Q  2400W
R R1 R2 L L R
Composite coaxial cylinders:
 Consider a composite cylinder structure consisting of three coaxial layers in perfect thermal
contact as shown in figure.
T4
T3
T2
T1
r2
Ta r3
k3 k2 k1 ha
r1
r4
Tb, hb
Ta T1 T2 T3 T4 Tb
Q Q
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb

 A hot fluid at a temperature Ta flows inside the tube, and heat is transferred to the tube wall
with ha. On the outside, heat transfer takes place from the exterior surface of the tube to a cold
fluid at Tb and hb.
 The total Q from the hot to the cold fluid over length L of the cylindrical structure is the same
through each layer and is given be:
Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4 T4  Tb
Q    
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
Where,
1 1 r 1 r 1 r 1
Ra  , R1  ln 2 , R2  ln 3 , R3  ln 4 and Rb 
2r1Lha 2Lk1 r1 2Lk2 r2 2Lk3 r3 2r4 Lhb
Ta  Tb
R
Since, the composite coaxial cylinder arrangement is a series arrangement; the individual thermal
resistances are connected in series.
1. A steel tube with 50 mm inside diameter, 76 mm outside diameter and thermal conductivity 15
W/m.K is covered with an insulative covering of thickness 20 mm and thermal conductivity 0.2
W/m.K. A hot gas at temperature of 3300C and heat transfer coefficient of 400 W/m 2.K flows inside
the tube. The outer surface of the insulation is exposed to cooler air at 300C with heat transfer
coefficient of 60 W/m2.K.
a) Calculate the heat loss from the tube to the air for 10 m length of the tube.
b) Calculate the temperature drop resulting from the thermal resistances of the hot gas flow, the
steel tube, insulation layer and the outside air.
Solution: The radial heat flow through the tube is given by,
Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  Tb
Q   
Ra R1 R2 Rb
Ta  Tb
Q W Where, R  Ra  R1  R2  Rb
R
Where,
1
Ra 
2r1Lha
1 r
R1  ln 2
2Lk1 r1

1 r
R2  ln 3
2Lk2 r2
1
Rb 
2r4 Lhb
Q  7521 W
Various temperature drops are,
Thotgas  Ta  T1  QRa  120 C Ttubewall  T1  T2  QR1  330 C
Tinsulation  T2  T3  QR2  2530 C Toutsideair  T3  Tb  QRb  31.70 C
Composite concentric spheres:
 Figure shows a composite sphere consisting of three concentric layers.
 The interior and exterior surfaces are subjected to heat exchange by convection with fluids at
constant temperatures Ta and Tb, with h a and hb respectively.
T4
T3
T2
T1
r2
Ta r3
k3 k2 k1 ha
r1
r4
Tb, hb
Ta T1 T2 T3 T4 Tb
Q Q
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb
The total radial heat flow Q through the sphere is,
Ta  T1 T1  T2 T2  T3 T3  T4 T4  Tb
Q    
Ra R1 R2 R3 Rb

Where,
1 1 r2  r1 1 r3  r2 1 r4  r3 1
Ra  , R1  , R2  , R3  and Rb 
4r12 ha 4k1 r2 r1 4k2 r3 r2 4k3 r4 r3 4r42 hb
Ta  Tb
R
Thermal contact resistance:
Consider 1-D heat flow through a composite medium consisting of two bars brought into contact with
lateral surfaces insulated.
Insulated
T1 T2 Solid 1
Solid 2
Solid 1
Q Q
Solid 2
Insulated
T
T1 TC1
Temperature drop across a contact
∆T resistance
TC2
T2
x
The temperature profile through the solids experience a sudden drop across the interface between the
two materials is the result of thermal contact resistance.
Physical Significance:
 Thermal contact resistance is better understood by examining an enlarged view of an interface

as shown in figure.
 The direct contact between the solid surfaces takes place at a limited number of spots, and
 The voids between them usually are filled with air or the surrounding fluid.

 Heat transfer through the fluid filling the voids is mainly by conduction, because there is no
convection in such a thin layer of fluid and the radiation effects are negligible at normal
temperatures.
i.e., the heat transfer across the interface takes place entirely by conduction through both the thin
layer filling the voids and the spots in direct metal-to-metal contact. If the thermal conductivity of the
fluid is less than that of the solids, the interface acts as a resistance to heat flow; referred to as the
thermal contact resistance.
Critical thickness of insulation:
 Consider a small-diameter tube, cable or wire, has approximately constant temperature at the
outside surface and dissipates heat by convection into the surrounding air.
 Suppose the surface is covered with a layer of insulation.
 In some situations the addition of insulation increases the heat loss until a critical thickness of
insulation at which the energy loss becomes maximum.
 Further addition of insulation beyond the critical thickness starts to decrease the energy loss.
 Therefore, this critical thickness can be used to increase the cooling of a cable, wire or tube.
 However, if the insulation is added to reduce the heat loss from a tube, it is essential that the
thickness of the insulation added be larger than the critical thickness of the insulation.
Cylinder: To develop a relation for the critical thickness of insulation:
 Consider a circular tube of radius ri maintained at a uniform temperature Ti and covered with a
layer of insulation of radius ro as shown in figure.

ri Convection into
Ti an ambient
at T∞, h
ro
 Heat is dissipated by convection from the outside surface of the insulation into an ambient at
temperature T∞ with a heat transfer coefficient h0.
The rate of heat loss Q from the tube is given by,
Ti  T Ti  T
Q  W 1
Rins  Ro 1 r 1
ln o 
2kL ri 2ro Lho
Ti  T
i.e., Q
Rtotal
If ‘L’ is the tube length and ‘k’ is the thermal conductivity of the insulation, the thermal resistances R ins
and Ro of the insulation and the convection at the outer surface are,
1 r 1
Rins  ln o and Ro 
2kL ri 2ro Lho
 Now, assume that Ti , T , k, L, h0 , and ri remain constant and ro is allowed to vary [i.e.,
ro  ri ] [Insulation thickness is ro  ri ]
 We note that as ro increases, the thermal resistance Ro decreases but Rins increases.
 Therefore Q may have a maximum for a certain value of ro  roc .
 Critical value of the radius roc is determined by differentiating equation 1 with respect to r o and
setting the resulting expression equal to zero.
Ti  T 2kL(Ti  T )
i.e., Q  
1 r 1 r k
ln o  ln o 
2kL ri 2ro Lho ri ro ho

dQ 2kL(Ti  T )  1 k 
 2 
 2 
0 2
dro  ro k   ro ho ro 
ln  
 ri ro ho 
The solution of equation 2 for ro, gives the critical radius roc of insulation at which the heat transfer rate
is maximum.
k
i.e., roc  3
ho
or
Objective: Decrease Q, increase Rtotal
 Vary ro: As ro >, 1st term > and 2nd term < in expression for Rtotal
 This is a maximum-minimum problem.
 The point of extrema can be found by setting
dRtotal d  1 r 1 
  ln o  
dro dro  2kL ri 2ro Lho 
1 1 k
i.e.,  0 or ro 
2kLro 2ho Lro2 ho
Physical significance: In practice,
 If the radius is greater than the critical radius defined by equation 3, any addition of insulation
on the tube surface decreases the heat loss, as one expects.
 But if the radius is less than the critical radius, as in small diameter tubes, cables or wires the
heat loss will increase continuously with the addition of insulation until the radius of the outer
surface of the insulation equals the critical radius.
 The heat loss becomes maximum at the critical thickness of insulation and begins and begins
to decrease with the addition of insulation beyond the critical radius.
Sphere:
Insulation thickness: ro  ri
ri T∞, h
2k
Ti rcr 
ro ho

Note: If the effect of thermal radiation at the outer surface is considered, then ho  hc  hr
Where, hc = heat transfer coefficient component of convection
hr = heat transfer coefficient component of radiation
k
Then, rcr  for a cylinder
hc  hr
2k
rcr  for a sphere
hc  hr
In order to determine if it is a maxima or a minima, we make the 2 nd derivative zero:
d 2 Rtotal k
0 at ro 
dro2 ho
d 2Rtotal 1 1 ho2
i.e.,    0
dro2
2kLro ho Lro2
2
ro 
k 2Lk 3
ho
k
Minimum Q at ro   rcr (critical radius )
ho
Rtotal
Good for
Good for steam pipes,
k
electrical rcr  etc.
cables h
ro
Summary of Electrical analogy:
System Current Resistance Potential Difference
Electrical I R ∆V

Conduction in L
Q ∆T
Cartesian coordinates kA
Conduction in r
ln roi
Q ∆T
Cylindrical coordinates 2kL
ro  ri
Conduction Through Sphere Q ∆T
4ro ri k
1
Convection Q ∆T
hA

Heat and Mass Transfer

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Heat and Mass Transfer

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AU404 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER: Unit – 2

 Application of 1-D steady-state heat conduction problems to determine temperature distribution

 The concept of ‘thermal resistance’, analogous to electric resistance, is introduced to solve 1-

2.1 The slab:

Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201. 1

2 Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201.

Where, C1 and C2 are integration constants.

For a slab in the region 0  x  L,

 One boundary condition (B.C) is assigned for the surface at x = 0 and

 Another for the surface at x = L.

The boundary conditions can be

 Prescribed heat flux, or

 Convection boundary condition

a) Develop an expression for the temperature distribution T(x) in the slab.

The mathematical formulation of 1_D heat conduction is

T1 T2 Integrating twice, we get

Applying the B.C’s,

Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201. 3

The concept is analogous to electric resistance in Ohm’s law.

4 Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201.

Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201. 5

Heat flow Q is by,

 Convection from fluid 1 to the surface of the plate at x = 0,

 Conduction through the plate, and

 Convection from the surface at x = L, to fluid 2

By adding numerators and denominators of the above equation, we get

Where, the total thermal resistance to heat flow Rtotal is,

6 Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201.

 The mathematical formulation of this heat conduction problem is given by,

Integrating equation 1, once,

Applying the B.C at x = 0, we get, C1  0

Integrating equation 1, twice, with C1  0 , we get,

 1st term on the RHS is due to energy generation in the solid

T (0)  5000 C and T (L )  3000 C

8 Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201.

 Heat dissipation from a current-carrying wire.

 Heat flow across a thick-walled circular tube.

which is valid over the cylindrical region.

 For constant energy generation, g0,

Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201. 9

The 1st and 2nd integration of equation 3, give respectively,

 2 B.Cs are needed to determine the 2 integration constants C 1 and C2.

Solid cylinder Hollow cylinder

Coordinates for 1-D heat conduction: Cylinder

The B.Cs at inner and outer surfaces can be a

 Prescribed heat flux or

 A convective boundary condition

10 Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201.

Either of the B.Cs 1 or 2 at the center of the cylinder can be used.

The mathematical expression is given as,

Integrating the equation 1, twice, we get,

Substituting the B.Cs, we get,

Therefore, the temperature distribution T(r) in the cylinder is,

Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201. 11

By substituting the numerical, we get, T (0)  3500 C and q( r0 )  106 W / m 2

12 Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201.

b) Develop an expression for the thermal resistance of a hollow cylinder of length L.

The mathematical formulation for this problem is,

Integrating equation 1 twice, we get,

A simultaneous solution of these two equations gives,

The heat flow rate Q over a length L of the cylinder is,

Dr. M.K.Ravishankar, Professor, AED, MCE, Hassan – 573 201. 13

When, Ai  2ri L = Area of inner surface of the cylinder