Belmont University

PHY 1140/2110/2120 Lab

Manual
Dr. Steve Robinson
 Table of Contents
Rules of the Physics Lab.................................................................................................................................................................2
Experimental Error ..........................................................................................................................................................................3
Graphical Interpretation of Data ................................................................................................................................................7
Measurement Statistics ............................................................................................................................................................... 12
Acceleration Due to Gravity: Spark Timer .......................................................................................................................... 15
Acceleration Due to Gravity: Air Track ................................................................................................................................. 18
Projectile Motion ........................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Friction............................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Hooke’s Law ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Conservation of Energy ............................................................................................................................................................... 30
Conservation of Momentum...................................................................................................................................................... 33
Centripetal Acceleration ............................................................................................................................................................. 36
Angular Momentum...................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Inertial Mass and Gravitational Mass .................................................................................................................................... 42
Standing Waves in Strings ......................................................................................................................................................... 46
Sound Resonance........................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Archimedes’ Principle.................................................................................................................................................................. 52
Thermal Expansion ....................................................................................................................................................................... 54
The Specific Heats of Metals...................................................................................................................................................... 57
Changes of Phase ........................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Adiabatic Compression ............................................................................................................................................................... 62
The Electric Field ........................................................................................................................................................................... 64
Capacitors in Series and Parallel ............................................................................................................................................. 65
Resistivity ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 68
Series and Parallel Circuits ........................................................................................................................................................ 71
Kirchhoff’s Rules ............................................................................................................................................................................ 74
Magnetic Fields ............................................................................................................................................................................... 77
L/R Time Constant ........................................................................................................................................................................ 80
The Wave Nature of Light .......................................................................................................................................................... 84
 2

Rules of the Physics Lab

Anytime that I am working in or visiting a laboratory at Belmont University, I will:

1. Know the exact location of all exits to the laboratory and building.
2. Determine the location and procedures to operate all safety equipment in the laboratory,
including eyewashes, fire blankets, fire extinguishers, first aid kits, and safety showers.
3. Notify my laboratory instructor immediately if I might be pregnant, have an allergy, or have any
medical condition that could render me particularly susceptible to chemical exposure.
4. Wear closed-toe shoes, appropriate clothing, and any required personal protective equipment
(e.g., safety glasses) when working or observing in the laboratory.
5. Secure long hair to avoid accidental damage or loss.
6. Keep the laboratory bench and floor around the work area uncluttered and free from book bags,
purses, coats, or other obstructions.
7. Not eat, drink, use tobacco, or apply cosmetics in the laboratory.
8. Never work alone in the laboratory. Work may only be performed during assigned times by my
laboratory instructor.
9. Come prepared and proceed with care when working in the laboratory. Only work approved by
my laboratory instructor may be performed.
10. Exercise extreme caution when working with Bunsen burners, steam generators, and resistors to
avoid burns.
11. Immediately report spills, damaged or malfunctioning equipment, and all injuries—no matter
how minor—to my laboratory instructor.
12. Dispose of used or broken materials in proper waste containers according to my laboratory
instructor's directions.
13. Clean work areas, common areas, glassware, reusable supplies, and equipment after use. All items
should be returned to their proper storage locations following use.

Grading
Lab time is designed to expose you to the concepts learned in class rather than getting the “right”
answers. However, points will be deducted for:
 arriving late or leaving early
 failing to label graph axes with descriptions and units
 failing to follow the directions written in the lab
 writing “human error” as the only explanation for unexpected results
 hastily and/or carelessly answering questions
 data that violates physical laws
 fabricating or copying data
 3

Experimental Error
Introduction
Error is a natural part of measurement, as nothing can be measured exactly. Error can be human,
inherent, or instrumental. An oft-used way of expressing error is with percent error. When a value or
result is well-established in the scientific community, conventional experiments can be compared to
those known values using percent error, which is given by

|accepted alue experimental alue|

error
accepted alue

If no accepted value exists (or is unknown) for the quantity being measured, one may use percent
difference to gauge the agreement of different experimental values. This is given by

|o ser ed alue o ser ed alue |

difference
a erage of o ser ed alues and
|o ser ed alue o ser ed alue |
o ser ed alue o ser ed alue

Purpose
In this lab, you will assess the agreement between measurements using both the percent error and
percent difference methods.

Equipment
five cylinders of various sizes, tape measure, three wooden blocks of different shape but of the same
type of wood, balance

Procedure 1
The constant π has been known for at least 3800 years, when it was approximated as 25/8. π is the
ratio of the circumference, c, to the diameter, d, of a circle and now has an accepted alue of 3. 4 59…,
so that we can compare the known value of π with experimental measurements.

Using a measuring tape, measure c and d for five cylinders. Record the data in the data table.

Analysis 1
Using percent error, compare your experimental value of π to the actual value of π by calculating the
average and median values of c/d.

Procedure 2
Density, ρ, is an inherent material quantity that is independent of its size. It is defined as the mass, m,
per unit volume, V, or
,

where volume can be calculated for a rectangular block or cylinder as

rect
cyl

respectively.
 4

Using a measuring tape and balance, calculate the density of three wooden blocks (A being a small
rectangular block, B being a large rectangular block, and C being a cylindrical block) and record the data
in the appropriate table.

Analysis 2
Using percent difference, compare your experimental values to each other.
 5

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Experimental Error
cylinder c (cm) d (cm) c/d
1

average c/d: % error:

median c/d: % error:

What do think could be the cause of the error you see?

When would one prefer median over average? And vice versa?

What does the difference in % error calculated using an average and a median tell you about the way
scientists present data?
 6

block L (cm) W, d (cm) H (cm) V (cm3) m (g) ρ (g/cm3)

A

% difference of density of A and B:

% difference of density of A and C:

% difference of density of B and C:

What do think could be the cause of the difference you see?

Rewrite your three densities in kg/m3.

 7

Graphical Interpretation of Data

Introduction
Data is often most easily understood and analyzed using graphs. Patterns, trends, and predictions may
be seen and formed by simply plotting an independent variable, x, versus its dependent variable, y. For
example, the seasons of the year run their course regardless of our noticing them, but the outside
temperature is highly dependent on the current season. In that case, the temperature depends on the
season, and a plot relating the two may be created.

Predictions of data not actually taken may occur through interpolation and extrapolation. Interpolation
is the estimation of a dependent variable at a given independent variable which is between two
measured independent variables. Extrapolation is the estimation of a dependent variable at a given
independent variable which is outside of the range of measured independent variables. For instance, if
one measures the temperature on August 15 and again on October 15, he/she may estimate the
temperature on September 15 by interpolation. Or, we can predict that July 2025 will be warmer than
December 2025 by extrapolation.

Purpose
In this lab, you will plot the relationships between two types of systems in which an effect (dependent
variable) is directly related to a cause (independent variable).

Equipment
five beakers, candle, matches, stopwatch, support rod, clamp, rubber band, set of masses, ruler

Procedure 1
Candle wicks need oxygen to burn; thus, depriving a burning candle of oxygen will extinguish it. Place a
beaker of known volume over a burning candle, and record the time in seconds required for the candle
flame to be extinguished. Repeat this measurement an additional two times and calculate the average of
the three runs. Record the data in the table. Continue this procedure using four additional beakers of
different volumes.

Analysis 1
On the graph paper provided, plot the average burning time in seconds versus the beaker size (equal to
the volume of air available to the candle). Each axis should have a label with units, as well as numerical
marks. The dependent variable should be on the vertical axis and the independent variable should be
on the horizontal axis. Connect the data points with a smooth curve. Answer the questions under the
data table.

Procedure 2
Rubber bands are made to stretch, and the larger the force applied to a rubber band, the farther it
stretches. First, squeeze the rubber band together and measure its length. This will be considered its
length with no force applied. Next, hang a 100-g mass from a rubber band and measure the length of
the rubber band. Repeat this in increments of 100 g up to 600 g. Repeat this procedure two more times
so that the length has been measured three times for each mass. Record the data in the table.

Analysis 2
Repeat Analysis 1 while substituting the appropriate variables.
 8

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Graphical Interpretation of Data

beaker V (mL) burn time 1 (s) burn time 2 (s) burn time 3 (s) average (s)
300

400

500

600

1000

Is the relationship between beaker size and burning time best described by a direct or inverse
relationship? Support your answer with your graph.

Why do you think you see the relationship you do?

predicted burning times (s):

250 mL: interpolation or extrapolation?

700 mL: interpolation or extrapolation?

900 mL: interpolation or extrapolation?

1.5 L: interpolation or extrapolation?

2.0 L: interpolation or extrapolation?

9
 10

mass (g) length 1 (cm) length 2 (cm) length 3 (cm) average (cm)
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Is the relationship between mass and rubber band length best described by a direct or inverse
relationship? Support your answer with your graph.

Why do you think you see the relationship you do?

predicted rubber band length (s):

150 g: interpolation or extrapolation?

475 g: interpolation or extrapolation?

750 g: interpolation or extrapolation?

1.0 kg: interpolation or extrapolation?

11
 12

Measurement Statistics

Introduction
Large amounts of data are often difficult to sift through, so concepts such as average and standard
deviation are used to characterize such data, made easier with analysis and plotting assistance from
software such as Microsoft Excel. The average value of a set of data is calculated by summing the
individual values and dividing by the number of values, while the standard deviation is a measure of the
data’s spread.

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to become familiar with basic statistical concepts, lab equipment and
procedures, and statistical software.

Equipment
bags of candy, balance, computer

Procedure
Using the balances, measure the masses (in g) of all the pieces of candy from one bag, recording the
data in Excel (N represents the number of pieces). Repeat for the second bag.

Calculations
Calculate the average ( ) and standard deviation (σ) of each group.

Analysis
Suppose we were not able to see the two bags of candy and did not know whether they were the same
type of candy or not. We can use a t-test to determine the probability of the two groups being the same,
where t is given by

| |
√ ⁄ ⁄

and the corresponding probability is shown below:

 13

100

90

80

70
probability (%)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4
t

Find the probability that the two bags are comprised of the same type of candy and answer the
questions at the end of the lab.
 14

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Measurement Statistics
Group 1
candy type

(g):

σ1 (g):

N1:

How many candy bars fit within one standard deviation of the average?

How many candy bars fit within two standard deviations of the average?

Group 2
candy type

(g):

σ2 (g):

N2:

How many candy bars fit within one standard deviation of the average?

How many candy bars fit within two standard deviations of the average?

Statistically speaking, what is the probability that the two candy types are the same?

Give an example of an important application of the statistics used in this lab.

 15

Acceleration Due to Gravity: Spark Timer

Introduction
As all objects with mass exert an attractive force on one another (based on the universal gravitational
constant G), we would expect Earth (with mass ME and radius RE) to exert a large force on nearby
o jects. This force is often characterized y the acceleration of those o jects toward Earth’s center,
approximated by

In this lab (i.e., at this latitude, longitude, and elevation), g = 979.8 cm/s2.

The equations of motion show that an object dropped from rest in a gravitational field will, in a time t,
travel a distance

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the acceleration of gravity using a spark timer.

Equipment
spark timer, thermal paper, computer, mass, tape, scissors, meter stick

Procedure
As there is a risk of shock, do not use the spark timer without your instructor. Tape the mass to
the end of an 80-cm section of thermal paper. One person will hold the paper and, immediately after
his/her partner starts the spark timer, will drop the paper, creating unevenly spaced marks on it. The
spark timer should then be stopped. If there is not a continual line of substantial length, the experiment
should be repeated. You should draw a line across the paper at the point where the sparks began. This
is t = y = 0.

Analysis
The spark timer emits sparks at a rate of 60 Hz (i.e., one spark every 1/60 of a second). Starting from 0,
add these time intervals in sequence to a column in Excel. Measure the distance of each mark from the
starting point and add it to another column in Excel, which should correspond to the time column. Plot
distance vs. time.

We can compare the experimental data to theory by trying to fit an equation to the data. Add a second-
order polynomial trendline to the data, which will be of the form

Make sure you display the equation on the graph. Compared to the movement of an object under
constant gravitational acceleration,
 16

we can see that g = 2a. This is your experimental g. The experimental error can be found using the
equation:

|accepted alue experimental alue|

error
accepted alue

Print your graph, labeling axes with appropriate variables and units, and fill in the data at the end of the
lab.
 17

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Acceleration Due to Gravity: Spark Timer

experimental g (cm/s2)

percent error (%):

What could be the cause of the error you see?

How could you reduce that error?

What would happen to g if this experiment were performed on Mt. Everest?

 18

Acceleration Due to Gravity: Air Track

Introduction
As all objects with mass exert an attractive force on one another (based on the universal gravitational
constant G), we would expect Earth (with mass ME and radius RE) to exert a large force on nearby
o jects. This force is often characterized y the acceleration of those o jects toward Earth’s center,
approximated by

In this lab (i.e., at this latitude, longitude, and elevation), g = 979.8 cm/s2.

If an object rolls down an inclined plane, it does not experience the full force of gravity, but only a
portion determined by the angle of the incline relative to horizontal, given by θ. It will then accelerate
as

Note that, as expected, a horizontal system (θ = 0°) will not experience acceleration and a vertical
system (θ = 90°) will accelerate at g.

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the acceleration of gravity using an air track, which
provides a nearly frictionless surface.

Equipment
air track system, photogate timers, wooden block, ruler, computer

Procedure
Set up the air track as shown in lab, making sure a rubber band is in place to slow down the glider at
the end and that the main photogate timer is set up as the first gate.

The following measurements should be recorded. Measure the height of the block (hblock) as accurately
as possible, raise the end of the air track, and insert the block underneath. Measure the length of track
(ltrack) between the single foot and the pair of feet. Since the length of the air track is the hypotenuse and
the block height is the opposite side in a right triangle, we can find the angle of the air track θ by

lock
( )
track

Choose a starting point (x0) for the glider near the elevated end of the air track. Place the photogate
timers a substantial distance d apart and record this distance. The photogate with the display should be
at the elevated end.

Attach a narrow flag to the top of the glider and measure its width (wflag). Move the glider by hand
through the photogates and adjust the heights of the gates so that the flag triggers both photogates (as
evidenced by the LED illuminating).

Set the memory photogate to the GATE mode, move the switch to 1 mS, and press the RESET button.
Hold the glider at point x0, and release it so that it glides freely through both photogates. Do not let the
 19

glider bounce back to the second photogate. In Excel, record t1, the time required for the flag to move
through the first photogate, and t2, the time required for the flag to move through the second photogate,
in two different columns. The total time that the photogates have been blocked can be seen by moving
the switch down to READ. Thus,

For each time, create new columns giving the velocity of the glider through each gate:

flag

The acceleration can then be found using

Repeat these steps 19 more times, using the same starting point each time. Calculate an average
acceleration ( ) and, using the equation above, the average experimental acceleration due to gravity,
( ).

Analysis
Print your data and calculate the percent error of your experimental acceleration due to gravity .

|accepted alue experimental alue|

error
accepted alue
 20

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Acceleration Due to Gravity: Air Track

ltrack (cm):

hblock (cm):

θtrack (°):

wflag (cm):

d (cm):

(cm/s2):

(cm/s2):

percent error (%):

What could be the cause of the error you see?

Would larger or smaller flags give more accurate measurements? Why?

 21

Projectile Motion

Introduction
When an object moves freely under the influence of gravity, we characterize this motion as projectile
motion. Neglecting air resistance, any object launched into the air will obey the laws of projectile
motion, which relate horizontal and vertical displacements, velocities, and accelerations with time. For
example, the vertical position y of an object launched with velocity vi at an angle θi relates to the
horizontal position x through the following equation:

( ) ( )

Thus, if an object is launched horizontally (θi = 0), we get

At the same time, the horizontal range R (the horizontal displacement of the objects) obeys the
following equation:

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to measure the relationship between horizontal motion, vertical
motion, and the angle at which a projectile is launched.

Equipment
projectile launchers, plastic ball, small metal ball, safety goggles, carbon paper, paper, pegboard,
computer, C-clamp, meter stick, tape

Procedure 1: Compound Motion

Do not look down the barrel of the projectile launcher. Safety goggles must be worn throughout
the lab.

Clamp the large launcher to the end of the table. Set the launch angle to 0° and tighten the set screws.
With the target board very close to the launcher, tape a piece of plain white paper to the target board so
that the top edge of the paper is e en with the launcher’s ore sight. Mo e the target oard to the far
end of the table and ensure that the bore sight is still aligned with the top of the paper. If not, adjust the
launcher angle. Tape a piece of carbon paper over the top of the white paper, while being able to flip the
carbon paper up.

Move the target board to exactly 20 cm from the muzzle of the launcher (measured from the front edge
of the projectile as shown on the side of the launcher). Launch the projectile on medium range (2 nd
click). Lift the carbon paper, and label the mark made with the horizontal distance the projectile was
shot. Repeat this procedure, increasing the distance by 10 cm each time until you run out of room on
the table or the projectile hits the table before hitting the target board. In Excel, record the distance the
projectile fell for each horizontal displacement.
 22

Procedure 2: Projectile Range

Remove the previous equipment from the table. Clamp the mini launcher to the end of the table. Tape
white paper along the table in the direction the mini launcher is pointing. Lay carbon paper over the
white paper.

Adjust the mini launcher to 10° and set it so that the bottom of the ball is even with the top of the table
(this should be true for all of the angles used). Set the mini launcher to medium range (2nd click) and
fire the ball. Lift the carbon paper and label the mark made (corresponding to the range R) with the
angle at which the ball was fired. Repeat, increasing the angle by 10° until you reach 80°, recording all
distances and angles in Excel.

Analysis
After plotting both sets of data, both the horizontal vs. vertical displacement and the horizontal
displacement vs. launch angle should fit the corresponding equations discussed at the beginning. We
can test this for the first data set by fitting the data to a second-order polynomial trendline (and
displaying the equation on the chart):

y = ax2 + bx + c

If the data fits a parabolic shape well, we would expect the magnitude of the coefficient a to be g/2vi2,
where g = 979.8 cm/s2. Use this information to find the initial velocity of the large launcher.

For the second graph, use the appropriate equation to fill in the table at the end of the lab and calculate
the initial velocity of the mini launcher.

Print the graphs for both procedures.

 23

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Projectile Motion
Compound Motion

a (cm–1)

c (cm)

vi (cm/s)

Projectile Range

θ (°) R (cm) vi (cm/s)

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

average vi (cm/s)

List two other experiments you could perform to indirectly measure the initial speed of a projectile.
 24

Friction
Introduction
When two surfaces are in contact and one moves with respect to the other, there is opposition to this
motion. This opposition is known as friction and is a force. If it were not for friction, you could drive a
car with ery little gasoline needed, ecause Newton’s first law says that once you got it up to a certain
speed, it would stay at that speed forever unless you pressed the gas or brake pedal. However, friction
also allows us to walk and sit without falling over. To overcome the forces of friction in a car, work
must be done constantly to maintain a constant speed.

The force of friction between two objects may be determined by measuring the force one must use to
barely overcome the force of friction (i.e., to get an object to move from rest). On a level surface, the
frictional force (F) of an object with mass m at rest is given by

F = µmg

where µ (a unitless number usually between 0 and 1) is called the coefficient of friction. There are
different coefficients for stationary (static) and moving (kinetic) objects (µs and µk), the latter being
less. The static frictional force can only become so large before the applied force is larger than the
frictional force and the object moves. Thus, by determining the force needed to make an object move,
we can calculate the o ject’s coefficient of static friction.

Purpose
This experiment is designed to measure the force of friction and determine the coefficient of static
friction between two objects.

Equipment
wooden block, pulley, masses, mass hanger, string, wooden board, protractor

Procedure
Weigh the wooden block. This mass m will be used in the above equation. Clamp the wooden board to
the lab table. Clamp the pulley to the table and align it with the board. With the block on the wooden
board, far from the pulley, connect a string horizontally (parallel to the lab table) between the block
and the mass hanger and lay it over the pulley. Note the position of the block (which you will use for all
measurements) and add masses to the hanger until the block moves. If the hanger itself causes the
block to move, add weight to the block and record the new total block weight. The total hanging mass
(don’t forget to include the ass of the hanger) when movement occurs multiplied by g is the force to
use in the above equation to calculate the coefficient of friction. Substituting this into the above
equation, we get

weights
weights lock
lock

Repeat this procedure two more times, each time recording your data in the data table.

Repeat this procedure with the block on a piece of paper and the block on the lab table.

The coefficient of static friction can also be found by tilting the board. Note that the board represents
the hypotenuse of a right triangle and the angle of tilt θ gives:
 25

By slowly lifting the board, find µs using this method for the block/board and block/paper
combinations.

Analysis
Using the average mass needed to move the block and the tilt dimensions, calculate the coefficient of
static friction for each combination of objects. Compare your answer using the different methods by
using the percent difference:

|difference of the two alues|

percent difference
a erage of the two alues
 26

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Friction
mass of block (g):

mweights (g) tilt

percent
system 1 2 3 avg µs θ (°) µs
difference
block/board

block/paper

block/table

What causes the variations in µs that you see between individual measurements?

What causes the difference in µs between the two methods of measurement?

With μs = μk = 0.3, how much force is required to move a 2-kg block across a level surface? What
happens to the block if you exceed that force?
 27

Hooke’s Law
Introduction
Elasticity is a measure of the amount of deforming an object may undergo while under stress and still
return to its original shape. Namely, when a force is applied to an object, it experiences compression
when the force is directed toward the object and tension when the force is directed away from the
o ject. Elastic materials, or at least materials in an elastic regime, stretch and compress a distance (Δx)
in direct proportion to the applied force (F), where Δx is the change in length of an object undergoing a
force. The resistance a material gives to tension and compression in the elastic regime is directly
related to its strength (k), so strong materials have high k values. For example, a wet sponge would
have a much smaller k than a block of iron. Mathematically, when x = 0 is defined to be at equilibrium,

Fs = –kx

Springs are the simplest example of this relationship, which is known as Hooke’s law. In the case of a
spring, x represents the change in length of the spring undergoing a force and k is called the spring
constant, measured in N/m.

Purpose
This experiment is designed to reveal the relationship between applied force and displacement in
elastic systems.

Equipment
three different springs, rubber band, stand, ruler, masses

Procedure
We can determine the spring constant for an elastic material by comparing an applied force to how
much the spring stretches. In this experiment, the applied force will be gravity.

From one spring, hang a small mass, and record the distance the spring stretches (which is the length of
the stretched spring minus the length of the unstretched spring) in the data table. Continue this
procedure while adding five more masses to the spring. Be sure that your masses are small enough to
not allow the mass to touch the lab table.

Continue this procedure with two more springs and a rubber band.

Analysis
Plot x vs. m for each spring and the rubber band, calculate the average spring constant, and answer the
questions beneath the data table.
 28

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Hooke’s Law

spring 1 spring 2 spring 3 rubber band

k k k k
m (g) x (cm) m (g) x (cm) m (g) x (cm) m (g) x (cm)
(N/m) (N/m) (N/m) (N/m)

kavg (N/m) kavg (N/m) kavg (N/m) kavg (N/m)

Did your springs stay in the elastic regime throughout the range of masses you applied? How do you
know?

Did your ru er and follow Hooke’s law? How do you know?

29
 30

Conservation of Energy
Introduction
Energy exists in many forms, three of which are kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy, and
elastic potential energy. An object with mass m and velocity v has a kinetic energy (KE) given by

Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is present in any object raised a certain height h above a reference
point, and is gained by the work done to place the object at that height. Thus, GPE can be given by

Meanwhile, a spring with spring constant k is capable of storing energy in the form of elastic potential
energy (EPE), given by

This energy comes from the work done while compressing or stretching the spring a distance x against
its restoring force, gi en y Hooke’s law:

Purpose
This experiment is designed to reveal the transferal of energy between its various forms under the
restriction of the law of conservation of energy.

Equipment
#4 spring, ruler, masses, photogates, stand

Procedure 1: moving mass

Hang the spring with no mass attached. In this state, the spring is in equilibrium and has no elastic
potential energy. If a mass m is hung from the spring but held up so there is still no stretching, KE = 0
and GPE = mgh, where h is the height above some reference point you may define. Letting the mass
drop immediately adds elastic potential energy and kinetic energy to the system, while GPE approaches
zero as it drops toward the reference point. Since the total energy of the system must be constant
before and after dropping the mass (the law of conservation of energy), we can write

Thus, if we measure the velocity of the mass after it has dropped a height h, we can find the spring
constant k.

( )

We can approximate this velocity by measuring the time it takes the mass to travel between two
photogates. The top photogate should be set up directly below the mass when it is attached to the
 31

unstretched spring, while the bottom photogate should be placed directly underneath the top
photogate with about 2 cm of space between. Measure the height difference (h) between the photogates
from top to top. With the photogate in pulse mode, memory on, and set on 1 ms, measure the velocity
(h/t) of the mass when you release it from rest. Do this three times, calculate the average, and calculate
the spring constant based on that average. (It may be easiest to make sure that only the side edge of the
mass triggers the photogates, not the spring. Times should be less than 100 ms. Be sure to let go of the
spring very quickly.) Repeat this for five different masses and enter your data in the data table.

Procedure 2: stationary mass

Another way to measure the spring constant is to measure the amount of stretching (x) under a
particular force. By hanging a mass—which pulls the string with a gravitational force mg—and setting
that force equal to the spring’s restoring force, we can directly calculate k.

Hang five different masses from the spring, measure the amount of stretching (stretched length minus
unstretched length) when the mass is at rest, and calculate k. (The distances measured should not
include the hanging loops.)

Analysis
Compare the spring constants measured by each method using the percent difference equation:

|difference of the two alues|

percent difference
a erage of the two alues
 32

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Conservation of Energy
moving mass stationary mass
m (g) v1 (m/s) v2 (m/s) v3 (m/s) vavg (m/s) k (N/m) x (m) k (N/m)
20

30

40

50

60

20 g percent difference (%):

30 g percent difference (%):

40 g percent difference (%):

50 g percent difference (%):

60 g percent difference (%):

Assuming no human error, what do you think could be the cause of the variation of k using different
methods? Which method do you think gives a more accurate value of k?

How does k vary with mass?

Is the restoring force zero when these springs are unstretched? How do you know?
 33

Conservation of Momentum

Introduction
In an isolated system, the total momentum of all of the objects in the system must remain constant. This
fundamental law is known as the conservation of momentum. Mathematically speaking, the final and
initial momenta are related by

∑⃑ ∑⃑

where j represents an index for each object. Thus, when two objects collide, this translates into

The total energy is also conserved in an isolated system, while the kinetic energy (½mv2) is conserved
only if the collision is perfectly elastic. The elasticity of the collision is given by the coefficient of
restitution:

A perfectly elastic collision will have CR = 1, while a perfectly inelastic collision will have CR = 0. Note
that if the a solute difference in the o jects’ velocities is the same before and after the collision, the
collision will be elastic; when the objects stick together and move as one, the collision is inelastic.

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to validate the law of conservation of momentum and determine the
elasticity of different types of collisions.

Equipment
air track system, two memory photogates, one accessory photogate

Procedure
An inelastic collision can be created y letting the first glider’s sharp point stick in the putty of the
second glider during the collision. When they collide, they should move as one.

Level the air track so that the gliders do not move when the air is turned on. Set up the photogates so
that one glider will pass through a photogate, collide with the other (make sure there is no metal-to-
metal contact), and both will travel through the second photogate.

Attach narrow flags to the tops of the gliders and measure their widths (wflag). Measure the masses of
the gliders and record them in the data table. Move the gliders by hand through the photogates and
adjust the heights of the gates so that the flags trigger both photogates (as evidenced by the LED
illuminating).

Set the memory photogate to the GATE mode, set memory to ON, move the switch to 1 ms, and press
the RESET button. With the second glider at rest, gently push and let go of the first glider so that it
moves through the first photogate with a constant velocity (i.e., don’t let m1 hit m2 until it has gone
completely through the first photogate), which will be given by
 34

flag

where t1 can be read off the memory photogate. After the second glider’s flag goes through the second
photogate, stop the gliders (i.e., don’t let oth flags go through the second photogate). The total time
that the photogates have been blocked can be seen by moving the switch down to READ. Thus,

and the second velocity can be calculated from this time. Repeat these steps four more times while
varying the masses on the gliders.

Repeat these steps (with the same mass pairs used for the inelastic collisions) for an elastic collision,
which may be accomplished with colliding rubber bands at right angles. Two memory photogates will
be needed to account for the initial and final velocities of each mass.

Calculations
For the inelastic collisions, calculate the theoretical and experimental ratios of final to initial velocities.
Then calculate the ratio of final to initial experimental kinetic energy. For the elastic collisions, calculate
the ratios of final to initial experimental kinetic energy and momentum* and the experimental
coefficient of restitution. (You will need lots of calculation room, so use a scrap piece of paper.)

Analysis
Find the percent error for the inelastic velocity ratio and answer the questions at the end of the lab.

|accepted alue experimental alue|

error
accepted alue

*Besure to keep track of the signs of the velocities when calculating total momentum, as both velocity and
momentum are vectors.
 35

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Conservation of Momentum
wflag (m):

Inelastic Collisions Elastic Collisions

m1 (g) m2 (g) ( ) ( ) % error KEf/KEi KEf/KEi pf/pi CR

e

Where do you think the energy of the inelastic collision went?

Why isn’t the elastic collision purely elastic?

 36

Centripetal Acceleration
Introduction
Newton’s first law states that the acceleration of an o ject must e the result of unbalanced forces
acting upon it. This is tied directly to Newton’s second law, which states that a force F causes an
acceleration a on a mass m in the direction of the force. Mathematically,

Since acceleration is simply a change in velocity over a given time period, and velocity has both a
magnitude and direction, an object moving in a circle, even at a constant speed, is undergoing
acceleration. In such a case, the acceleration is known as centripetal acceleration, with a direction
pointing toward the center of the circle. At a velocity v and radius r, the magnitude of that acceleration
is given by

It follows from Newton’s second law that there exists a corresponding centripetal force for a mass m in
orbit:

Thus, the force in a string (i.e., tension) holding a whirling object must increase as the speed of the
object increases.

Purpose
This experiment is designed to reveal the relationships between centripetal force, object speed, and
path radius.

Equipment
plastic tube, washers, meter stick, nylon string, rubber stopper, paper clip, alligator clip, stopwatch,
safety glasses, computer

Procedure 1: Constant Radius

Pass the free end of the nylon string through the tube and tie the paper clip to this end. Spread the
paper clip so that it will support the metal washers. Place three metal washers at the end of the string
and adjust the string so that the radius of the circular path through which the stopper moves is at least
60 cm. Mark this position by attaching an alligator clip to the cord about 1 cm below the tube.

Practice whirling the stopper in a horizontal circular path above your head while holding the tube. The
stopper is moving at the desired speed when the weight of the washers just supplies the centripetal
force required for the stopper to maintain its radius. The position of the alligator clip 1 cm below the
tube indicates that this condition has been achieved. If the clip moves closer to the tube, you are
whirling the stopper too quickly. If it moves farther away, you are whirling the stopper too slowly.

When the stopper is moving with the desired speed, have your laboratory partner measure the time it
takes for the stopper to complete 20 revolutions and record it in the data table.

Add three more washers and repeat the previous steps until a total of 15 washers is being used, using
the weight (not mass) of each set as the centripetal force.
 37

Procedure 2: Constant Force

Repeat the procedure as outlined above, but this time, keep the centripetal force constant by using six
washers, and vary the radius of the circular path. Use five different radii, each time measuring the time
for 20 revolutions. A change of at least 10 cm should be made in the radius each time. Record all
measurements and calculations in the data table.

Calculations
For each trial, find the average period of one revolution ̅ from the 20-revolution time (t). The average
velocity of the rubber stopper is given by the distance it travels in one revolution (i.e., the
circumference of the circle, C = 2πr) divided by the average period of one revolution:

̅
̅

Analysis
For procedure 1, plot a graph of the centripetal force (y-axis) versus the speed of the stopper (x-axis).
For procedure 2, plot a graph of the radius of the circular path (y-axis) versus the speed of the stopper
(x-axis). Using the previous equations, create trendlines that best fit the points on the graphs. For each
procedure, using the trendline equations, calculate the mass of the stopper after weighing the washers.
Measure the mass of the stopper and find percent errors for your calculations. Answer the question at
the end of the lab.

|accepted alue experimental alue|

error
accepted alue
 38

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Centripetal Acceleration
Procedure 1

r (m):

C (m):

washers Fc (N) t (s) ̅ (s) ̅ (m/s)

3

12

15

calculated mass (kg):

actual mass (kg):

percent error (%):

 39

Procedure 2

Fc (N):

r (m) C (m) t (s) ̅ (s) ̅ (m/s)

calculated mass (kg):

actual mass (kg):

percent error (%):

What could be the cause of the error you see?

If the mass of the stopper doubled while the centripetal force and radius remained constant, what
would happen to the average speed?
 40

Angular Momentum
Introduction
The principle of conservation of momentum applies to not only objects undergoing linear motion but
also to those experiencing rotation. The latter have angular momentum, and the conservation of
angular momentum often leads to non-intuitive results such as the improved trajectory of a spiraling
football.

If a wheel spins on a horizontal axis, the angular momentum points along that axis due to the fact that
both the velocity ⃑ (and thus, linear momentum ⃑ ) and radial vector are in the plane of the wheel:

If such a wheel is hung from a string, it will seem to defy gravity and remain upright. This is because if
gravity tilted the wheel (i.e., as if it were not spinning), the wheel’s angular momentum direction would
change quickly, violating its conservation law. The relatively small effect of gravity does, however, play
a role in the motion of the wheel. The force of gravity acting on the massive wheel away from the string
provides a torque of

Since the force of gravity points downward and (this is a different than above) points along the
wheel’s axis, the torque will always exist in the wheel’s plane. This 90° separation between and ⃑ will
cause to rotate toward ⃑ since ⃑ ⁄ (in the same way that a centripetal force causes an object to
move around a circle: ⃑ ⁄ ). This rotation is known as a precession, and the axis of precession is
the supporting string.

The rate and period of precession are given by

If the wheel of radius r and mass m is a distance d from the string, the torque due to gravity is given by τ
= dmg. Meanwhile, the wheel has a moment of inertia of I = mr2 and an angular speed (of its spin) of ωs
= 2πf, where f is the frequency of the spinning (not to be confused with the precession frequency). This
gives L = Iω = 2πf r2. f can then be found with

( )
( )

Purpose
This experiment is designed to reveal the effect of torque on angular momentum.

Equipment
bike wheel, string, stopwatch

Procedure
Spin the wheel and calculate its spin frequency. Spin the wheel in the opposite direction and calculate
its spin frequency.
 41

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Angular Momentum
f1 (Hz):

f2 (Hz):

What happens to the direction of precession based on the direction in which you spin the wheel? Why?
 42

Inertial Mass and Gravitational Mass

Introduction
The mass of an object is the amount of matter contained in that object, but mass can be viewed in two
fundamentally different ways. In the first, mass is related to inertia, in that inertia is the resistance to a
change in velocity (acceleration) of an object when a force is applied to it. This can readily be seen in
Newton’s second law:

In addition, mass is a critical part of the gravitational force between two objects:

These two forms of mass are not obviously identical, in that they express two independent phenomena,
with inertial mass determining the resistance to a force and gravitational mass being the cause of a
force.

Purpose
This experiment is designed to reveal the relationship between inertial mass and gravitational mass.

Equipment
inertial balance, slotted masses, stopwatch, balance, C-clamp

Procedure 1: Inertial Mass

Inertial mass can be determined with an inertial balance, which is simply a platform that can hold
various masses and be made to vibrate horizontally by the elastic action of a pair of spring steel blades.
Since the balance is accelerated by the elastic restoring force of the steel blades, the acceleration of the
balance, and therefore its period of vibration, depends on the mass of the balance and its load.

Set up the inertial balance and determine its period of vibration in seconds by measuring the time
required for 10 complete vibrations. The vibrations of the balance may be counted by holding a piece of
paper against one of the blades and listening to the repeated striking of the blade against the paper.
Make a total of five measurements of the period of vibration of the unloaded balance and record the
measurements in the data table.

Now load the balance by attaching one slotted mass to the balance. Determine the period of vibration of
the balance with this additional mass. Once again, you should make five measurements of the period
and record the values in the data table.

Continue adding slotted masses to the balance one at a time until a total of five masses have been used.
Determine the period of vibration for each mass combination and record these periods in the data
table. Calculate the average period for each mass combination. Assume that the slotted masses have the
same inertial mass mi. The various mass combinations may then be expressed as mi, 2mi, 3mi, 4mi, and
5mi.

The data you have collected will be used to calibrate the inertial balance. Plot the average period of
vibration in seconds as a function of the mass on the balance in multiples of mi. Next, plot the square of
the period of vibration as a function of the mass on the balance. The graph that gives a better linear fit
of the data should be used to calibrate the balance.
 43

Remove the slotted masses, attach the unknown mass to the balance, and measure the period of
vibration. Use the calibration curve for your balance to determine the inertial mass of the unknown
mass in terms of mi.

Procedure 2: Gravitational Mass

Gravitational mass can be determined by the standard lab procedure of weighing. Using a balance,
measure the mass of the five slotted masses used to calibrate the inertial balance and calculate their
average mass. The unknown inertial mass may now be expressed in grams by multiplying the average
slotted mass by the number of mi units of the unknown.

Determine the gravitational mass of the unknown by weighing it on the balance.

Analysis
Compare the inertial mass and the gravitational mass of the unknown by calculating the percent
difference:

|difference of the two alues|

percent difference
a erage of the two alues
 44

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Inertial Mass and Gravitational Mass

Period of Oscillation (s)

mass (mi) Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Average
0

unknown

inertial mass of unknown (mi):

average weight of slotted masses (g):

inertial mass of unknown (g):

gravitational mass of unknown (g):

percent difference (%):

How are inertial mass and gravitational mass related? In light of your answer, would your results vary
if this experiment were performed on the moon?
45
 46

Standing Waves in Strings

Introduction
The general appearance of waves can be shown by means of standing waves in a string. This type of
wave is important because most of the vibrations of bodies, such as air columns in wind instruments or
the strings of a piano, are standing waves. Standing waves may be produced by the interference of two
wave trains of the same wavelength, velocity, and amplitude traveling in opposite directions through
the same medium. This often occurs due to reflection.

A stretched string has many modes of vibration. It may vibrate as a single segment; its length is then
equal to ½ the wavelength (λ) of the vibrations produced. It may also vibrate in two segments, with a
node (i.e., no vertical displacement) in the middle; the wavelength is then equal to the length of the
string. As it vibrates in more segments, the length of the string is some whole number of half
wavelengths.

The velocity (v) of a wave on a string and the frequency (f) are related to the wavelength by

This same velocity is also related to the string tension (T) and the mass per unit length (µ):

Changing the tension thus changes the velocity of the wave and hence (if the frequency remains
constant) the wavelength. Therefore, as the tension is varied, the string will vibrate in different
numbers of segments.

In this experiment, standing waves are set up in a stretched string by the vibrations of an electrically
driven string vibrator operating with a 60-Hz alternating current. Through a process called
magnetostriction, the blade of the vibrator is attracted toward the pole face once during each half cycle,
and the frequency will be double that of the current supply, or f = 120 Hz. The tension in the string is
simply the weight of the masses suspended over the pulley (mg) and is altered by changing these
masses. This gives

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to study the relationship between tension and wavelength in a
vibrating string and to determine the natural vibrational frequencies of a stretched string by means of
standing wave patterns.

Equipment
electrically driven string vibrator, meter stick, support rod, clamp for vibrator, weight hanger, string,
set of slotted weights, balance, pulley
 47

Procedure
Cut off a piece of string about 1.6 m long. Measure and record the string’s total length and mass.
Calculate the mass per unit length of the string (the total string length divided by the mass).

Fasten one end of the string to the vibrator blade, pass the string over the pulley, and attach the weight
hanger at the other end. The pulley should be more than 1 m from the vibrator, which is supported by
the rod and clamps. Measure and record the length of the horizontal string.

Plug in the power cord. Increase the string tension by adding weight to the hanger until the string
vibrates in two segments. Adjust the tension by adding or removing small weights until the maximum
amplitude is formed.

Divide the horizontal string length by the number of segments. Record this segment length as L and the
tension as T (don’t forget to include the hanger mass) in the data table, and then calculate the
wavelength (λ = 2L).

Repeat the above procedure, decreasing the tension by removing weights until the string vibrates in a
total of 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 segments. In each case, adjust the tension to produce maximum amplitude.

Analysis
Calculate the frequency of the wave from λ, T, and µ. Find the average calculated frequency from all
measurements and the percent error from the known value of 120 Hz:

|accepted alue experimental alue|

percent error
accepted alue
 48

Name:

Lab Partner:

Standing Waves in Strings

total string length (m):

string mass (kg):

µ (kg/m):

horizontal string length (m):

# segments m (kg) T (N) L (m) λ (m) f (Hz)

2

favg (Hz):

percent error (%):

How much mass would be required to vibrate the string in one segment?
 49

Sound Resonance
Introduction
All systems have at least one natural vibrating frequency. When a particular system is driven by an
external force at or near its natural frequency, the energy transferred to the system by the source and
the resultant amplitude are maximized. In this case, the system is said to be in resonance, and the
natural frequency is called the resonant frequency.

Purpose
This experiment is designed to reveal relationship between sound resonance in an air column and the
length of the air column.

Equipment
resonance tube, five tuning forks of different frequencies, rubber mallet, meter stick, stethoscope,
computer

Procedure:
The resonance tube apparatus consists of a plastic tube approximately 100 cm long and a water
reservoir can, connected to the bottom of the plastic tube by a rubber hose, which permits adjustment
of the water level in the plastic tube. A tuning fork clamp is mounted on the support rod directly above
the upper end of the plastic tube.

Adjust the water level in the plastic tube by raising the reservoir can until the tube is nearly full. Clamp
a tuning fork of known frequency about 2 cm above the tube in such a manner that the prongs will
vibrate vertically. Gently strike the tuning fork with the rubber mallet. Slowly lower the water level in
the tube while listening for resonance to occur. At resonance, there is a sudden increase in the intensity
of the sound. When the approximate resonance position has been located, adjust the water level up and
down near this point until the position of maximum sound intensity is found. It may be necessary to
strike the tuning fork several times. A stethoscope may be used to more accurately locate this position.
Measure and record the length of the resonating air column. Make two additional determinations of this
length by changing the water level and locating the position of maximum sound intensity again. Record
these two measurements in the data table and calculate the average of the three trials.

Lower the water level in the tube until a second resonance position is found. (Low frequencies may not
have a second resonance position. Move on.) Repeat the procedure described above and calculate the
average length for three trials.

Repeat the procedure outlined above for four additional tuning forks of different frequencies.

Analysis
Plot a graph of the length of the air column for the first resonance position as a function of the
reciprocal of the frequency of the driving source (i.e., the frequency of the tuning fork) and obtain a
linear fit. Repeat this procedure for the second resonance position.

Calculations
Determine the slope of each graph and calculate the ratio of the slope of the first graph to the slope of
the second graph. As the maximum amplitude of the sound is next to the tu e’s opening, and
,

we should get the following resonances in the tube:

 50

From this information, the slope of the first graph should be ¼ the speed of sound, while the slope of
the second graph should be ¾ the speed of sound. The accepted speed of sound at 68 °F and 50%
humidity is 344 m/s. Use this value to calculate the percent error:

|accepted alue measured alue|

percent error
accepted alue
 51

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Sound Resonance
first resonance position (m) second resonance position (m)
f (Hz) 1 2 3 avg 1 2 3 avg

slope of first graph (m/s):

slope of second graph (m/s):

ratio of the slopes:

experimental vsound from first graph (m/s):

first graph percent error (%):

experimental vsound from second graph (m/s):

second graph percent error (%):

Calculate the first two resonance positions for 1 kHz.

 52

Archimedes’ Principle

Introduction
Archimedes’ principle states that any object completely or partially submerged in a fluid experiences an
upward buoyant force whose magnitude is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. This
idea is responsi le for the “light” feeling one gets in a swimming pool and underlies the reason that
boats float. Mathematically, an object which displaces a volume V in a fluid of density ρ experiences a
buoyant force of

Here, the buoyant force may be measured through the change in displacement of a mass hanging on a
spring when submerged in water. Specifically, the spring force,

(where k is the spring constant) will supplement the buoyant force, and these two can be compared to
the gravitational force. In equilibrium (no acceleration), the net upward force should be zero:

Therefore, the amount of stretching in the spring from equilibrium (y) (not the total spring length) will
directly depend on the volume of the mass under the water, which is given by the depth (d) of the
object under the water multiplied by its cross-sectional area (A):

( )
Purpose
This experiment measures the buoyant force on an object placed in a fluid.

Equipment
mass, spring, stand, beaker, ruler, computer

Procedure
Use your own methods to determine the spring constant, the density of water, and the cross-sectional
area of the mass. Keeping the mass constant, measure the relationship between the distance the spring
stretches and the depth of the mass in the water. All depths should be measured between the point at
which the bottom of the mass touches the surface of the water and the point at which the top of the
mass touches the surface of the water. Record this data in the data table.

Analysis
Plot your experimental data alongside the theoretical equation above.
 53

Name:

Lab Partner:

Archimedes’ Principle
k (N/m):

A (m2):

H (kg/m3):

d (m)

y (m)

Compare your data with the theory and explain the discrepancies.

Suppose a king wanted to know if his crown made of pure gold (very dense) or had been infused with a
less-dense metal like silver to make it cheaper. How could he find out?
 54

Thermal Expansion

CAUTION: This exercise involves the use of steam and the handling of hot metal tubes.
Work slowly and carefully.

Introduction
As an o ject’s temperature increases, the kinetic energy of its constituent atoms increases. This
requires the object to expand in size so the atoms have more room to move. An object of length L
undergoing a temperature change of ΔT will increase its length y a small alue ΔL, where

Each material has a unique coefficient of linear expansion α, which effectively determines its rate of
expansion with respect to temperature. For isotropic materials, such as metals, α is the same for all
dimensions (length, width, and thickness). Thus, we can simply measure the change in length in one
dimension to determine an isotropic o ject’s coefficient of linear expansion.

Purpose
This experiment is designed to measure the coefficient of linear expansion for two metals—aluminum
(Al) and copper (Cu)—and to compare the measured values with the accepted values.

Equipment
coefficient of linear expansion apparatus, tape measure, steam generator, Al and Cu tubes, ohmmeter,
large wooden block, small wooden block, rubber tube, small beaker, safety glasses

Procedure
Measure the length L of the Al tube at room temperature from the inner edge of the stainless steel pin
on one end to the inner edge of the angle bracket on the other end. Record this measurement in the
data table.

Mount the Al tube in the expansion apparatus. The stainless steel pin of the tube fits into the slot on the
mounting block, and the bracket on the tube presses against the spring arm of the dial gauge. Slide or
push the tube to one side of the slide support. Drive the thumbscrew against the pin until the tube can
no longer be moved. Use this as the reference point.

Use the thumbscrew to attach the thermistor lug to the threaded hole in the middle of the Al tube. The
lug should be aligned with the axis of the tube, so there is maximum contact between the lug and the
tube. Place the foam insulation over the thermistor lug. The electrical resistance of the thermistor will
be used to measure temperature. As the temperature of the thermistor increases, its resistance
decreases. A thermistor conversion table is found on the top of the expansion apparatus. Using the
ohmmeter, measure the resistance of the thermistor at room temperature. This is also the temperature
of the Al tube at room temperature. Record this measurement as R1 in the data table.

Turn the outer casing of the dial gauge to align the zero point on the scale with the long indicator
needle. As the temperature of the Al tube increases, the needle will turn in a counterclockwise
direction. This means that the inner scale (the one in red) should be used for all measurements of
length increase.

Fill the steam generator a out ⅓ full of water. Use a piece of ru er or plastic tu ing to attach the
steam generator to the end of the Al tube. Attach it at the end farthest from the dial gauge. Place the
small block of wood on the open hole on the steam generator plug. Use the larger block of wood to
 55

elevate the end of the expansion apparatus at which the steam enters the Al tube; this will allow any
condensation in the tube to drain out. Place a small beaker under the other end of the tube to catch the
condensate.

Turn on the steam generator. As steam begins to flow into the Al tube, observe the dial gauge and the
ohmmeter. When the thermistor resistance stabilizes, measure and record the resistance reading R2 in
the data ta le. Also record the expansion length ΔL of the tube as indicated by the displacement of the
needle on the dial gauge. Each increment on the dial gauge is equivalent to 0.01 mm of expansion.

Replace the Al tube with the Cu tube and repeat the procedure outlined above. CAUTION: the Al tube
may be hot. When changing tubes, be careful not to pull the wires off the thermistor. The thumbscrew
must be completely removed before the thermistor lug can be lifted off the threaded rod on the tube.

Analysis
Use the thermistor conversion table to convert the thermistor resistance measurements R1 and R2 into
corresponding temperature measurements T1 and T2. Record these temperatures in the data table.
Calculate the change in temperature ΔT = T2 – T1 of the metal tube and record the result in the data
table. Using the equation for thermal expansion, calculate the experimental value of the coefficient of
linear expansion α.

Compare the experimental value with the accepted value by calculating the percent error:

|accepted alue experimental alue|

percent error
accepted alue
 56

Name:

Lab Partner:

Thermal Expansion
tube accepted α (°C–1) L (mm) R1 (kΩ) R2 (kΩ) T1 (°C) T2 (°C) ΔL (mm) ΔT (°C)
Al 2.3 × 10–5

Cu 1.7 × 10–5

experimental αAl (°C–1):

percent error for Al tube (%):

experimental αCu (°C–1):

percent error for Cu tube (%):

The melting point for Cu is 085 °C. The melting point for Al is 660 °C. Find ΔL for each rod is heated to
those temperatures.
 57

The Specific Heats of Metals

CAUTION: This exercise involves the use of flames and boiling water. Work slowly and
carefully.

Introduction
A change in temperature is one of the effects that may occur when heat energy is added to or removed
from a substance. However, when the same quantity of heat is added to the same mass of different
substances, the temperature changes will be different. This concept is given operational meaning by
means of the quantity called specific heat, a characteristic property of matter. By definition, the specific
heat (c) of a substance is the quantity of heat (Q) required to increase the temperature (T) of a 1-g mass
(m) of that substance by 1 °C. Mathematically,

Purpose
The conservation of energy principle will be used to determine the specific heats of some common
metals.

Equipment
calorimeter, metal masses, thermometer, Bunsen burner, tripod, wire gauze, balance, Pyrex beaker,
piece of string, spark lighter, gas hose, safety goggles

Procedure
Fill the beaker about ½ full of water and heat the water until it boils. While waiting for the water to boil,
measure and record the mass of the calorimeter cup. Fill the cup a out ⅓ full with cool water. Measure
and record the mass of the cup and cool water. Calculate the mass of the cool water by subtracting the
mass of the cup from the mass of the cup plus water.

Measure and record the mass of the metal sample. Using the string, lower the metal mass into the
boiling water. Let the metal remain in the boiling water for about five minutes, and then measure and
record the temperature of the boiling water. The temperature of the metal you placed in the boiling
water is the same as the temperature of the boiling water.

Measure and record the temperature of the cool water. Remove the metal from the boiling water and
quickly lower it into the cool water in the calorimeter cup. Gently stir the water. When the water
reaches a constant temperature, record this temperature as the final temperature of the mixture.

Calculate the change in temperature of the metal (ΔTm) and the change in the temperature of the cool
water (ΔTw).

Repeat the above procedure for the second metal sample.

Analysis
The heat gained by the water (Qw) is given by Qw = mwcwΔTw, where mw is the mass of the water, the
specific heat of water is cw = 4 86 J/(kg∙°C), and ΔTw is the temperature change of the water. Calculate
the heat gained by the water.

Using the same relationship, calculate the heat lost by the metals. Since cm is not known, your answers
will be in terms of cm.
 58

The conservation of energy implies that the heat lost by the metal must equal the heat gained by the
water and calorimeter cup. Thus, Qm = –Qw. From this, determine the specific heat of the metals (cm).

Calculate the percent error of your measurements versus the known value for your metal.

|accepted alue experimental alue|

percent error
accepted alue

metal cm [J/(kg∙°C)]
brass 380
zinc (Zn) 388
lead (Pb) 127
copper (Cu) 385
cadmium (Cd) 233
 59

Name:

Lab Partner:

The Specific Heats of Metals

variable metal 1 metal 2
metal type

mass of calorimeter cup (kg)

mass of cup and cool water (kg)

mass of cool water (kg)

mass of metal (kg)

temperature of cool water (°C)

temperature of hot metal (°C)

final temperature of mixture (°C)

ΔT of metal (°C)

ΔT of water (°C)

heat gained by water (J)

specific hea of he me al [J/(kg∙°C)]

percent error (%)

The specific heat of water is very large: 4186 J/kg∙°C. What would be a consequence of a small specific
heat for water?
 60

Changes of Phase

CAUTION: This exercise involves the use of flames and boiling water. Work slowly and
carefully.

Introduction
Adding heat (Q) to a system of mass m will most often increase the temperature (ΔT) of that system
according to the system’s specific heat (c):

However, the rate at which the temperature changes is dependent on the temperature itself, and when
undergoing a change of phase, a system will not change temperature at all. Instead, the energy added
goes toward breaking chemical bonds. This process is described by the latent heats of fusion (Lf) and
vaporization (Lv):

For water, known values are c = 4. 86 kJ/kg∙°C, Lf = 333 kJ/kg, and Lv = 2.26 MJ/kg.

Purpose
Watching the rate of change of temperature through two phase changes will reveal the dependence of a
system’s temperature change on its current state.

Equipment
thermometer, ice, Bunsen burner, tripod, wire gauze, balance, Pyrex beaker, spark lighter, gas hose,
computer, support rod, clamp, safety goggles

Procedure
Measure the mass of the eaker. Fill the eaker a out ⅔ full of water and ice and measure its mass.
Subtract the former from the latter to obtain the mass of the water and ice. Let the thermometer hang
from the clamp into the middle of the eaker. (Don’t push the screw directly into the glass.) When the
ice-water temperature stabilizes, slowly begin heating the water with the Bunsen burner, being sure to
keep the flame constant throughout the experiment. Every 15 s, record the time and temperature of the
system until the water has been boiling for 5 min.

Analysis
Plot your data and answer the questions at the end of the lab.
 61

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Changes of Phase

H (kg):

Explain any non-linearity in ΔT while the water was heating (apart from phase changes).

How would your data differ if you used twice as much water?

What was the power delivered to the water by the Bunsen burner?
 62

Adiabatic Compression
– or –
Physics + English = Fun!

Introduction
An adiabatic process is one in which there is no transfer of heat between a system and its surroundings.
In practice, this requirement cannot be fully satisfied, but in well-insulated systems, good
approximations can be made. In addition, rapidly changing systems do not allow enough time for heat
transfer (typically a slow process) to take place.

When an ideal gas is compressed adiabatically from an initial to a final state, we find that

In air, γ = 1.395.

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to show the relationship between temperature and volume during
adiabatic compression.

Equipment
fire syringe, paper towels, thermometer, ruler

Procedure
Measure the initial temperature and volume of the air column in the fire syringe. Place bits of paper
towel in the ottom of the tu e. Grease the piston’s ru er seals. Quickly force the piston to the ottom
of the tube until the paper ignites.

Analysis
Answer the questions at the end of the lab.
 63

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Adiabatic Compression
Explain why the paper does not ignite for slow compression of the piston.

What was the volume of the air (in cm3) when the paper ignited? (Use your knowledge of 1950s
American literature.)
 64

The Electric Field

Introduction
A conductor in equilibrium is one in which there is no net motion of charge. Such conductors have
equipotential (constant voltage) surfaces, and the surface electric field is perpendicular to the surface.

More generally, we should expect to find electric field lines running perpendicular to any equipotential
surface, as the electric field will always point in the direction of the most rapidly decreasing electric
potential.1

Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to plot invisible electric field lines between two charges and discern the
relationship between electric potential and an electric field.

Equipment
voltmeter, power supply, cables, alligator clips, electric field experiment boxes, conductive ink, graph
paper

Procedure 1
Pin the corners of the conductive paper to the cork board. Add two dots of conductive ink to the points
(10, 10) and (18, 10) and push one metallic push-pin through each dot. Connect one pin to the positive
lead and one to the negative lead of the power supply. Mark the locations of the push-pins on the graph
paper and label them + (red terminal) and – (black terminal). Set the power supply to 10 V.

Attach the ground terminal (black) of the voltmeter to the negative push-pin or negative terminal of the
power supply. Use the positive (red) probe to measure the voltage at the seven grid points on the line
between the two contacts. For each point, find the line of constant potential that goes through it, and
draw it on the graph paper until it goes off the paper or makes a complete loop. Be sure to trace it both
ways from the center line. These lines are equipotential lines.

Procedure 2
Tape the voltmeter probes together so that the distance between them stays fixed. Using the fact that
the measured voltage should be greatest in the direction of the electric field, draw the electric field
vectors on the same graph paper as the equipotential lines, taking measurements at even-numbered x
and y coordinates between (6, 4) and (22, 16).

When finished, connect the vectors, keeping in mind that

1. Lines begin on positive charges and end on negative charges.
2. The number of lines beginning or ending on a charge is proportional to the charge.
3. Field lines cannot cross.

Turn in your completed graph paper.

1Think of the motion of an object in a gravitational field. Falling objects always move toward the center of the
Earth, in the direction of the most rapidly decreasing gravitational potential energy.
 65

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

Introduction
Two adjacent devices which have the same voltage across them are in parallel, and two adjacent
devices which have the same current running through them are in series. Capacitors in series and
parallel may be reduced to an equivalent capacitance to simplify a circuit. Due to the nature of the
charge stored on a capacitor (Q = CV), however, capacitors add differently in series and in parallel.
Capacitors in parallel have the following properties:

total
total
eq

while capacitors in series have the following properties:

total
total

eq

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate how capacitors add together in series and parallel.

Equipment
DC power supply, voltmeter, cables, alligator clips, capacitors, breadboard

Procedure
Calculate the voltage difference between points A and B, B and C, and A and C for the following circuit.
 66

This should be done by reducing the circuit to the following circuits.

Next, set up the actual circuit using the equipment provided, keeping in mind that the voltage is
constant across a row on the breadboard. Note: Some capacitors are polarized, which means they
can only be connected in one orientation. Such capacitors will typically have minus signs, a black
band, and/or an arrow pointing to one side. This side should be connected to the lower voltage
side of the circuit (toward ground and away from the higher voltage). Failure to connect these
capacitors correctly may result in their explosion. Measure voltages VAB, VBC, and VAC, recording
each value below.

Analysis
Calculate the percent error for each measured voltage and answer the questions at the end of the lab.

|accepted alue experimental alue|

error
accepted alue
 67

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Capacitors in Series and Parallel

voltage (V) calculated value (V) measured value (V) percent error (%)
VAB

VBC

VAC

Why do you think your data may not match your calculations?

Why are our “parallel-plate” capacitors in the shape of cylinders?

 68

Resistivity
Introduction
Electrical resistance is measure of how much voltage must be applied to a material to obtain a certain
current. However, resistance is dependent on geometry. For instance, longer and narrower objects
produce higher resistance. A more inherent measure of an o ject’s inhibition of current comes about in
the resistivity. Given a sample of length l and cross-sectional area A, the resistance R is related to the
resistivity ρ by

Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to examine the dependence of a material’s resistance on its length, cross-
sectional area, and type.

Equipment
power supply, resistivity apparatus, voltmeter, cables, computer

Procedure 1: Resistance as a Function of Length

The apparatus has a 2-A fuse; the current must remain below this value. Below is a picture of the
apparatus. You should not connect the power supply until instructed to do so below.

to DC power
supply

screw clamp wire sample screw clamp

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

probe leads
(to voltmeter)

Choose the copper wire with diameter d = 40 mil (radius r = 0.0508 cm). Attach it to the apparatus
using the following steps.
1. Push the two probe leads all the way to the edges of the apparatus (i.e., on the plastic ramps).
2. Thread the wire under the probe leads and metal clamps at the sides of the apparatus.
3. Screw the clamps down so that electrical contact is made.
Note that the power supply will make direct contact with these clamps.

Connect the leads of the voltmeter to the probe leads, and use the most accurate setting. With the
power supply off, connect the positive and negative terminals to the other banana ports on the sides of
the apparatus. On the power supply,
1. Turn the voltage and current knobs all the way down.
2. Turn the power supply on.
3. Slowly adjust the voltage and current knobs until the current readout on the power supply
reads 1.51 A. The wire will be hot; do not touch it while the power supply is on.
4. Turn the current kno down until the current is .50 A and the “Current Limited” light is on.
5. Turn the voltage knob all the way up; the current should not change.
6. Leave the power supply at these settings for the entire lab.
 69

Set the left probe lead at 0 cm. By placing the right probe lead at different locations spaced out along
the conductor (2, 4, 8, 14, 19, and 24 cm), take six voltage readings from the voltmeter. These will likely
be in the range of a few mV. Using the current and Ohm’s Law (V = IR), convert your voltage readings
into resistance values; if you use mV and A, your resistance will e in mΩ.

Plot the resistance R vs. the length l of the conductor. Fit a trendline to this data, and for “Options,”
select “Set intercept = 0” and “Display Equation on Chart.” The slope of this line gi es you a measure of
R/l (measured in mΩ/cm), which you can then multiply by the cross-sectional area A = πr2 (in cm2) to
get the resistivity ρ:

( )

This alue should e less than mΩ⋅cm, so con ert it to μΩ⋅cm. Repeat this procedure for aluminum
(light gray) and nichrome (dark gray and nonmagnetic), remembering to disconnect the power supply
before changing wires.

Procedure 2: Resistance as a Function of Cross-Sectional Area

You should have four brass wires of different sizes:

d (mil) r (cm)
20 0.0254
32 0.0406
40 0.0508
50 0.0635

Select the thinnest brass wire and attach it as you had the copper. Set the probe leads to 0 cm and 24
cm, and measure the voltage across the wire. Repeat this step with the other three gauges of brass wire.
Using your multimeter voltage and power supply current readings, compute resistance values for each
brass wire. Plot R (in mΩ) vs. 1/A (in cm–2) and fit a trendline to it. Take the slope of this line (in
mΩ⋅cm2), divide it by the length of the wire l (in cm), and find the resistivity ρ (in μΩ⋅cm):

Analysis
Print all plots and fill out the data tables using

|accepted alue experimental alue|

percent error
accepted alue
 70

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Resistivity
material slope (mΩ/cm) experimental ρ (µΩ∙cm) accepted ρ (µΩ∙cm) % error
copper 1.8

aluminum 4.9

nichrome 108

material slope (mΩ∙cm2) experimental ρ (µΩ∙cm) accepted ρ (µΩ∙cm) % error

brass 7.0

What happens to the resistivity of the wires when you turn the power supply off?

Why are thicker wires used when more current is needed?

 71

Series and Parallel Circuits

Introduction
Circuit elements in series and parallel have different responses to voltages and currents. Light bulbs
may be approximated as resistors so that the rules of resistors in series and parallel may apply.

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment is to view the effects of series and parallel circuit configurations on
voltage and current characteristics.

Equipment
power supply, light bulbs, sockets, multimeter, wires

Procedure 1: Series Circuit

Make sure all your light bulbs are of the same type. If the bottom parts of the inside of the light bulbs
are yellow, use 6.3 V on your power supply. If the bottom parts of the inside of the light bulbs are white,
use 2.3 V. Use the same voltage on the power supply for the entire lab.

Connect a light bulb to the power supply and begin to fill out the table at the end of the lab, inserting the
total current in the circuit (as read on the power supply) and the voltage across the light bulb (using the
multimeter) under column 1. Add another light bulb in series, again recording the total current and the
average voltage across each light bulb (they should be similar) under column 2. Repeat until 5 light
bulbs have been added in series, and answer the questions under the table.
 72

Procedure 2: Parallel Circuit

Repeat Procedure 1, but add light bulbs in parallel instead of in series.

 73

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Series and Parallel Circuits

power supply voltage (V):

series light bulbs

series 1 2 3 4 5
Itotal (A)

Vbulb (V)

What happens to the brightness of each light bulb when more are added?

What happens when you unscrew one of the bulbs?

parallel light bulbs

parallel 1 2 3 4 5
Itotal (A)

Vbulb (V)

What happens to the brightness of each light bulb when more are added?

What happens when you unscrew one of the bulbs?

 74

Kirchhoff’s Rules

Introduction
Often, combinations of resistors cannot be reduced to an equivalent resistance (usually because a
oltage source makes this impossi le). In such cases, we must use Kirchhoff’s rules to determine
applicable voltages and currents in a circuit. They are as follows:

1. Junction Rule: The sum of the currents entering any junction must equal the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.
a. Assign symbols and directions to the currents in all branches of the circuit.
b. Don’t worry a out guessing the direction of a current incorrectly; the resulting answer will
be negative, but its magnitude will be correct.
2. Loop Rule: The sum of the potential differences across all the elements around any closed
circuit loop must be zero.
a. You must choose a direction for traversing the loop, and be consistent in going either
clockwise or counterclockwise.
b. As you traverse the loop, record voltage drops and rises in the following manner:
1) If a resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the change in voltage across the
resistor is –IR.
2) If a resistor is traversed in the direction opposite the current, the change in voltage
across the resistor is +IR.
3) If a source of emf is traversed in the direction of the emf (from – to + on the terminals),
the change in electric potential is .
4) If a source of emf is traversed in the direction opposite the emf (from + to – on the
terminals), the change in electric potential is .
3. To solve a particular circuit problem, you need as many independent equations as you have
unknown variables.

Purpose
The purpose of this la is to analyze a circuit’s oltages and currents using Kirchhoff’s rules.

Equipment
DC power supply, multimeter, cables, alligator clips, resistors, breadboard, computer

Procedure
Calculate the power delivered to the 68-Ω resistor in the following circuit using Kirchhoff’s rules and
the fact that the power (P) delivered to a resistor of value R with current I through it and voltage V
across it is given by
 75

Next, set up the actual circuit using the equipment provided, keeping in mind that the voltage is
constant across a row on the breadboard. Using the voltage and resistance setting, measure the power
delivered to the 68-Ω resistor.

Measure the voltage across the 68-Ω resistor, and from this and the measured resistance above,
calculate the actual power dissipated by that resistor. On the computer, record the total current in the
circuit (as seen on the power supply) at the given voltage, and record the total current as you decrease
the voltage in increments of 1 V. Plot this data.

Analysis
Calculate the percent error for the power and answer the questions at the end of the lab.

|accepted alue experimental alue|

error
accepted alue
 76

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Kirchhoff’s Rules
calculated P68 (W):

measured V68 (V):

measured R68 (Ω):

measured P68 (W):

percent error (%):

Why do you think your data may not match your calculations?

If you replaced the 68-Ω resistor with a 5-Ω resistor, what would be the power dissipated by the new
resistor?

Is your V vs. I plot linear? Why or why not?

 77

Magnetic Fields

Introduction
The Earth’s magnetic field is approximately 50 µT horizontal to the Earth’s surface and points
northward along the magnetic axis. By comparing the magnetic field at a given location due to a bar
magnet to that generated by the Earth, we can estimate the magnetic field strength of the bar magnet.

Purpose
The purpose of this la is to determine a ar magnet’s magnetic field strength.

Equipment
meter stick, bar magnet, compass, computer

Procedure
Place the compass at the 0-cm mark on the meter stick with its N-S poles aligned with the Earth’s
magnetic field (the black side should point north) and perpendicular to the meter stick.

Place the N pole of the bar magnet at the closest distance to the compass at which the needle is not
deflected. Using the figure below, record the angle θ on the compass (it should be 0°) and the distance
from the compass.

Move the magnet about 1/30 of the distance toward the compass and record θ and the distance from
the compass. Repeat until θ reaches approximately 80° (or 280°).

Analysis
The tangent of an angle in a right triangle is given by the ratio of the side opposite the angle to the side
adjacent to the angle. Thus, the direction the compass points should be a vector containing
contri utions from oth the ar magnet and Earth’s magnetic field; specifically, if θ is measured from
north,
 78

magnet
| | magnet Earth | |
Earth

Microsoft Excel uses radians by default for trigonometric calculations, so convert measurements of
degrees into radians with the following:

rad deg

Plot Bmagnet s. the magnet’s distance from the compass and answer the questions at the end of the la .
 79

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

Magnetic Fields
At what distance is the magnet’s field strength the same as the Earth’s? …twice? …half?

Name two reasons why gyroscopes are preferred over compasses for navigation.
 80

L/R Time Constant

Introduction
Multimeters can measure signal amplitudes but reveal very little about wave shapes and phases.
Oscilloscopes can display up to two signals of varying shapes, revealing more information about how a
given voltage or current behaves.

There are two main measurements an oscilloscope can make: voltage and time. Voltage is placed on the
y-axis, while time is on the x-axis. We can control how much voltage and time we see per division using
the knobs with those names. (A division is the space between large gridlines on the following graph.)

For example, suppose we have a sine wave with a peak-to-peak voltage of 8 V and a period of 3 ms. If
the oscilloscope is set to 2 V/div and 0.5 ms/div, the signal will span four gridlines in the y-direction
and repeat every six gridlines in the x-direction. The best way to display a signal is to have it fill up the
entire screen.

As an AC signal often repeats many times per second, we use a feature called triggering to get the
oscilloscope to draw the same line over and over so it appears steady to us. The trigger level
determines the starting voltage of that repeated line. Therefore, if the trigger level is set higher than the
actual signal, the signal will not steady itself on the screen.

Guidelines:
 The pro e’s grounded alligator clips should e connected to a known ground in the circuit.
 Vertical Mode selects the signal(s) you want displayed on the screen.
 The Input Coupling Switches work as follows:
 AC: only the AC part of the signal is shown
 GND: the signal is zeroed out so that you can adjust the reference point with the vertical
position knob
 DC: the entire signal is shown

In this lab, we will use an oscilloscope to measure the inductance of an inductor. We will do this by
measuring the inductive time constant for a resistor and inductor in series (shown in the following
circuit):
 81
L

V R

The current through an inductor will increase or decrease exponentially in time according to the
following respective equations:

⁄
( ) ( )
⁄
( )

Here If represents the final current and I0 represents the initial current, and the time constant is given
by

τ = L/R

Since the voltage across the resistor is directly proportional to the current through it, we can measure
increasing and decreasing resistor voltages as

⁄
( ) ( )
⁄
( )

By measuring these voltages at a given time, we can find the time constant, and thus, L.

Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to introduce you to an oscilloscope and allow you to measure an inductive
time constant.

Equipment
signal generator, oscilloscope, probe, resistor (50– 00 Ω), inductor, multimeter, breadboard

Procedure
Turn the oscilloscope on. Set triggering to channel 1 and turn automatic triggering on. Adjust your
signal’s reference point to zero (the middle of the screen).

Connect the probe to channel 1 and attach it to the Calibration output of the scope. Maximize the signal
on the screen. Verify that the signal is a 2 V peak-to-peak (bottom-to-top) square wave with a frequency
of 1 kHz. If it is not, you need to calibrate your scope before proceeding. This is always necessary when
using the scope, and is most easily done y turning applica le kno s in the “cali rate” direction seen on
the scope. Notify your instructor if you’re ha ing difficulty.

Measure R. Using a square wave input, build the circuit above on the breadboard without exceeding the
resistor’s ½-W rating. Place channel ’s pro e on the input ( efore the inductor) and channel ’s on the
output (after the inductor). (The pro es’ ground clips do not need to e connected.) Using the
oscilloscope, find a frequency high enough that the voltage barely reaches its asymptotic value. Draw
what you see at the end of the lab.
 82

It is easiest to adjust the oscilloscope and signal amplitude so that the bottom of the signal is at the
bottom of the screen and the top of the signal is at the top; you can then call the bottom V = 0 and
measure all voltages with respect to it. Similarly, the signal can be adjusted horizontally to put t = 0
(however you define it) in the middle of the screen and measure all times with respect to that point.
Using the equations above and the oscilloscope-measured inductor voltage, find L.
 83

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

L/R Time Constant

measured R (Ω):

volts/div:

s/div:

τ (µs):

L (H):

If the voltages across the inductor and resistor were added at any point in time, what would be the
result?
 84

The Wave Nature of Light

Introduction
The nature of light (i.e., wave or particle) was in contention until Thomas Young conclusively showed
that light is a wave in 1801. (We now know that light can be a particle or a wa e, ut that’s another
discussion.) His conclusion was based on the fact that particles never interfere, but any two waves of
the same kind can interfere. Young passed light through two narrow slits, which approximates two
separate sources of the same wavelength. On a screen behind the slits, light and dark patterns indicate
constructive and destructive interference. In this lab, we will quantify that interference using both
Young’s method (i.e., interference from two slits) and single-slit diffraction (i.e., interference from only
one slit).

Purpose
The purpose of this lab is to introduce you to the wave nature of light.

Equipment
laser, optics track, slits, screen

Procedure
The separation between the slits (d), the slit widths (a), and the distance to the screen (L) all affect the
interference pattern. You should see a large bright/dark pattern caused by diffraction and a smaller
pattern inside from interference. The distance between the centers of the bright spots in the smaller
pattern is given by

whereas the width of the large pattern’s right spot is gi en y

Set the distance between the screen and slits to be at least 3 m. Pick varying values of slit width and slit
separation, measure the separation between maxima, calculate the theoretical value, and find the
percent error:

|accepted alue experimental alue|

error
accepted alue
 85

Name:

Lab Partner(s):

The Wave Nature of Light

λ (nm):

L (m):

slits predicted actual percent error (%)

a (µm) d (µm) Δx (cm) w (cm) Δx (cm) w (cm) Δx w