MT 2130 MATERIAL TEKNIK

Dr. ir. Husaini Ardy

Laboratorium Teknik Metalurgi dan Material
Institut Teknologi Bandung
itbmsmet@melsa.net.id
husaini@material.itb.ac.id
Mobile : 081-123-678-2

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

Informasi Penting

„ Buku Acuan :
– William D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering : An
Introduction, 7th Ed., John Wiley, 2007.

– Belajar mandiri menyelesaikan soal-soal di buku tersebut

„ Ujian :
– UTS-1 = 50%
– UTS-2 = 50%

„ Final Grade berdasarkan distribusi nilai

„ Kehadiran > 80%, MENITIP ABSEN ADALAH HARAM

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

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 1. INTRODUCTION

„ Historical Perspective

„ Materials Science and Engineering

„ Why study Material Science and Engineering

„ Classification of Materials

„ Modern Materials Need

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

1.1 Historical Perspective

„ Civilization has been divided based on the ability to produce

and manipulate materials : Stone age, Bronze age, Iron age

„ Everyday life is affected one to another by the materials

„ Materials utilization is a selection process among the

available materials, sometime is limited, or not available et all

„ Materials limited design

„ Relationship between structures and properties of materials

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1.2 Materials Science and Eng.

„ Materials Science : investigating the relationship

between structure – properties

„ Materials Engineering : Engineered the structure to

obtain a set of properties

„ Structure :
– Atomic scale (atomic arrangement)
– Microstructure (viewed by microscope)
– Macrostructure (viewed by naked eye)

„ Property : the response of material to a specific stimulus.

It is independent of geometry and size.

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 MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

Property of Materials

„ Mechanical (stimulus : deformation):

– Strength, Hardness,…..

„ Electrical (stimulus : electric field) :

– Conductivity, Dielectric constant

„ Thermal (stimulus : heat) :

– Conductivity, heat capacity

„ Magnetic (stimulus : magnetic field) :

– Magnetic strength

„ Optical (stimulus : light or electromagnetic wave) :

– Refraction index

„ Deteriorative (stimulus : environment) :

– Corrosion resistance

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 LINEAR RELATIONSHIP

PROCESSING

STRUCTURE

PROPERTIES

PERFORMANCE

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WHY STUDY MS&E

„ Materials selections basis:

– Operating conditions
– Performance during service
– Cost

„ Wide range of material available

„ Compromise all of the aspects, lead to optimum material

selection

„ Evaluation of materials performance during service

„ In some cases a new material has to be developed

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 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

„ Based on structure :
– Metal
– Ceramic
– Polymer

„ Another Group :
– Semiconductor
– Composite
– Biomaterials

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„ Metals : „ Polymer :
– Large number of free – Organic compounds based
electron on carbon, hydrogen,
– Electrical and heat oxygen, and other non-
conductivity metallic elements
– Not transparent – Very large molecule
– Shiny polished surface structure
– High strength and – Low density and flexible
deformable
„ Composite :
„ Ceramics : – Consists of two or more
– Consists of oxides, nitrides, materials
and carbides – Obtain a good properties
– Electric and heat insulator from each component
– High temperature strength – Polymer matrix composite
– Brittle at room temperature – Metal matrix composite
– Ceramic matrix composite

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„ Semiconductor : „ Advanced Materials :
– Properties between electric – Materials for high-tech
insulator and electric applications
conductor – Has a superior properties
– Properties is highly affected – Very expensive
by small amount of
impurities

„ Biomaterials :
– Implant to human body for
replacement of diseases or
damaged body parts
– Must not produce toxic
substance
– Must be compatible to the
body tissue

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 Learning Objectives

„ Define engineering stress, „ Understanding impact

eng. Strain, true stress,
true strain, Poisson’s ratio
„ Understanding and
processed tensile test
data
„ Understanding principles
of hardness test and note
the differences between
them
test procedure and data
evaluation
„ Understanding the fatigue
test procedures,
objectives, and data
processing
„ Understanding creep test
procedures, objectives
and data processing

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

Introduction

1. Tension test „ Objectives :

2. Hardness test – To obtain mechanical
3. Impact test properties.
4. Fatigue test
5. Creep test „ Who need the data ?
6. Bending Test – Producers
7. Flattening test – Users
– Research organization
– Government agencies

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 Introduction

„ Requirements :
– The data shall be consistence independent of the testing
personnel and locations
– Standard testing procedures and data interpretation

„ International standard :
– ASTM (American Standard for Testing of Materials)
– JIS (Japan Industrial Standard)
– BS (British Standard)
– DIN (Germany Standard)
– GOST (Russian standard)
– API (American Petroleum Institute)
– ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

Introduction

„ Testing standards : „ ASTM Standard E8 :

Standard test methods for
– Specimen geometry tension testing of metallic
and dimensions materials
– Testing machine
requirements „ ASTM Standard C1161 :
– Testing machine Standard test methods for
flexural strength of advanced
calibration procedures ceramics material at ambient
– Testing procedures temperature
– Data interpretation
methods „ ASTM Standard D 638 :
Standard test methods for
tensile properties of plastics

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Tension Test

Standard specimen size (cylinder):

•Diameter = Do = 0.505” (12.8 mm)
•Gauge length = Lo = 2” (50 mm)

Engineering stress = σ = P/Ao

Engineering strain = e = ΔL/Lo

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 Dimensional Relationship of Tensile Specimens

Type ASTM (USA) BS (United DIN

Specimens Kingdom) (Germany)

Plate 4.5 5.65 11.3

(Lo/√Ao)

Round 4.0 5.0 10.0

(Lo/Do)

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Tension Test of Metals

Engineering stress – Engineering Strain

curve
„ Yield strength :
– σy = Py/Ao
⎛ L f − Lo ⎞
e (% ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 100%
⎝ Lo ⎠

„ Tensile strength :
– σu = Pmax/Ao

„ Elongation :
⎛ Lo − L f ⎞
e (%) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 100%
⎝ Lo ⎠
„ Reduction of Area :
⎛ Ao − A f ⎞
q (%) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ x 100%
MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy ⎝ Ao ⎠

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 Yielding and Yield Strength

σ =Ee
τ =Gγ
E = 2G (1+ν )

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Elastic Modulus vs Temperature

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Ductile vs Brittle Materials
Brittle materials : e < 5%

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Temperature Effect

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 Resilience (Elastic Energy)

ey

U E = ∫ σ de
0

UE = ½ σy ey
= σy /2E
2

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True Stress (σt) – True Strain (ε)

„ True stress : σt = Pi/Ai

σ t = σ (1 + e ) σ t = σ (1 + e )

„ True strain :
ε = ∫dL/L=ln (Li/Lo)
ε = ln (1 + e)

σt = K ε n

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Elastic Recovery

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Mechanical Behavior of Ceramics

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Mechanical behavior of Polymer

Brittle Polymer

Plastics Polymer

Elastomer Polymer

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Polymethyl methacrylate

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 Introduction

„ Hardness : the – Indentation methods :

resistance of material to ƒ Rockwell
local plastic deformation ƒ Brinell
ƒ Vickers
ƒ Knoop
„ Testing procedures :
– Scratch methods
[Mohs Hardness] : „ Advantages :
– Simple and inexpensive
ƒ Talc : scale = 1
– Non destructive
– Can be related to strength
ƒ Diamond : scale = 10
– Small size specimen is possible

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 ASTM Testing Standards

„ ASTM Standard E 18 : Standard test methods for Rockwell and

Rockwell Superficial Hardness of Metallic Materials
„ ASTM Standard E 10 : Standard Test Methods for Brinell Hardness
of Metallic Materials
„ ASTM Standard E 92 : Standard Test Methods for Vicker Hardness
of Metallic Materials
„ ASTM Standard E 384 : Standard Test Method for Microhardnes
of Materials
„ ASTM Standard D 785 : Rockwell hardness of Plastics and
Electrical Insulating Materials
„ ASTM Standard D 2240 : Standard Test Methods for Rubber
Property – Durometer hardness
„ ASTM Standard D 2583 : Standard Test Methods for Indentation
of Rigid Plastics by means of Barcol Impressor

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

Brinell Hardness (BHN, HB)

„ Indentor is steel ball

„ Standard load : 500 to 3000 kg
„ Standard ball diameter, D = 10.00 mm
„ Hardness is defined as the load divided by the
projection area of the indentation
„ Indentation diameter shall be measured by microscope
„ Brinell hardness :

2P
BHN =
(
π D D− D −d 2 2
)
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 Vickers Hardness (VHN, HV)

„ Indentor is diamond pyramide, α = 136o

„ Hardness is defined as the load divided by the surface
area of the indentation
„ Indentation diagonals shall be measured by
microscope
„ Vickers hardness :

1.854 P
VHN = 2
d

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

Knoop Hardness (KHN, HK)

„ Indentor is diamond pyramide

„ Hardness is defined as the load divided by the surface
area of the indentation
„ Indentation diagonals shall be measured by
microscope
„ Knoop hardness :

14.2 P
KHN = 2
l

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Rockwell Hardness (HR…)

„ Indentor : diamond and

steel ball
„ Scale : based on
combinations of load and
indentor type
„ Minor load = 10 kg
„ HRC : diamond, 150 kg
„ HRB : 1/16” ball, 100 kg
„ Hardness will be
displayed by the dial
indicator

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UTS [ MPa ] = 3.45 BHN

UTS [ psi ] = 500 BHN

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Introduction

„ Testing at high loading

rate
„ To determine the notch
toughness of material
„ The transition of ductile
to brittle characteristics
as temperature decreases
„ ASTM Standard E 23 :
Standard test methods
for Notch Bar Impact
Testing of Metallic
Materials

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 Spectrum of Strain Rate

Range of strain Type of test

rate
10-8 to 10- 5 s - 1 Creep test at constant load or stress

10-5 to 10-1 s-1 Static tension test

10-1 to 102 s - 1 Fatigue test

102 to 104 s-1 Impact test

104 to 108 s-1 Explosive test (Hypervelocity impact)

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„ Ductile – Brittle transition temperature (BCC and HCP alloys)
:
– Temperature where CVN = 20 J or 15 ft-lb
– Temperature where fibrous fracture = 50%
– Temperature where fibrous fracture = 100 %

There is no transition temperature for FCC alloys

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 Introduction

„ To obtain fatigue strength

of materials
– Fatigue strength
– Fatigue limit
– Endurance limit
– Endurance strength

„ ASTM Standard E 466 :

Standard practice to
conducting Constant Amplitude
Axial Fatigue Test of Metallic
Materials

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σ max + σ min
σm =
2
σ max − σ min
σA =
2
σ min
R=
σ max
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S – N Curve

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S – N Curve for aluminum 7075 T-6

p : probability of failure

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Introduction

„ Testing at high temperature

„ Time dependent deformation
„ ASTM Standard E 139 :
Standard practice for
conducting creep, creep
rupture, and stress-rupture
test of metallic materials
„ Creep region :
– Primary creep
– Secondary creep
– Tertiary creep
„ Steady state creep rate
„ Long exposure time

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 Stress – Rupture Test

„ Higher testing load

„ To determine the rupture
time
„ Shorter testing time

Stress Rupture curve

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 3. THE STRUCTURE OF METALS

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

Learning Objectives

„ Description of ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds, and examples of

materials
„ Drawing unit cells for FCC, BCC, HCP
„ Develop relationship between geometrical parameters of unit cells
„ Computing the densities (bulk, linear, planar)
„ Drawing the directional indices
„ Specify the Miller indices of a plane in a unit cell
„ Understanding closed packed atomic arrangement
„ Distinguished between single crystals and polycrystalline materials
„ Define isotropy and anisotropy with respect to material properties

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 INTERATOMIC BONDS

„ Ionic bonding
„ Covalent bonding
„ Metallic bonding

„ Ionic Bonding
– Compounds with metallic and
non-metallic elements
– Metallic element give-up
electron to non-metallic
element
– Example NaCl, MgO
– Bonding energy : 600 – 1500
kJ/mol
– High melting point

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

„ Covalent Bonding
– Sharing electron between
atoms
– Directional bonding
– Very strong bonding
(diamond) or very weak (Bi)
– Diamond : Tm > 3550 C,
Bismuth : Tm = 270 oC

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„ Metallic Bonding
– Only found in metals and their
alloys
– Valence electrons are not
bound to any particular atom
in the solid
– Belong to the metal as a
whole to form “sea of
electron” or electron cloud
– Metal is conductor (electric
and heat)
– Covalent and ionic bonds are
insulator (electric and heat)

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Fundamental Concept

„ Atoms, Unit Cell,

Grains, Bulk Material

„ Crystalline Materials

„ Non-Crystalline
Materials
(Amorphous)

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 Metallic Crystal Structure

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Body Centered Cubic

4R
„ Coordination number = 8 „ Unit cell size, a=
„ APF = vol atom in unit cell 3
„ vol unit cell
„ Atomic packing factor = 0.68
„ Number of atom per unit cell = 2

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 Face Centered Cubic

„ Coordination number = 12
„ APF = 0.74
„ Number of atom per unit cell = 4
„ Unit cell size, a = 2R 2

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

Hexagonal Close-Packed
Number of atom per unit cell = 6
Ratio c/a = 1.633 (ideal)
Coordination number = 12
Atomic packing factor = 0.74

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„ Theoretical density of „ Example :
metals :
„ Copper, FCC structure,
nA atomic radius = 1.28 A,
ρ= atomic weight = 63.5 g/mol.
VC N A
– ρ = density „ n = 4, VC = (2 R √2)3 cm3
– n = number of atom per
unit cell (atom) nA 4 x 63.5
ρ= =
– A = atomic weight (
VC N A 16 x 1.28 x10−8 x 2 )
3

(gram/mol)
– Vc = unit cell volume (cm3) ρ = 8.89 gram
3
– NA = Avogadro Number = cm
6.023 x 1023 atom/mol „ Literature data : ρ = 8.94
gr/cm3

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CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANE (CUBIC)

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CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES (HEXAGONAL)

i = - (h + k)
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CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTION

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 Atomic Density

„ Linear Densities (LD) :

– Number of atoms centered on direction vector/length of
direction vector
– [110] of FCC : LD = 2 atoms/4R

„ Planar Densities (PD) :

– Number of atoms centered on a plane/area of a plane
– (110) plane of FCC : PD = 2 atoms/8R2√2

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

Determination of Crystal Structure

„ Bragg’s Law : λ = 2 dhkl sin θ

„ λ : wavelength of monochromatic x-ray

„ dhkl : interplanar spacing
„ θ : diffraction angle

„ Copper : λ = 0.1542 nm
„ Molybdenum : λ = 0.0711 nm
„ Chromium : λ = 0.2291 nm
„ Cobalt : λ = 0.1790 nm
„ Iron : λ = 0.1937 nm

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 Atomic Arrangement in Closed Packed Structure

„ A-B-C stacking sequences :

„ Atomic arrangement in (111)
plane of FCC unit cell :

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Atomic Arrangement in Closed Packed Structure

„ A-B stacking sequences :

„ Atomic arrangement in (0001)
plane of HCP unit cell :

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„ Polymorphism : metals and non metals may have more than one
crystal structure
„ Allotropy : polymorphism in solid.
„ Examples : Fe : BCC (T < 912 C), FCC (T>912 C)
o o

„ Single crystal : material without grain boundaries

„ Polycrystalline : material composed of many grains (crystal)

„ Anisotropy : properties depends on the crystallographic direction

„ Isotropy : properties independent of the crystallographic direction

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POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL

Atoms ==>> Unit Cell ==>> Crystal/Grain ==>> Bulk Material

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 NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL
(AMORPHOUS)
Crystalline : Systematic and regular arrangement of atoms

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Ceramics Structure

„ Composed of two elements or more

„ More complex crystal structure than metals
„ For ionic bonding :
– Metallic ion : cation
– Non-metallic ion : anion
– The crystal must be neutral
– Positive charge = negative charge

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Rock Salt structure :
-The coordination number = 6
-Cation-anion radius ratio =
0.414 - 0.732
-NaCl, MgO, MnS, LiF, FeO
„ Cesium Chloride Structure :
– The coordination number =
8
– Cation-anion radius ratio =
– 0.732 – 1.0
– CsCl

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

Zinc Blend structure : AmXp structure :

-The coordination number = 4 -The coordination number = 8
-Cation-anion radius ratio = -Cation-anion radius ratio =
0.225 - 0.414 0.732 – 1.0
-ZnS, ZnTe, SiC -CaF2, UO2, PuO2, ThO2

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„ AmBnXp structure

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 STRUCTURE OF POLYMER

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TYPE OF POLYMER

„ Natural Polymer :
– Wood, Rubber, Cotton, Wool, Silk, Leather
„ Synthetic Polymer :
– PVC, PTFE, PP

„ Polymer :
– is a macromolecules of hydrocarbon
– Repetition of the “mer” unit
– Example : ethylene (C2H4) can be synthesized to poly-ethylene
(polymer)

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 Chemistry of Polymer Molecules

„ Ethylene (C2H4):

„ Ethylene gas is synthesized (P,

T) :

„ Futher reaction :

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Polyethylene

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 Polytetraflourethylene

Polyvinylchloride

Polypropylene

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 Molecular Weight

„ Large molecules consists of large number of mer units.

„ Not all of the chain has the same molecular weight
„ Results in the distribution of chain length or molecular
weight
„ Molecular weight shall be defined as : the average
molecular weight.

„ How to define the average molecular weight :

– The number average molecular weight, Mn
– The weight average molecular weight, Mw

MT 2130 Lecture Note by Husaini Ardy

The Number Average Molecular Weight

„ Dividing the chain into a series of size range

„ Determining the number fraction of chain within the size
range

Mn = xi M i

xi = fraction of the chain within the size

range
Mi = mean molecular weight of size range i

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 The weight average molecular weight

„ Weight fraction of molecules within a size range

Mw = wi M i
wi = weight fraction of molecule within the
size range
Mi = mean molecular weight of size range i

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„ Degree of polymerization
(n) :
Mn
nn =
m
Mw
nn =
m
m : mer molecular weight

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 Molecular Shape

Straight chain Twist and bend chain

r = end-to-end distance

Twist, bend and kink chain

- High flexibility

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Molecular Structure

„ Linear polymer :
– Mer unit are joint together in a single chain
– PE, PVC, PMMC, PS, Nylon, Fluorocarbon
„ Branched polymer :
– The side-branch chains are connected to the main chain
„ Cross-linked polymer :
– Adjacent linear chains are join one to another at various position
by strong covalent bond
– Vulcanized rubber
„ Network polymer :
– Three dimensional network of polymer
– Epoxy, Phenol-formaldehyde

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Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers

„ Thermoplastic :
– Soften and liquefy when heated, harden when cooled
– Reversible process in heating and cooling

„ Thermosetting :
– Permanently hard when heated, will not soften/liquefy during
subsequent heating
– Harder and stronger than thermoplastic
– Better dimensional stability
– Vulcanized rubber, Epoxy, Phenolic, some polyester resin

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 Copolymer

„ Random copolymer :
– Two different units are
randomly dispersed along the
chain
„ Alternating copolymer :
– The two mer units alternate
chain position
„ Block copolymer :
– Identical mers are clustered in
blocks along the chain
„ Graft copolymer :
– Side branches are grafted to
the main chain

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Synthetic rubber : is an example of copolymer.

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 Polymer Crystalinity
„ Polymer crystalinity : the regular and repetitive array of
polymer molecules.
„ Polymer molecules : partially crystalline, partially
amorphous
„ The crystalline polymers dispersed within the amorphous
(up to 95% of crystallinity)
„ Crystalline polymers : stronger and more heat resistance
„ Amorphous : chain disorders or misalignment
„ Crystallinity depends on :
– Low cooling rate (need time for alignment)
– Chain configuration (simple chain is easier to crystallize)

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TEM image

Crystalline PE

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 Chain-folded model

Fringe-micelle model

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Detail structure of spherulite

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