Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

MODULE Chemistry: The Study of Change

The study of chemistry is interesting for many reasons. It explains events in nature,
it touches nearly every aspect of human life, and it plays a vital role in the daily
activities we do at home or elsewhere. Chemistry has been called the central science
because it is essential to the study of other sciences. Like all other sciences, the study of
chemistry is fun.
This module includes:
a. Lesson 1: The Study of Chemistry
b. Lesson 2: Laboratory Safety
c. Lesson 3: Scientific Method
d. Lesson 4: Measurement in Chemistry
e. Lesson 5: Classifications of Matter
f. Lesson 6: Properties of Matter

LESSON 1: THE STUDY OF CHEMISTRY

Take a look of the things around you. What do you see? Perhaps, you are seeing
colorful vehicles passing by you. As you are inside your classroom, have you noticed
rubber shoes, plastic chairs, glass windows, ribbons, pants and school uniforms and
many others? Do you also have school supplies such as ballpen, paper, bags and
crayons? Think also of your personal toiletries you need as you go to school – soap,
deodorant, perfume and toothpaste or even the food you eat for your breakfast. These
and more are products of Chemistry.
Chemistry plays a very important role in our daily lives. Humans’ basic needs
have been satisfied by chemistry. For instance, in our house, chemistry is normally
involved such as in the foods that we need. Moreover, the different appliances we
have, which give us comfort, are all products of chemistry.
Farmers also make use of the knowledge of chemistry in dealing with their
farming practices such as in selecting the fertilizer to be used. The pesticides that are
used can be effectively ultilized in exterminating the harmful pests.
However, science does not only bring good. It may also offer various problems.
For example, the comfort that transportation gives us is also equated by the fact right
now that we are experiencing the effects of pollution.

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

And all the food that a sweet tooth craves for could also lead to the incidences
of heart attack and cancers.
Human needs fall and are divided into several areas: food, health and medicine,
transportation, communication, population control, and many others. All these areas
are strongly influenced by the study of chemistry.

Branches of Chemistry

During the 1700s and early 1800s, most chemists believed that there were two
main branches of chemistry: organic and inorganic. These two branches still exist
today, however, the rules governing their classification have changed.

1. Organic Chemistry is the study of the compounds of carbon. This branch of

chemistry is important to the petrochemical, pharmaceutical and textile industries.
All living organisms have traces of carbon.

2. Inorganic Chemistry is the study of chemical elements and their compounds except
carbon.

3. Other branches:

a. Physical Chemistry deals with the relations between the physical properties of
substances and their chemical formations along with their changes.

b. Biochemistry is a science that fused biology and chemistry. It is concerned

with the composition and chemical reactions that occur in the formation of
living species.

c. Analytical Chemistry deals mostly with the composition of substances. It seeks

to improve means of measuring chemical composition of natural and
artificial materials. In medicine, this is the basis for clinical laboratory tests for
disease diagnosis. The nutritional value of the food we eat is determined
through chemical analysis. Analytical chemists analyze many household
products.

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

LESSON 2: LABORATORY SAFETY

Laboratory Apparatus and Equipment

When you think of chemists at work, you probably imagine them in a modern
laboratory with test tubes, other delicate instruments, apparatus, and bottles of strange
substances.
You’re right! In the laboratory, you can find different laboratory apparatus. The
Science laboratory is a place of adventure and discovery. Some of the most exciting
events in scientific history have happened in the laboratory. The discovery of the
atoms, the production of plastics for clothing, the analysis of chemicals of substances,
and other discoveries were first made by chemists in a laboratory. But all these things
could never have happened if there were no equipment and devices. Different
laboratory apparatus served their purposes. Here are some of the laboratory
equipment and their uses.

Group I: Some apparatus used for STORING LIQUIDS

Beaker Reagent bottles Florence Flask

a deep wide mouthed, a vessel used to contain a round, flat-bottomed, long
thin-walled, cylindrical chemicals that are mixed or necked vessel used to
vessel with a pouring lip added with other substances measure large quantities of
used to measure large to bring about chemical liquid and to hold boiling
quantities of liquid; can reactions to form new liquids
also be used to store or substances or compounds.
contain liquid mixtures
Group I: Some apparatus used for STORING LIQUIDS

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

Erlenmeyer Flask Volumetric Flask Test Tubes in a Rack

a cone-shaped vessel with
a narrow flat bottom used
to measure volume of
liquid; also serves as
receiver and stores liquid
that is to be kept for further
analysis
a flat-bottom vessel with long
neck container used to store
liquids or solutions for
observation; can also be
used to measure volume of
volatile liquids
small, glass-tube shaped
containers that are closed
and round at the bottom
with open end used to mix,
heat and store small
amounts of liquids and
substances.

Group II: Some apparatus used for MEASURING VOLUME

Graduated Cylinder Pipette & Burette Medicine Dropper

a narrow cylindrical vessel Pipette - used to transfer a small glass or plastic tube
used to measure the small amount of liquid of with rubber bulb at one end
volume of liquids and the known volume to another that is used to suck up liquid
volume of irregular solids container and release it one drop at a
by water displacement Burette - a glass tube with time
measurements marked on
the side and a stopcock at
the bottom, used to
accurately measure the
volume of liquid before
releasing it in another
container.
Group III: Apparatus used when HEATING SUBSTANCES

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

Wire Gauze Iron Ring Iron Clamp

used to protect the used as base to hold the wire used to hold the test tube,
glassware during the gauze and any other distilling flask, and other
heating process. container to be heated apparatus to be heated

Iron Stand Bunsen Burner Clay Triangle

supports the iron ring and A burner that produces hot Supports the crucible on an
iron clamp during heating, flame by mixing flammable iron ring when heating
distillation and other gas under pressure through
extraction purposes controlled quantities of air.

Crucible Tong Crucible and cover Evaporating Dish

a tool used to hold hot a heat resistant containera shallow heat resistant
materials or apparatus with cover in which ores or
porcelain dish in which a
materials are melted solution is heated and
allowed to evaporate
leaving a residue on its plate
Group IV: OTHER LABORATORY APPARATUS

Watch Glass Test Tube Brush Test Tube Holder

A rounded-bottom circular Used to clean small-mouthed Holds the test tube while

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

plate where chemical containers like test-tubes heating or during an

reactions are being experiment
observed

Spatula Funnel Mortar and Pestle

a shallow round crystal or
glass dish used to hold small
amounts of substances to be
tested for a reaction
a cone-shaped tool with Used to grind, pound and
large opening at the top mash solid substances into
and a small opening or tube powder form
at the bottom used to guide
liquids and other substances
through a small opening;
used to hold filter paper
during filtration

Laboratory Safety Precautions

Science is a hands-on laboratory class. You will be doing many laboratory
activities that require the use of different apparatus and hazardous chemicals. Safety
in the science classroom is the number one priority for students and teachers. To ensure
a safe science classroom, a list of rules has been developed. These rules must be
followed at all times. The science laboratory is a safe place to work in if you are
careful.
Following are some safety precautions to help you protect yourself from injury in
the laboratory while doing the experiment. Read and understand them to insure your
safety before, during, and after doing an experiment.

A. Inside the Laboratory

1. Do not eat food, drink beverages, or chew gum in the laboratory. Do not use
laboratory glassware as containers for food or beverages.

2. Safety goggles and aprons must be worn whenever you work in the lab. Gloves
should be worn whenever you use chemicals that cause skin irritations or when you
need to handle hot equipment.
3. Observe good housekeeping practices. Work areas should be kept clean and tidy
at all times.

4. Know the locations and operating procedures of all safety equipment including the
first aid kit, eyewash station, safety shower, spill kit, fire extinguisher, and fire blanket.
Know where the fire alarm and the exits are located.
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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

5. Be alert and proceed with caution at all times in the laboratory. Notify the instructor
immediately of any unsafe conditions you observe.

6. Dispose all chemical waste properly. Never mix chemicals in sink drains. Sinks are to
be used only for water and those solutions designated by the instructor. Solid
chemicals, metals, matches, filter paper, and all other insoluble materials are to be
disposed of in the proper waste containers.

7. Labels and equipment instructions must be read carefully before use.

8. Keep hands away from your face, eyes, mouth, and body while using
chemicals. Wash your hands with soap and water after performing all
experiments. Clean (with detergent powder), rinse, and dry all work surfaces and
equipment at the end of the experiment.

9. If you spill acid or any other corrosive chemical on you skin or clothes, immediately
wash the area with large amounts of water (remember that small amounts of water
may be worse than no water at all). After this, get the teacher’s attention. The spill
kit will be used for spills on floor or counter-top.

10. After doing an experiment check if: a) the main gas outlet valve is shut off b) the
water is turned off c) the desk top, floor area, and sink are clean d) all equipment
are cool, clean, and arranged properly.

B. Clothing

1. Wear goggles or eye protector if necessary.

2. Dress properly during a laboratory activity. Long hair, dangling jewelry, and loose or
baggy clothing are a hazard in the laboratory. Wear an apron. Shoes must
completely cover the foot.

C. Accidents and Injuries

1. Report any accident or any untoward incident to your teacher.

2. If a chemical should splash in your eye(s), immediately flush with running water from
the eyewash station for at least 20 minutes. Notify your teacher immediately.

D. Handling Chemicals

1. All chemicals in the laboratory are to be considered dangerous. Do not touch,

taste, or smell any chemical unless specifically instructed to do so. The proper
technique for smelling chemical fumes is to gently fan the air above the chemical
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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

toward your face.

2. Check the label on reagent bottles twice before removing any of the contents.
Take only as much chemical as you need. Smaller amounts often work better than
larger amounts. Label all containers and massing papers holding dry chemicals.

3. Never return unused chemicals to their original containers.

4. Acids must be handled with extreme care. ALWAYS ADD ACID SLOWLY TO WATER,
with slow stirring and swirling, being careful of the heat produced, particularly with
sulfuric acid.

5. Handle flammable hazardous liquids over a pan to contain spills. Never dispense
flammable liquids anywhere near an open flame or source of heat.

E. Handling Glassware and Equipment

1. Inserting and removing glass tubing from rubber stoppers can be dangerous.
Always lubricate glassware (tubing, thistle tubes, thermometers, etc.) before
attempting to insert it in a stopper. Always protect your hands with towels or cotton
gloves when inserting glass tubing into, or removing it from, a rubber stopper. If a
piece of glassware becomes "frozen" in a stopper, take it to your instructor for
removal.

2. When removing an electrical plug from its socket, grasp the plug, not the electrical
cord. Hands must be completely dry before touching an electrical switch, plug, or
outlet.

3. Examine glassware before each use. Never use chipped or cracked glassware.
Never use dirty glassware. Do not immerse hot glassware in cold water; it may
shatter.

4. Report damaged electrical equipment immediately. Look for things such as frayed
cords, exposed wires, and loose connections. Do not use damaged electrical
equipment.

F. Heating Substances

1. SHOULD THE FLAME OF THE BUNSEN BURNER GO OUT, IMMEDIATELY TURN OFF THE GAS
AT THE GAS OUTLET VALVE. If you wish to turn off the burner, do so by turning off the
gas at the gas outlet valve first, then close the needle valve and barrel. Never reach
over an exposed flame. Light gas burners only as instructed by the teacher.

2. Never leave a lit burner unattended. Never leave anything that is being heated or
is visibly reacting unattended. Always turn the burner or hot plate off when not in
use.
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 Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

3. Do not point the open end of a test tube being heated at yourself or anyone else.

4. Heated metals, glass, and ceramics remain very hot for a long time. They should be
set aside to cool and then picked up with caution. Use crucible tongs or heat-
protective gloves if necessary. Determine if an object is hot by bringing the back of
your hand close to it prior to grasping it.

Laboratory Safety Symbols

The idea of using symbols is to transmit information regarding your safety inside
the laboratory clearly and easily. The safety symbols that will be presented in this
module are the most familiar ones. These symbols are accompanied by explanations.

SAFETY SYMBOLS HAZARD EXAMPLES PRECAUTION

Chemicals, broken
Special disposal glass, living Dispose of wastes
DISPOSAL considerations organisms such as as directed by
required bacterial cultures, your teacher
protests, etc.

Avoid skin contact

Organisms or with organisms or
Bacteria, fungus,
organic materials material. Wear
BIOLOGICAL blood, raw organs,
that can harm dust mask or
plant material
humans gloves. Wash
hands thoroughly
Use proper
protection when
Boiling liquids, hot
Objects that can handling. Remove
plates, liquid
EXTREME HEAT burn skin by being flammables from
nitrogen, dry ice,
too cold or too hot the area around
all burners
open flames or
spark sources

Practice common
Use of tools or Razor blade,
sense behavior
glassware that can scalpel, nails, push
SHARP OBJECT and follow
easily puncture or pins, etc.
guidelines for use
slice skin
of the tool

Potential danger Ammonia, heating Make sure there is

FUME
to olfactory tract sulfur, moth balls, good ventilation

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 Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

SAFETY SYMBOLS HAZARD EXAMPLES PRECAUTION

from fumes nail polish and never smell
remover, acetone, fumes directly
any volatile
substances

Double-check
Possible danger Improper setup with
ELECTRICAL from electrical grounding, liquid instructor. Check
shock or burn spills, short circuits condition of wires
and apparatus

SAFETY SYMBOLS HAZARD EXAMPLES PRECAUTION

Substances (acids Acid such as
and bases) that vinegar,
can react with hydrochloric acid, Wear goggles and
CORROSIVE
and destroy tissue hydrogen an apron
and other peroxide, sodium
materials hydroxide, soap
Poisonous
Follow your
substances that
Mercury, many teacher
can be acquired
metal compounds, instructions. Always
TOXIC through skin
iodine, poinsettia wash hands
absorption,
leaves thoroughly after
inhalation, or
use
ingestion
Be careful in
Radioactive Uranium, thorium,
handling. Notify
substances such as plutonium and
RADIOACTIVE your teacher of
uranium and other elements
spills or excess
plutonium that emit radiation
substances
Combustible Avoid heat and
Alcohol, powders,
materials that may flame sources. Be
kerosene,
FLAMMABLE ignite if exposed to aware of locations
potassium
an open flame or of fire safety
permanganate
spark equipment
Always wash your
hands after
HYGIENE
completing an
experiment.

LESSON 3: SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The problem in any experiment can solved step by step. The step-by-step

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

approach is what we call SCIENTIFIC METHOD. It is a systematic way of problem solving

used by scientists.

The basic steps in the scientific method are:

1. STATING THE PROBLEM – identifying or knowing what you want to investigate

or study

2. GATHERING INFORMATION ON THE PROBLEM – jotting down important data or

information gathered through observations

3. FORMING HYPOTHESIS – hypothesis is an educated guess. Forming this would

help you find out what the answer to your problem might be.

4. PERFORMING EXPERIMENTS TO TEST HYPOTHESIS – design and carry out an

experiment to test your hypothesis. Observe everything you can. The smallest
detail can sometimes be the most significant.

5. RECORDING AND ANALYZING DATA – interpret and evaluate the information

gathered. Do calculations if needed to come up with your conclusion

6. STATING A CONCLUSION – this answers the problem stated. If the problem is

still unsolved, try a new approach or perform another experiment. Repeat the
steps from the beginning until a solution may become clear.

Scientists run an experiment setup and a control setup to make sure the results of
the experiment were caused by the variable and not by some hidden factors.

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

LESSON 4: MEASUREMENTS IN CHEMISTRY

Using your senses, you can make qualitative observation of any event or
phenomenon. Such observation merely describes the characteristics being perceived
by the senses, such as being large, heavy, or being black. Their accuracy, however,
may be made by using measuring instruments that give more accurate observation,
which is quantitative in nature. For instance, to say that A is bigger than B is not enough,
but by using measurements, exact difference between the two sizes could be
determined.

The International System of Units or System International (SI) is used in scientific

work and in everyday measurements in many parts of the world.

Table 1. Units in the SI System

Quantity Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Mole mol
Substance
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd

LESSON 5: CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Have you been to SM super mall, Robinson’s department store, Walter Mart’s
furniture shop, or any mall near your area? Do you know that going to the mall is very
much like going to the market? People go to market (or to the mall) to buy stuff like
chicken, fish, meat, eggs, vegetables, noodles, clothes, shampoo, oil, vinegar, puto,
detergent and many other things that are basic to our everyday life. In science, these
numerous things around us that we see, use and even eat are referred to as matter. Do
you want to know more about matter?

Matter is anything that occupies space, has mass and volume. The mass of
any matter is the amount of material that it is composed of. The space it occupies is
what we call volume.

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 Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

Chemistry is one of the branches of physical sciences that deals with the study of
matter and its changes. Thus, the numerous kinds of matter around us are the same
things that chemists study. Due to the enormous variety of matter, chemists realized the
need to group them together so that it would be easier to study them as groups rather
than as individuals. How can we group samples of matter together?

MATTER

Pure Substance Mixture

Homogeneous
Suspension Colloid Solution

Element
Heterogeneous Homogeneous

Metal Metalloid Nonmetal

Compound

Inorganic Organic Acid Base Neutral

The classification of Matter

Matter is generally divided into two: pure substances and mixtures. Pure
substances are the simplest type of matter that is always homogeneous. If we say
homogeneous, there is only a single phase being observed because of the uniformity
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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

and its fixed composition. Substances are composed of one atom or one molecule.
They also have definite boiling point and melting point.

Pure substances may be elements or compounds. Elements are said to be the

building blocks of matter. It cannot be broken down into simpler substances simply
because it is the simplest form of matter. To date, there are about 116 elements. Most
of these elements are naturally occurring and only a small percentage of elements are
man-made. But with the advent of new technology, more and more elements are
being synthesized inside the laboratory.

The periodic table of elements gives us various information regarding the simplest
form of matter. The elements in the table are arranged according to increasing atomic
number.

Examine the periodic table below. Did you notice the lines that look like a
ladder?

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

The ladder helps us to distinguish the location of the metals and nonmetals in the
periodic table. Metals, nonmetals and metalloids are classifications of elements.
Remember that the elements to the right of the ladder are nonmetals whereas those to
the left are metals. This will give you an idea that 75% of the elements are metals. On
the other hand, the metalloids or semi-metals are those in the ladder.

What makes the distinction between metals and nonmetals? Metals are typically
hard, shiny and lustrous, ductile, malleable, conducts heat and electricity, have high
melting and boiling points, are mostly solids at room temperature, have high density
and can be found at the leftmost portion of the periodic table.

On the other hand, non-metals are generally soft, non-conductors, have low
density, have low melting and boiling and melting points, are gases at room
temperature and are at the right of the periodic table.

Meanwhile, those which exhibit the properties of both metals and nonmetals are
called metalloids. They usually conduct electricity at higher temperature.

Element + Element = Compound?

Does the combination of an element plus an element always result to a

compound? No, it doesn’t! Why? If two metals are just physically combined, it will
result to the formation of an alloy. Alloy is not a compound; it is just a mixture because it
is just a physical combination of two pure substances, in this case - elements. So, how
then do we describe a compound? A compound is a combination of elements. This is
right! But remember that a compound is a chemical combination of two or more
elements. A chemical combination results to a formation of a new substance. What
does this mean? To elaborate, let us take sodium chloride (NaCl) or table salt as our
example.

Table salt is made up of two elements namely: sodium and chlorine. Sodium is a
very reactive metal. Once you have placed even a pea-size of this metal in water, a
violent reaction occurs! On the other hand, chlorine exists as chlorine gas, which is
used as a warfare gas during the war. This implies that it is as well a “not-so-friendly”
substance. But when a chemical combination transpires between the two, it would
result to the formation of a new substance. And this new substance has a new set of
characteristics that are quite different from the characteristics of the elements
comprising it.

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

Compounds, unlike with elements, can be divided still. However, chemical

means make it possible for compounds to be separated.

Compounds can be grouped as organic and inorganic. Organic compounds

are principally composed of carbon such as CO2 while inorganic compounds are not
composed of carbon atoms.

Compounds can also be classified as acids, bases, or salts. Acid generally tastes
sour. It turns the blue litmus paper to red. It is formed when non-metallic oxide is placed
in water. Acids react with metal to evolve hydrogen. It reacts with base to form salt and
water. Bases are usually bitter and have slippery and soapy feeling. They turn red litmus
paper to blue. They are formed when metallic oxide is placed in water. They react with
acid to form salt and water. On the other hand, the combination of metal and
nonmetal produces salt or neutral compounds.

What is a Mixture?

A Collage of the Different Samples of Mixture

Mayonnaise, ink, glue, muddy water, air, smoke and chopsuey have one thing in
common. They are all examples of mixture! Mixtures are physical combinations of two
or more substances with different compositions. Because of this, mixtures have varied
boiling and melting points. They are either homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Mixtures can be further grouped into three, namely: solution, colloid, and
suspension. Sugar solution (sugar and water) is an example of a solution whereas
mothballs in water is a suspension. On the other hand, the mixture of oil, water, and
egg yolk is an example of a colloid.

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

Among the types of mixtures, only colloids exhibit Tyndall effect that is best
described as the scattering of light. This characteristic of colloid is responsible for the
magnificent view that one can see when sunlight penetrates a cloud cover.

The particles of salt are too small to be seen by the

naked eye. These particles are also uniformly distributed in
water thus a homogeneous single phase is yielded. Because
of the smallness of the particles, the beam of light just passed
through them. The beam of light is not that visible. Thus,
scattering of light is not exhibited by solutions.

The particles of suspension (i.e. sand in water) are

relatively large and are visible to the naked eye. These particles usually settle on
standing, which is a proof that it is influenced by gravity. Moreover, the rate of settling is
dependent on particle size. Between coarse and fine sand, the former is expected to
settle at a faster rate than the latter. Since suspension has more than one distinct
phase, this kind of mixture is considered heterogeneous. Now, what happens to light as
it passes through a sample of suspension? Right! The light is blocked due to the
relatively large size of the particles of suspension. Thus, just like solution, suspension does
not demonstrate Tyndall effect.

Aside from sand in water, halo-halo, sinigang

and bulalo are other examples of suspension.

The particle size of colloids is intermediate

between solution and suspension. It is not as small as
the particles of solution but not as big as the particles of suspension. Generally, the
colloidal particles are ten to 100 times bigger than that of the particles of solution. The
typical range of the colloidal particle size is from about 1 nm (nanometer) to 1000 nm.
These particles are evenly distributed or dispersed in another substance and unlike
suspension, the particles do not settle on standing. This is because the colloidal
particles are charged and they carry the same charge. As such, they repel one
another and they do not combine to form particles that are large enough to
precipitate

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

The size of the colloidal particles gives colloids some unique characteristics that
can be used to distinguish them from solutions. One of which is Tyndall effect. Notice
that the beam of light that passes through the sample of colloid becomes visible. The
light also becomes wider! Why is this so? The light is partially scattered and reflected by
the evenly distributed colloidal particles. Thus, only colloid exhibits Tyndall effect.

Aside from glue, mayonnaise, gelatin and marshmallow are some examples of
colloids. Based from these examples, it would appear that colloids are homogeneous
but actually they are not. Just like suspension, colloid is made up of more than one
distinguishable phase and as such it is also heterogeneous. However, the
distinguishable phases of matter in colloid
can only be seen under the microscope
since, as earlier described, the colloidal
particles are small as well.

Picture of a beam of light that passes through

a sample of colloid

Separating Mixtures

How did you separate the green from the yellow

mongo seeds? Very good! The best way to separate
them is through hand picking. Hand picking is considered
as one of the methods of separating components of a
mixture. Can you think of other mixtures that can be
separated by the said method?..... What about halo-
halo? How would you be separating the components of
halo-halo? Would you resort to hand picking?
Somewhat similar to hand picking can be used, but
instead of using your bare hands, a utensil, e.g. spoon,
can be used. Thus, the process is known as scooping.

Simple Distillation Set-up

(Adapted from:http://www.saskschools.ca/curr_content/
science10/images/distillation.gif)

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Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

What about if you have a mixture of a metallic and a nonmetallic substance?

How will you separate them? Let us say that you have pulverized charcoal combined
with very small pieces of copper wire, how will you separate these components? Will
you be using hand picking or scooping? Of course not! What can you use to separate
the two? Right! You may use a magnet. Since one component is metallic and the
other is nonmetallic, then the magnet will only be attracting the copper wire, and
presto! The pulverized charcoal will be left in the container.

Salt solution can be separated by evaporation. However, a more appropriate

method can be used to separate its components. This method is known as distillation.
Just like evaporation, distillation is also used to separate solids that are soluble in a
liquid.

At the right is a simple distillation set-up that you can do when you go back to
school. Notice that in the set-up, the test tube containing the solution is covered with a
cork/rubber stopper. The stopper has a hole in the center and inserted in the hole is a
glass tubing. The glass tubing maybe connected to a rubber tubing which in turn is
placed in another test tube. The second test tube, which is the receiving container, is
submerged in a beaker with cold water.

Why should the set-up be like this? Let us say that the first test tube contains salt
solution. When heat is applied to the first test tube, the water in the solution will
evaporate. Since the test tube is covered, the water vapor will not be able to escape
and instead it will be directed towards the glass tubing and eventually into the second
test tube. The second test tube is immersed in cold water thus the temperature of
water vapor is lowered until it condenses back to the liquid phase. So, in the second
test tube you are able to get back the water. And when all the water in the solution
evaporated, what will be left in the first test tube is the salt.

Caution: You can do this activity in school! Make sure that the heat is applied
evenly in the first test tube or else the test tube may crack. Use only Pyrex test tubes
and make sure that you seek for your teacher’s consent and supervision when doing
this activity!

Earlier, it was mentioned that distillation is a more appropriate method in

separating the components of salt solution. Why? In distillation, you can recover both
the salt and the water!

Mixtures that are made up of insoluble solids in a liquid can be separated by

filtration or decantation. Examples of mixtures that can be separated by the said
processes are muddy water and sand in water.

19 A Property of
Mr. Rexon A. Erasmo, Jr.
Instructor
Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

You can do this at home! Try this and have fun!

How is decantation done? For instance, you have sand in water. To separate
the components of this mixture, let the sand settle down. When all the particles have
settled down, carefully pour off the liquid into another container. And presto, you will
be able to get back both the sand and water!

What about filtration? Filtration is a process that

separates the insoluble solid in liquid by letting it pass
through a filter paper, which is placed inside a funnel.
You may look at the set-up below for reference. However,
you cannot do this set-up at home since you may not
have a filter paper. You may just do this when you go
back to school.

In this setup, the small particles of the liquid will pass

through the filter paper while the bigger solid particles will
be left on the filter paper. The one left on the filter paper
is the residue while the liquid that is collected is the filtrate.

(Image adapted from:

http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/
hutchinson/images/0008n027.jpg)

Do This!

Sedimentation and centrifugation can also be used in

separating mixtures, which are composed of an insoluble liquid
in water. Now, why don’t you go to your library and read more
about these two processes. Make sure that you’ll be able to
differentiate these two from decantation and filtration.

Is ink a mixture? If it is a mixture then how do we separate its components?

Paper chromatography is a separation technique that uses paper as the stationary
phase and a liquid solvent as the mobile phase.

20 A Property of
Mr. Rexon A. Erasmo, Jr.
Instructor
Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

The solvent is the mobile phase since it moves slowly along the surface of the
paper. And since the ink spot, which is on the paper, is soluble in rubbing alcohol then
the ink will be dissolved once the solvent moves over it. The ink will move along with the
solvent. Each component of the ink has its own characteristic and will be moving along
the solvent at its own rate. The difference in the rates of the components of the ink
makes it possible for the components of the mixture to be separated.

Other ways of separating mixture include fractional distillation, sedimentation,

flotation, magnetic separation, precipitation and extraction.

LESSON 6: PROPERTIES OF MATTER

If you describe a matter, you might be giving its appearance, its phase, its color,
texture, mass and many other properties.

Matter can be grouped according to their properties: physical and chemical

properties. Physical properties are the appearance and phase of any matter. It
includes its color, size, shape, and texture. When substances are mixed with other
substances, chemical properties are formed

Physical properties can be extensive and intensive physical properties. Extensive

properties depend on the amount of matter present in an object. While properties that
do not depend on the amount of matter are chemical properties.

Matter may also undergo different changes. It could also be physical or

chemical change. Physical changes are changes in size, shape, phase or the physical
properties of any matter. For example, if you cut a piece of paper in two equal parts,
the paper still remains to be a paper. No new product has been formed.

A chemical change always results to the formation of a new substance. The

surest way to know if a chemical change has occurred is to check if you observed one
or more of these indicators of chemical change.

1. Change of color
2. Evolution of gas
3. Formation of precipitate

21 A Property of
Mr. Rexon A. Erasmo, Jr.
Instructor
Lecture Notes in General Chemistry 1

Change of color. A change in color means that a new substance was formed
after the chemical change. This new substance has different properties, including its
color, from the original materials.

The burning of the lighted match results in the change of color of the match.
Before lighting the match, the body is made of a pale colored wood and a red or
black tip. After burning, the tip becomes black and charred. The pale color of the
wood also becomes black. It is no longer the original wood.

Evolution of gas. Sometimes, you don’t see a color change after a chemical
change. But you will find that gas is produced. This gas is the new substance. When
you mix vinegar and baking powder, you will hear a fizzing sound and see gases
bubble up. This gas is carbon dioxide. It is produced when the acetic acid of vinegar
reacted with the sodium bicarbonate of the baking powder.

Acetic acid + Sodium bicarbonate  carbon dioxide + other new

substances

Formation of precipitate. The precipitate is the solid material that appears in a

solution, and this solid sinks or precipitates to the bottom of the container. This
precipitate is the new substance formed from the chemical change. Which of the
steps in the activity resulted in the formation of a precipitate?

When none of these indicators can be observed, only a physical change has
occurred. Phase changes are physical changes. Physical changes may show a
change in shape, size, or volume.

22 A Property of
Mr. Rexon A. Erasmo, Jr.
Instructor