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The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong Literary Village, Korea

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The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong

Literary Village, Korea
a b
Younghee Lee & David Weaver
a
Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of
Science and Technology, MacauPeople's Republic of China
b
School of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel & Sport Management, Business 2 (G27),
3.31, Griffith University (Gold Coast campus), SouthportQLD4222Australia
Published online: 05 Nov 2012.

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Yujeong Literary Village, Korea, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19:2, 181-198, DOI:
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 Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 2014
Vol. 19, No. 2, 181 – 198, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2012.735681

The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong Literary

Village, Korea
Downloaded by [Macau University of Science & Tech] at 01:36 23 January 2015

Younghee Lee1∗ and David Weaver2

1
Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macau University of Science and
Technology, Macau, People’s Republic of China
2
School of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel & Sport Management, Business 2 (G27), 3.31, Griffith
University (Gold Coast campus), Southport, QLD 4222, Australia

The application of Butler’s tourism area life cycle model to the Korean literary village and
hyper-destination of Kim Yujeong yields a basic pattern of conformity, although the stag-
gered and overlapping sequencing of indicators suggests the presence of successive
exploration, involvement, and development “tendencies” rather than stages. Apparent
contradictions between very high guest-to-host ratios and contact and relatively low
levels of resident dissatisfaction and attraction change reflect the topophilia of both resi-
dents and visitors and, more speculatively, the influence of a homogeneous cultural
context.

Key words: South Korea, literary village, tourism area life cycle, topophilia, destination
management, hyper-destination

Introduction of Butler (1980) provides a widely tested and

Persistent problems of economic underdeve-
lopment in a growing number of locations
are being addressed through the introduction
of tourism that capitalizes on unique local cul-
tural or natural assets. Literary tourism is one
such product, though assessments of its
success as a vehicle for sustainable develop-
ment are hindered by the absence of attendant
research. The tourism area life cycle (TALC)
relevant framework for assessing tourism
development from a sustainability perspective
at the local level, postulating a sequence of
stages that culminates in destination decline
as foundation tourism assets are progressively
undermined. This study tests the applicability
of the TALC to Kim Yujeong Literary
Village (henceforth KYLV), a popular literary
tourism destination in South Korea’s rural per-
iphery. East Asian destinations such as KYLV

∗
Email: youngheelee@must.edu.mo

# 2012 Asia Pacific Tourism Association

 182 Younghee Lee and David Weaver
are especially relevant because of the region’s
pattern of rapid contemporary tourism devel-
opment, much of which is occurring within
culturally and environmentally sensitive per-
ipheral and rural regions. Moreover, TALC
studies are limited in non-Western cultural set-
tings where conventional assumptions about
development and sustainability might not
pertain. This research, accordingly, enhances
the understanding of literary places as well as
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East Asian tourism dynamics, within an evol-
utionary sustainability context. Subsequent
sections of this article provide a literature
review of the TALC and literary tourism, a
description of the case study area, the
methods, the results, and theoretical and
managerial implications for sustainable devel-
opment in KYLV and other East Asian periph-
eral destinations.
Literature Review
Butler’s (1980) TALC has attracted consider-
able and sustained interest considering its
simple and intuitively logical assumption, in
an era dominated by the sustainability para-
digm, that unregulated tourism development
eventually breeches a destination’s economic,
socio-cultural, and environmental carrying
capacities and degrades the foundational cul-
tural and natural assets upon which the local
tourism sector depends. This is contended to
begin with an “exploration” stage character-
ized by random visits from adventurous or
“allocentric” tourists, and progress to an
“involvement” stage when locals establish
facilities to accommodate this traffic. Visita-
tion levels and associated development accel-
erate during the subsequent “development”
stage, during which local control and attrac-
tion authenticity are eroded as external inter-
ests gain control. Deteriorating conditions
culminate in slower growth during the “conso-
lidation” phase and no growth during “satur-
ation”. Cumulatively, these stages replicate
the product life cycle or “S” curve (Rogers,
1962) and may be succeeded by “decline” or
“rejuvenation” depending on the planning
and management decisions made.
Empirical applications of the TALC are
numerous and focused mainly on seaside and
other resort communities in “Western” set-
tings. These studies, although impeded by a
lack of robust data corroboration (Foster &
Murphy, 1991), tend to indicate broad confor-
mance as well as notable elements of non-
adherence, many of which call in question
the TALC’s assumptions of escalating unsus-
tainability. Local empowerment on Grand
Cayman Island, for example, actually
increased as development intensified because
of increased per capita wealth (Weaver,
1990), whereas a risk-intolerant psychocentric
market did not emerge in Niagara Falls
(Canada) during the “development” stage as
postulated (Getz, 1992). The relatively
benign involvement stage was bypassed
altogether in Coolangatta (Australia) because
of the catalytic influence of a new railway con-
nection (Faulkner & Russell, 1997), whereas
effects of stagnation were noted in Prince
Edward Island already during this same early
stage (Baum, 1998). Government, not free
markets, induced “stagnation” in Israeli
seaside resorts, thereby challenging assump-
tions about the culpability of free markets in
inducing unsustainable outcomes (Cohen-
Hattab & Shoval, 2004). More broadly, the
Scottish resort of St. Andrew’s has experienced
successive waves of the cycle based on a
sequence of new introduced products,
suggesting a stair-like graphic (Butler, 2011).
Such examples of non-conformance do not
erode the efficacy of the TALC but rather
confirm its utility as an ideal type against
 The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong Literary Village
which complex real-world situations can be
contextualized and compared, and model var-
iants delineated accordingly (Weaver &
Lawton, 2010). Lesley (1991) similarly
argues for its utility as a framework for desti-
nation analysis rather than a deterministic
forecast mechanism. A comprehensive constel-
lation of TALC variants, however, has not yet
appeared, partly because of geographical and
topical limitations in the types of destinations
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that have been investigated. English-language
TALC publications in the burgeoning region
of East Asia, in particular, are scarce (Choy,
1992; Morais, Dong, & Yang, 2006). Specifi-
cally, although the first four TALC stages
were confirmed in China’s Zhangjiajie
National Forest Park, visitors greatly outnum-
bered local residents from the outset and local
empowerment through ownership of accom-
modations increased as the stages progressed
(Zhong, Deng, & Xiang, 2008). In Danxia
Mountain, another protected area in China,
the introduction of a new attraction reversed
the decline stage and instigated rejuvenation,
as per the experience of St Andrews (Bao &
Zhang, 2006). TALC contours in ethnic
tourism destinations of Yunan province were
found to be substantially influenced by the
stage of tourism development in neighboring
destinations (Morais et al., 2006), whereas
the rich cultural heritage of Macau was
found to provide some insulation from the
deleterious effects of intensification from sus-
tained market interest and respect (Zhang,
Yu, & Yang, 2011). South Korea’s Suanbo
spa indicates broad adherence, including con-
temporary decline, but also specific and
deeply historical beginnings to the exploration
stage, which apparently commenced in 929
C.E. with the visit of the first king of the
Koryo dynasty (Lee, 2000).
The relative neglect of East Asian desti-
nations in TALC research is regrettable given
183
the region’s rapid domestic and inbound
tourism growth, enthusiasm for further devel-
opment, and the resulting expansion of
regional pleasure peripheries. Furthermore,
although the above studies also demonstrate
the broader pattern of overall conformity to
the TALC with significant anomalies in the
details, the probable influence of distinctive
East Asian tourism dynamics is indicated in
other studies that identify a distinctive eco-
tourism sector resonating with traditional
Zen Buddhist, Taoist, and Confucian influ-
ences (Buckley, Cater, Linsheng, & Chen,
2008; Weaver, 2002), the dominance of dom-
estic tourist markets (Lew, 2011), and the
primacy of government decision-making in sti-
mulating tourism development (Su & Teo,
2008). The subsequent expansion of tourism,
moreover, has implicated an increasing
number of ecologically and culturally sensitive
places. This has potential to stimulate stagnant
or underdeveloped economies, but also entails
the risk that the ecological and cultural integ-
rity of these destinations will be compromised
(Yiannakis & Davies, 2012).
Cultural tourism has been proposed as one
mechanism for realizing optimal outcomes,
considering its emphasis on “authentic”
ethnic and/or heritage attractions that demar-
cate a destination’s unique sense of place,
imbue these places with symbolism and
meaning that foster topophilia or “love of
place” (Tuan, in Johnston, Gregory, Pratt, &
Watts, 2001), and have considerable potential
to attract and engage a variety of tourist seg-
ments on a long-term basis. For some
localities, connections with nationally or inter-
nationally renowned literary figures form the
basis for a potentially viable cultural tourism
industry that facilitates sustainable outcomes.
In some cases, regional settings are marketed
through “literary trails” that feature multiple
nodes of interest (MacLeod, Hayes, & Slater,
 184 Younghee Lee and David Weaver
2009). Literary tourism has grown in popular-
ity because of the demand-side factors of nos-
talgia, curiosity, reflected place attachment,
authenticity-seeking, and patriotism and on
the supply-side because of awareness of the
potential of literary resources to stimulate
rural peripheries (Herbert, 2001). According
to Yiannakis and Davies (2012, pp. 33– 34),
“through literature, places can be constructed
as mystical, magical, sacred, unique, and
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‘other’ thus informing individuals’ ‘geographi-
cal imaginaries’ of locations, or regions”.
Literary villages, independently or as a com-
ponent of literary trails, are small rural places
developed as destinations because of associ-
ations with famous authors – the designation
can be official or informal. The research is
limited, but Herbert (2001) identified diver-
gent management models in two English lit-
erary places, one configuring a heritage site
where preservation of core authentic features
is emphasized, and the other a destination
where literary heritage is commodified to
facilitate tourism development. That most lit-
erary sites must reconcile between these
extremes, which, respectively, imply a rigor-
ously static and a highly dynamic cultural
landscape, is suggested by visitation from a
small core of “literary enthusiasts” as well as
a much larger cohort of “casual” heritage
tourists (Herbert, 2001; Smith, 2003). Enthu-
siasts may endorse “pure preservation”, but
the weight of casual numbers and managerial
awareness of development imperatives is
likely to favor the developmental model and
its more contrived service-scape. Squire
(1996) has already alluded to an unsustainable
trajectory in the development of tourism in
Prince Edward Island (associated with Lucy
Maud Montgomery’s Anne of Green
Gables), while Müller (2006) noted similar
trends in a study of two Swedish literary vil-
lages. Considering the small local populations,
even a small amount of tourism development
can spawn a “hyper-destination” where visi-
tors overwhelmingly outnumber the locals
and potentially accelerate the TALC (Weaver
& Lawton, 2010). The relationship between
sustainability and literary or other forms of
cultural tourism, accordingly, is contestable
and precarious, with the East Asian context
of the current case study adding further
complexity because of the distinctive tourism
dynamics it confers.
Literary Village of Kim Yujeong
KYLV, in South Korea’s rural Kangwon pro-
vince, is the hometown of Kim Yujeong
(1908 – 1937), a novelist very popular in
Korea for his rustic and humorous descrip-
tions of rural life in the 1930s. KYLV encom-
passes the village (previously named Shille)
and its immediate surroundings, which
served as the settings for Kim’s 14 novels. Lit-
erary village status was formally conferred in
2002 and despite being a “freestanding”
entity not connected to any existing literary
trail, the 273 residents hosted over 400,000
visitors in 2011 (KYLV, 2012). The resultant
visitor/resident of at least 1,465:1 demarcates
KYLV as a hyper-destination. This intensity,
beyond the popularity of Kim, owes to the
domestic attraction of cultural and heritage
resources as a consequence of South Korea’s
rising education levels and transition to post-
industrialism. Government accordingly has
recognized the utility of literary tourism for
stimulating economic development in selected
peripheral regions. KYLV has also benefited
from its proximity to the 15 million residents
of greater Seoul (40 min away by electric rail-
road) and Chunchon City, the provincial
capital (10 min by electric railroad). This rail
access has effectively incorporated KYLV
 The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong Literary Village
into the recreational hinterland of Seoul.
Moreover, KYLV is located within the munici-
pal boundaries of Chunchon City and it is
therefore possible to construe the “local” in
terms of the village itself as well as in reference
to this broader municipal affiliation.
Method
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Existing empirical investigations of the
TALC focus only on selected indicators.
This study innovates first by assessing a com-
plete set of 49 indicators (except for those
associated with rejuvenation) as extracted
from Butler (1980). Second, we attempted
to assign time parameters for each indicator
– exact or approximate as warranted –
which could then be sequenced chronologi-
cally. Full fidelity to the ideal Butler sequence
would mean that all the “exploration”-stage
indicators would be grouped together and
then followed by all the “involvement” indi-
cators, etc. The dates during which stage
transitions occur would also in theory be
precisely identifiable. This is important con-
sidering that the absence of any visitation
statistics before 2002 precludes the construc-
tion of a long-term visitor number curve that
might graphically depict stage shifts based on
this criterion.
A multi-methods framework was adopted
to obtain the required data. Especially impor-
tant for conveying visceral opinions about
KYLV were semi-structured interviews with
20 key local informants, conducted in
Korean by the first author between November
2007 and August 2012. These informants, all
of whom were aware of the first author’s role
as a researcher, included the chairman and
managers of KYLV, a real estate agent,
public officials, the publisher of the novels of
Kim Yujeong, two experts on Kim’s literature,
185
11 local farmers who cultivate land in the
background places of Kim’s novels, and facil-
ity owners. The chairman was an essential
informant because of his privileged role in
establishing KYLV and associated events and
facilities that have since propelled the develop-
ment of tourism. Official statistical data for
KYLV were accessed along with the 2001
topographic map (Guktojirijeongbowon, 2001),
the land register map of 2009 (Haniljydo,
2009), and 2011 satellite imagery from
Google Earth (2011). An interview was also
conducted with a Seoul-based Professor who
is an expert on Kim and knowledgeable
about the ongoing development of KYLV.
Personal observation during 7 visits between
November 2007 and August 2012 by the
first author was a further critical source of
information especially insofar as it was
informed both by scientific analysis as well
as the empathetic study of the novels of Kim
Yujeong and their succinct conveyance of the
village’s sense of place. During visits by the
first author in 2007 and 2012, semi-structured
interviews with a convenience sample totaling
40 visitors and 41 KYLV residents were
conducted. These 40 visitors, mainly from
metropolitan Seoul, Kyunggi Province, and
Chunchon City, were asked about their
motivations, transportation mode, expendi-
ture, sense of place and topophilia derived
from their experience, the nature of their on-
site contacts with local residents, and level of
satisfaction. The 41 local residents of KYLV
were asked about contact with tourists, jobs
related to tourism, the quality of life of the
local residents after KYLV, and the best/
worst outcome for villagers from tourism.
In each case, members of the group were
approached opportunistically, with tape-
recorded interviews lasting 10 – 15 min and
continuing with new group members until
no new themes or patterns emerged.
 186 Younghee Lee and David Weaver
Results
Table 1 shows the profile of tourists to the
KYLV and local residents. The majority of
the tourists (57.1%) were females and males
constituted 42.9%. Regarding the age, slightly
less than half of the tourists (47.6%) were
aged between 10 and 29 years. The majority
of tourists were from the metropolitan area
of Seoul. The expenditure of a great majority
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of tourists (80.9%) was less than US$ 10, indi-
cating that the main regional economy of
KYLV is not tourism. As shown in Table 1,
slightly less than 10% of local residents have
a job related to tourism. When the local resi-
dents were asked about the contact with
tourists in 2007, 70% of the respondents
said yes and only 30% said no. However, the
level of contact between tourists and local
residents has been on the decrease in 2012.
Table 2 depicts the empirically derived
chronology of the KYLV indicators. In
concert with the literature, a basic pattern of
adherence to the first three stages of the
TALC is discernible; hence, the results are
divided into exploration, involvement, and
development tendencies even though several
anomalies were also identified.
Exploration
The identification of 1938 as the specific com-
mencement year of the TALC derives from the
death in the previous year of Kim, who
achieved the fame that eluded him in life.
Curious visitors began to arrive in the village
because Lee Gwangsu, who was a Korean
literary magnate in 1930s, gave a memorial
address to Kim Yujeong and the memorial
writing for Kim Yujeong was published in a
literary magazine (Jogwangsa, 1937) of auth-
ority in 1930s (interview, publisher of Kim
Yujeong’s novels, September 6, 2012). Aside
from the period of the Korean War (1950 –
1953), during which Kim’s home was
destroyed and no visitation occurred at all,
tourist traffic until the late 1960s according
to the KYLV chairman was confined to irregu-
lar visits by a few university students and
researchers. They individually visited the
author’s paternal home site and background
places from his novels (interviews, May 14,
2008 and July 26, 2011). These characteristics
adhere to the allocentric/adventurous visita-
tion profile expected in the exploration stage
and are described by Plog (1973) as preferring
non-touristy areas, enjoying a sense of
discovery and delight in new experiences
before others have visited, favouring novel
and different areas, as well as high activity
levels, and preferring free and flexible travel.
Other exploration indicators, however,
appear to have persisted well beyond the
1960s. Neither informants nor documents,
for example, indicated notable social, cultural,
or environmental changes before the 2000s
from such visits. In the absence of local econ-
omic statistics, negligible economic impact is
apparent from an estimated average stay of
less than two hours (interview, KYLV admin-
istrative officer, March 24, 2011). Another
“exploration” indicator, the preservation of
attraction uniqueness, has persisted from
1938 to the present, evidenced in the continu-
ing status of Kim’s literary legacy as the sole
local attraction and based on the widely
expressed topophilia of the local residents.
As stated by one resident, “I am very proud
of Kim Yujeog who was born in my home-
town. Thanks to Kim Yujeong, my income
has been increased and also my neighbors
have earned some money temporary during
the period of literary events” (interview,
male, in seventies, the owner of supermarket
in KYLV, August 10, 2012). The indicator
 The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong Literary Village 187

Table 1 Individual Characteristics of Visitors and Local Residents

Variables Total (%)

Visitors 2007 (n ¼ 19) 2012 (n ¼ 21)

Gender
Male 47.4 42.9
Female 52.6 57.1
Age (years)
10– 19 21.1 23.8
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20– 29 15.8 23.8

30– 39 15.8 9.5
40– 49 26.3 9.5
50– 59 15.8 33.3
60 or above 5.3 0.0
Residential place
Chunchon City 47.4 14.3
The metropolitan area of Seoul 52.7 81.0
Transportation mode
Bus 10.5 42.8
Train 42.1 23.8
Automobile 47.4 38.0
Expenditure
Less than US$10 89.5 80.9
US$11 – 30 10.5 19.0
Satisfaction
Disagree 10.5 14.2
Agree 63.2 28.5
Strongly agree 26.3 52.3
Motivation
Education 21.2 28.5
Climbing 15.9 0.0
Accidently 10.6 4.7
Field trip 10.5 23.8
Public service 10.5 0.0
To know Kim Yujeong 15.8 38.0
Sightseeing 10.6 4.7
Local residents 2007 (n ¼ 20) 2012 (n ¼ 21)
Gender
Male 60.0 61.9
Female 40.0 38.1

(Continued)
 188 Younghee Lee and David Weaver
Table 1 Continued
Variables
Age (years)
10 – 19
20 – 29
30 – 39
40 – 49
50 – 59
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60 or above
Job related to tourism
Yes
No
Contact with tourists
Yes
No
“no specific facilities provided for visitors
(Butler, 1980)” was assessed as inapplicable
on the basis of the interview information
provided by a professorial expert on Kim
Yujeong, who stated that the construction of
the railway station in 1939 was directly
attributable to incipient demand from allo-
centric tourists based mainly in Seoul. Com-
muter traffic from farmers, merchants, and
local residents was therefore accommodated
subsequently and opportunistically (interview,
real estate officer, March 29, 2010).
Involvement
An “involvement” anomaly is the existence of
a high degree of contact between visitors and
local residents as early as 1938 and continuing
to the present. As shown in Table 1, the
majority of local residents (70%) had con-
tacted with tourists in 2007. Informants
including the KYLV chairman (interviews,
March 2010 and July 2011) described how
Total (%)
5.0 0.0
0.0 4.8
5.0 4.8
10.0 0.0
45.0 52.4
35.0 38.0
15.0 9.5
85.0 90.5
70.0 33.4
30.0 66.6
even the earliest visitors depended on guidance
from locals to find out the location of critical
literary sites, none of which were initially
sign-posted or indicated on maps. Despite
better contemporary signage, visitors com-
monly continue to ask locals for directions to
specific sites (interviews with chairman, as
above, and eight students of Kangwon
National University, November 2007).
Seven other “involvement” indicators were
confirmed, but made their appearance irregu-
larly between the late 1960s to the late
1990s, and for the most part still persist. For
example, the first identified use of advertising
to attract tourists was in 1969 when a memor-
ial event was established (interview, professor
of Kangwon National University, July 2011)
and this has persisted particularly in connec-
tion with various commemoration-related
events. For instance, the memorial ceremony
is held each year on March 29 and the memor-
ial business association for the village is sup-
ported by the “Kang-won daily News”
company (interview, KYLV administrative
 The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong Literary Village 189

Table 2 Chronological Status of Butler TALC Indicators in KYLV

Indicator Years Butler assignment

Small numbers of allocentric tourists 1938– 1968 Exploration

Small numbers of adventurous explorers 1938– 1968 Exploration
Irregular visitation patterns 1938– 1968 Exploration
No change in physical fabric and social milieu 1938– 2001 Exploration
by tourism
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Tourists’ exit and entrance have little 1938– 2001 Exploration

significance for the regional economy
Unique or different area for non-local visitors 1938– current Exploration
No specific facilities provided for visitors n/a Exploration
High contact between visitors and local 1938– current Involvement
residents
Tourist numbers at peak periods equal or 1960s– current Development
exceed locals
Some advertising to attract tourists 1969– current Involvement
Emergence of tourist season 1969– current Involvement
Provision of primary facilities for visitors 1985– current Involvement
The life of local residents is related to tourism 1985– current Involvement
Increase of numbers of visitors and regular visits 1993– current Involvement
Organization of tourist travel arrangements 1993– current Involvement
Pressure on government to improve 1999– 2010 Involvement
infrastructure
Formation of tourist market area by heavy 2002– current Development
advertisement
Noticeable change of physical appearance 2002– current Development
Development and commodification of natural 2002– current Development
and cultural attractions
Man-made imported facilities supplement 2002– current Development
original attractions
Changes in the physical appearance are not 2002– current Development
welcomed by all of the local population
Mid-centrics and institutionalized tourists 2002– current Development
replace allocentrics
Decline in local control over development n/a Development
Imported labor is utilized n/a Development
Auxiliary facilities for the tourist industry n/a Development

(Continued)
 190 Younghee Lee and David Weaver

Table 2 Continued
Indicator Years Butler assignment

Some locally provided facilities are superseded n/a Development

by larger, more elaborate, and more up-to-
date facilities
A major part of the local economy is tied to n/a Consolidation
tourism
The rate of increase in numbers of visitors n/a Consolidation
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declines
Marketing and advertising are wide-reaching n/a Consolidation
Major franchises and chains are represented but n/a Consolidation
few
The large number of visitors and facilities n/a Consolidation
arouses some opposition and discontent
among permanent residents
Well-defined recreational business districts are n/a Consolidation
formed
Capacity levels reached or exceeded, with 2002 – current Stagnation
environmental, social and economic problems
Peak numbers of visitors reached n/a Stagnation
Destination is no longer in fashion n/a Stagnation
Natural and genuine cultural attractions are n/a Stagnation
superseded by imported artificial attractions
New development will be peripheral to the n/a Stagnation
original tourist area
Existing properties are likely to experience n/a Stagnation
frequent changes in ownership
Organized mass tourists are mainly n/a Stagnation
psychocentrics
Increase of weekend or day trips 2002 – current Decline
The area cannot compete with newer n/a Decline
attractions
The area faces a declining market n/a Decline
The area no longer appeals to vacationers n/a Decline
Tourist facilities convert to other uses n/a Decline
More tourist facilities disappear n/a Decline
Local involvement in tourism increases as costs n/a Decline
decline

(Continued)
 The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong Literary Village
Table 2 Continued
Indicator
Hotels may become condominiums,
convalescent or retirement homes, or
conventional apartments
Tourist attractions draw permanent settlers,
especially the elderly
The area may start to become a tourist slum
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Note: n/a means not applicable.
officers, March 2010). The latter, since 1993,
has also supported and marketed an annual
writing contest every October that attracts
around 400 students to “Sanguk” farm (inter-
view, KYLV chairman, May 2010). KYLV
has been widely promoted by these events,
stimulating a pattern of regular and increased
visitation.
The emergence of a tourist season (Butler,
1980) has also been apparent since 1969 due
to the fact that the above-mentioned memorial
ceremony and later writing contest – and the
extra visitors they attract – occur, respect-
ively, each April and October. The more
recent indicator regarding the provision of
primary facilities for visitors (Butler, 1980) is
evident since 1985, when increasing demand
resulted in the establishment of the “Shinam-
sanjang hotel (1998)” and the “Bulgogijib
(1985)”, “Daeyong chicken ribs (1997)”,
“Koma chicken house (1999)”, and “Big
House (1999)” restaurants. Involvement is
also associated with the lives of local residents
being related to tourism, evident since 1985
when several private homes were converted
to locally run restaurants. One newly estab-
lished restaurant named “Yujeong Maul”
had been originally a private home until
2000 but was changed to a restaurant by
191
Years Butler assignment
n/a Decline
n/a Decline
n/a Decline
offering meals to laborers and public officials
(interview, restaurant owner, March 2010).
Organized travel arrangements (Butler,
1980) have been applicable since 1993 when
managers of the writing contests, climbing
contests at “Geumbyungsan mountain”, and
memorial ceremonies rented buses to trans-
port visitors to KYLV. According to adminis-
trative staff (interview, KYLV, December 22,
2011), buses serving the writing contests are
from all over South Korea, whereas those
serving the climbing contests and memorial
ceremonies, respectively, originate from
metropolitan Seoul and the home province.
From 1999 to 2010, the indicator relating to
pressure on government to improve infrastruc-
ture (Butler, 1980) was evident in response to
congested traffic conditions, especially on
weekends. After lobbying by KYLV residents
(interview, professor, July 2011), the Seoul-
Chunchon expressway and the Seoul-
Chunchon subway were completed in 2009
and 2010, respectively. Visitors to KYLV
dominate this traffic, and are a viable market
in their own right because of Seoul’s large
metropolitan population. Older adults,
exempt from carriage fare, are increasingly
important (interview, KYLV administrative
officer, December 22, 2011).
 192 Younghee Lee and David Weaver
Development
No KYLV visitation statistics were compiled
before 2002, but it is probable that peak
period traffic exceeded the resident population
(Butler, 1980) by the early 1960s, thus fulfill-
ing a prominent “development” indicator
during the involvement stage. After 2002,
family and student groups arrived in relatively
large numbers, producing the characteristic
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exponential visitor growth curve of the devel-
opment stage (Table 3). The 9,360 visitors
hosted during the April 2007 peak period
greatly exceeded the then local population of
256 (The statistics data of the Shindong-
Myeonsamuso, 2007).
Six other “development” indicators are dis-
cernible since 2002. The formation of a dis-
tinctive tourist market area through heavy
advertisement (Butler, 1980) is reflected in
publicity disseminated by the “Yemaek” lit-
erature association. This organization of nove-
lists and poets, based in Chunchon City, is
charged by local government with advertising
the memorial ceremony, the literature festival,
a literature camp and lecture, and other attrac-
tions, through a homepage, guide book, and
placards (interview, KYLV chairman, August
2011). This promotional role derives from
Yemaek’s overall management of KYLV, a
sole responsibility which in turn provides
most of their financial resources and accounts
for significant traffic from Chunchon City.
Tourists from Taegu city are also prominent
because of a travel agency there that sells
specialized packages.
The indicator “noticeable change of phys-
ical appearance (Butler, 1980)” pertains since
2002, when the literary village was formally
opened. Associated facilities subsequently
established include the renovated paternal
home, pavilion, treadmill, stable, resting
room, pond, well, and bronze statue. Places
were also renamed for relevant literary
themes; for example, to “Literature Street”,
“Street of Spring and Spring”, “Street of
Mountain Traveler”, “Street of New House
for Drinking”, “Street of Bean Field for
Picking Gold”, “Street of Rough Guy”, and
“Street of Camellia Blossom”. The “Street of
Public Hall” was renamed to “Street of Geum-
byeonguisuk” after a building where Kim
enlightened local residents during the early
1930s, and the station was renamed from
“Shinam (administrative place name)” to
“Kim Yujeong” in 2004. These new toponyms
contributed to the formation of the topophilia
of local residents (interviews with local resi-
dents, May 2008). As stated by one resident,
At first, the new place names relating to Kim
Yujeong were unfamiliar and strange. Some resi-
dents would damage the signposts of the new
names at night. However, we are very proud of
Kim Yujeong now because he upgraded the social
status of our village from common agricultural
village to literary village (older female, interviewed
May 21, 2008).
In 2007, a building was constructed to memor-
ialize Kim’s birth centenary. Programs there
relate to activities such as woodwork, book
exhibitions, images of Kim, exhibitions of
modern life, a coffee shop with musical enter-
tainment, drawings of cartoons, and camps,
which provide a first-hand 1930s experience.
Walking routes, established since 2009,
allow visitors to feel sense of place through
empathetic insights into Kim’s novels (inter-
views, 5 general attendees to the memorial cer-
emony for the 100th anniversary of Kim’s
birth, March 2010). Visitor quotes capture
this empathy: “This place gives me composure
and makes me discover myself” (older male
resident of Chunchon City, March 2010); “I
am coming and going between novels and
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Table 3 Number of Tourists in KYLV since 2002

The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong Literary Village

Number of tourists

Year Total School students University students General people Group tourists Remarks

2002 35,652 (100.0) 7,360 (20.6) 5,850 (16.4) 12,435 (34.6) 10,007 (28.0) 201 groups
2003 71,375 (100.0) 16,390 (22.9) 10,920 (15.2) 26,006 (36.4) 18,059 (25.3) 251 groups
2004 68,834 (100.0) 18,140 (26.3) 7,750 (11.2) 25,270 (36.7) 17,674 (25.6) 341 groups
2005 75,917 (100.0) 20,085 (26.4) 7,480 (9.8) 26,900 (35.4) 21,452 (28.2) 372 groups
2006 77,384 (100.0) 18,430 (23.8) 7,830 (10.1) 29,510 (38.1) 21,614 (27.9) 395 groups
2007 80,418 (100.0) 18,300 (22.7) 8,560 (10.6) 31,740 (39.4) 21,818 (27.1) 478 groups
2008 92,272 (100.0) 20,590 (22.3) 9,600 (10.4) 38,450 (41.6) 23,652 (25.6) 532 groups
2009 148,550 (100.0) 35,690 (24.0) 17,890 (12.0) 62,730 (42.2) 32,230 (21.6) 653 groups
2010 200,700 (100.0) 45,000 (22.4) 24,000 (11.9) 95,000 (47.3) 36,700 (18.2) 740 groups

Source: KYLV (2011).

Note: The number in parentheses represents percentage.

193
 194 Younghee Lee and David Weaver
reality in this place” (middle-aged resident of
Seoul, March 2010), “This route makes me
understand Kim himself” (middle-aged
female resident of Seoul, March 2010), and
“It seems that the soul of Kim is alive here”
(male university student from Chunchon
City, November 10, 2007). Supplementary
structures such as the museum and converted
restaurants and accommodations support the
indicator of “man-made” imported facilities
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supplementing the original attractions.
The related indicator alleging that “changes
in the physical appearance are not welcomed
by all of the local population (Butler, 1980)”
is evident in complaints by some local residents.
For example, land purchases by outsiders, con-
firmed by a local realtor (interview, March 24,
2010) have been greeted with suspicion by
some residents, whereas the above-mentioned
change in the name of train station in 2004
was at first widely opposed (though later sup-
ported) (interview, KYLV chairman, July 26,
2011). The incomplete building depicted
in Figure 1 illustrates a case of construction
interrupted by the objections of locals (inter-
view, KYLV administrative officer, August 2,
2011). The indicator “development and com-
modification of natural and cultural attractions
Figure 1 Building Construction Halted by Local Objectors (29 March 2010)
(Butler, 1980)” is applicable to the extent that
dominant facilities such as the paternal home,
stable, foot mill, rest room, pavilion, and
exhibition hall have been developed as
revenue-producing tourist attractions.
In 2009, the overwhelmingly Korean visi-
tors consisted of students (36.0%), general
public (42.2%), and group tourists (21.6%).
This diversity provides partial support for the
indicator “mid-centric and institutionalized
tourists replace allocentrics (Butler, 1980)”,
because allocentric and mid-centric tendencies
are likely to be, respectively, represented in the
numerically significant student and group
tourist cohorts. However, the data do not
reveal any increasing dominance of these
group tourists (who have fallen from 28.0%
in 2002 to 18.2% in 2010), although the
growing cohort of “general people” (from
34.6% in 2002 to 47.3% in 2010) cannot
clearly be associated with particular psycho-
graphic traits (Table 3).
The immaturity of the development stage is
evidenced by the absence or partial articula-
tion of several attributed indicators. “Decline
in local control over development (Butler,
1980)” is contestable and contingent upon
the meaning of “local”. If the latter confines
 The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong Literary Village
to KYLV, then local control never existed,
development control being the mandate of
the wider Chunchon City municipality of
which KYLV is part. This function, however,
is seldom invested in small villages, and
hence it is appropriate for this variable at
least to consider Chunchon City as local.
Accordingly, decline in local control is not
apparent. Currently, most KYLV facilities
are controlled by Chunchon City, which
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annually provides the rough equivalent of
US$50,000 to support these facilities and the
salaries of the village’s director, head official,
office manager and facilities administrator. In
addition, the background places of the novels
have been developed by Chunchon City since
2010.
Less ambiguously, there is no evidence of
imported tourism-related labor or the estab-
lishment of larger, more elaborate facilities
or auxiliary facilities. Two post-development
indicators, however, were identified. First, evi-
dence was found for the “stagnation”-stage
indicator of breeched environmental, social
and/or economic carrying capacity thresholds.
Specifically, congestion and waste disposal
problems are commonly experienced during
special events and other periods of peak visita-
tion. When 21 local residents were asked in
August 2012 about the worst outcome from
tourism, slightly less than 20% of respondents
answered the waste disposal problems by
tourists. One resident stated, “I am angry
with tourists because many tourists throw
away rubbish illegally on the road” (interview,
middle-aged male resident, August 16, 2012).
Second, increases in weekend and day trips,
related to the decline stage are evident in the
high proportion of day-only and weekend visi-
tors who typically stay for two to seven hours
due to KYLV’s accessibility to Seoul and other
major cities.
195
Discussion and Conclusion
The TALC’s continued relevance is supported
by KYLV’s broad conformity to exploration,
involvement, and development tendencies.
However, significant aberrations include
many indicators not adhering neatly to their
presumed stage timelines, and identification
of a specific cycle commencement date with
Kim’s death in 1937. This, however, does
not preclude a “pre-exploration” or “pre-
tourism” stage extending potentially back to
the original village settlement. The research
also invites further interrogation of the
“local”, there being logical reasons for focus-
ing on KYLV residents only when examining
community impacts, but the larger municipal-
ity of 300,000 when considering planning
and management. This “indicator dualism”
has not been previously considered in the
literature.
Overlapping of indicators from different
stages may reflect distinctive dynamics for lit-
erary villages, hyper-destinations, and/or East
Asian locations. KYLV in 1980 simultaneously
experienced “no change in the physical fabric
and social milieu by tourism” (exploration),
“high contact between visitors and local resi-
dents” (involvement), and “tourist numbers at
peak periods equal or exceed locals” (develop-
ment). High contact was still evident in 2011,
but the numeric disparity between locals and
tourists suggests a much higher per capita
contact level among the former. Some local
dissatisfaction is therefore expected, and
acknowledged by the KYLV business manager
(interview, November 2007). Interviews in
December 2007 revealed dissatisfaction in com-
ments such as “It seems that the local residents
think ill of tourists because they make noise”
(interview, older male resident, December 7,
2007) and “We do not like tourists because
 196 Younghee Lee and David Weaver
they do damage to our crops” (interview, older
female resident, December 7, 2007).
Nevertheless, overall sentiments toward
tourism among local residents are strongly
positive, with 90% of those interviewed expres-
sing satisfaction with tourism as an agent of
beneficial change and with the behavior of
tourists. As one resident stated, “Sometimes
we take pleasure in seeing weekend tourists
in our village” (interview, older female resi-
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dent, May 20, 2008). Another stated,
Several years ago, I actually did not like the group
who came to our village to investigate the back-
grounds of Kim’s novels because they dressed well
compared to me. However, my thoughts have
totally changed. The reason is because the power
of Kim’s novels is huge. It made our village
famous and attractive. The power of literature is
strong. (interview, middle-aged female resident,
May 20, 2008)
Residents continue to be stimulated, proud, and
honored by the presence of interested outsiders
within their once insular village, and the
authentic association with Kim continues to
drive tourism development. That such attitudes
persist despite an annual guest-host ratio of
almost 1,465:1 may owe partly to the over-
whelming dominance of day-only excursionists
staying for only about two hours.
These good attitudes and intentions are reci-
procated by visitors. Even group tour members
focus on appreciating KYLV’s unique theme,
thereby engendering generally good behavior
during visits and reinforcing topophilia. This
could both result from and account for the
notable absence of contrived or unrelated
attractions that usually begin to overwhelm
the foundation attraction during the develop-
ment stage, especially within hyper-desti-
nations. If anything, the literary associations
of KYLV have been strengthened over time
(e.g. by the street name changes and functional
adaptation of houses into restaurants) rather
than over-commodified or subsumed.
Thus, in the cultural formation of land-
scapes, the literary village theme may be rein-
forcing the topophilia of local residents rather
than moving the destination toward the uni-
formity and commodification usually associ-
ated with the TALC. Residents expressed
greater appreciation for their old residential
neighborhoods at present (March 2010) than
before the formation of the literary village.
Concurrently, new people, among them
artists and poets, have been motivated to
move into KYLV by their love for the village
and its identity (interview, KYLV administra-
tive officer, 29 July, 2011). However, danger
signs are apparent in the expressions of discon-
tent, accelerating visitor numbers since 2002,
and indications that some environmental
carrying capacity thresholds are being
exceeded, particularly during special events
when activity is compressed both temporally
and spatially.
One result is a dualistic landscape where
since 2002 Herbert’s (2001) heritage/appreci-
ation and destination/development modes of
literary village management have coexisted.
Pearce (1985) describes a similar state – a
crucial juncture – in which a destination is
neither too exotic nor too familiar. This
balance will become increasingly precarious
if visitation levels continue to increase so
rapidly, indicating the need for a clear sense
of the residents’ destination vision, and a
feasible blueprint for its implementation.
According to the KYLV chairman (interview,
July 26, 2011), the mandate to design and
develop the village to reflect its association
with Kim Yujeong is undisputed. However,
the blueprint is lacking. A complicating and
unsustainable factor is the lack of profit associ-
ated with the KYLV initiative, which charges
 The Tourism Area Life Cycle in Kim Yujeong Literary Village
no entrance fee and relies on local government
funding. A related issue is that decisions taken
by municipal planners and politicians in
Chunchon City may not reflect the views of
KYLV residents.
Outcomes may depend partly on the intrinsic
strengths of the literary theme, which have been
sufficient to sustain demand thus far. This speaks
to the possible capacity of literary places to gen-
erate distinctive and more sustainable TALC
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variants. Local governments in Korea are
increasingly interested, where feasible, in estab-
lishing their own literary villages, and KYLV
could serve as a prototype. It would be useful
to investigate other literature-based destinations
such as “booktowns”, similarly peripheral vil-
lages where second-hand and antiquarian book
sales dominate local retail activity (Seaton,
1999). Also deserving further investigation is
the concurrent influence of the Korean cultural
context. Strong ethnic bonds between the
Korean people and Kim, the novelist, may
encourage solidarity and minimization of stake-
holder conflict. Cultural tolerance for higher
density human contact in the region is well docu-
mented (Lee, 2001), as is high social cohesion
and acceptance of developments deemed to
enhance the greater social good. Such behaviors
and attitudes, deriving from Buddhist and
Confucianist traditions, may further encourage
reciprocal good behavior and contribute to the
public sector commitment, goal consensus,
cooperation among stakeholders, and “insti-
tutional thickness” (Agarwal, 2005) that have
facilitated effective local action to preserve
KYLV’s vibrant literary sense of place.
In conclusion, this research addressed an
empirical vacuum for the application of the
TALC while contributing to an enhanced
understanding of literary places dynamics
and was the first known attempt to test the
model within the context of literary villages,
with its associated tension between preser-
197
vation and development. Even though the
TALC model has many problems in its appli-
cation to Lancaster County (Hovinen, 1981),
seaside resorts (Agarwal, 2005; Foster &
Murphy, 1991; Weaver, 1988, 1990), falls
(Getz, 1992), and spas (Lee, 2001), it is esti-
mated that the model is useful to apply to lit-
erary villages, which have a short history and
simple tourism resource. This first examin-
ation of a literary village reveals the possibility
of a distinctive and seemingly paradoxical
TALC sub-model, though attendant character-
istics may owe as well, or alternatively, to the
Korean and the East Asian contexts of the
study. Further empirical investigations within
both arenas are therefore warranted, not
only to establish the existence of such a sub-
model, but also to use the findings from
follow-up residents and visitors to assist in
the development of strategies that ensure
optimal economic, social, cultural, and
environmental outcomes for the residents of
the KYLV and other literary villages.
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