ARC length: let r=r(t) = x (t) i + y(t) j be the equation of a curve and s=s (t)

denote the arc length from a to any point t. where a(=to) <t<b.

Therefore, us have
𝑡𝑡
S=s(t) = ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑟̇ (𝑡𝑡)𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= S=∫𝑎𝑎 � + � �2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Note: we shall use dasher to denote differential with respect to are length S. i.e

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑟𝑟
= 𝑟𝑟́ = 𝑟𝑟′′ 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 2
dot to denote differential w.r.to any other parameter i.e

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2
= 𝑟𝑟̇ = 𝑟𝑟̈
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 2
or

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑟𝑟
= 𝑟𝑟̇ = 𝑟𝑟̈
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢2
Ex 1. Find The length of the circular helix.

r (u) a cos u 𝚤𝚤̂ + a sin u 𝚥𝚥̂ + cu 𝑘𝑘� , - ∞ < 𝑢𝑢 < ∞

from (a,o,o) to (a,o,2vc )

Also obtain its equation in terms of parameter s.

Solution: clearly the limits of u are from cu=o to cu=2...C i.e from a=o to u=2.

The equation of the circular helix is

r (w) = a cos u 𝚤𝚤̂ + a sin u 𝚥𝚥̂ + cu𝑘𝑘�

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑟𝑟̇ = = −a sin u 𝚤𝚤̂ + a cos u 𝚥𝚥̂ + c𝑘𝑘�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

|𝑟𝑟̇ (𝑢𝑢)| = √𝑎𝑎2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛2 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 2 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑐𝑐 2 = √𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2

Therefore The length of the circular helix from (a,o,o) to (a,o,2..c) is
2
= � |𝑟𝑟̇ (𝑢𝑢)| 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑜𝑜

2
= � �𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑜𝑜

=√𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 [𝑢𝑢]o

Again, suppose S denotes the are length from the point where u=o to any point
u, we have.
4
𝑆𝑆 = � |𝑟𝑟̇ (𝑢𝑢)| 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑜𝑜

4
= � �𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑜𝑜

=√𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 [𝑢𝑢]o

𝑆𝑆
∴ 𝑢𝑢 =
√𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2

Hence The given equation of the circular helix in terms of parameter strans
forms to
𝑆𝑆 𝑆𝑆 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
r(s)=a cos � � 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑎𝑎 sin � � 𝚤𝚤̂ 𝑘𝑘�
√𝑎𝑎2 +𝑐𝑐 2 √𝑎𝑎2 +𝑐𝑐 2 √𝑎𝑎2 +𝑐𝑐 2

Ex 3. Find The length of the curve given as the intersection of the surfaces
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 2 𝑚𝑚
2
+ = 1, 𝑥𝑥 = cosh( )
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎

From the point (a,o,o) to the point (x,y,m)

Solution: The equation of the curve in the parameter from may be taken as

x=a coshu, y= b sinhu, m=au

The position vector r of any point on the curve is given by

𝑟𝑟 (u) = a cos u 𝚤𝚤̂ + a sin h u 𝚥𝚥̂ + au 𝑘𝑘�

𝑟𝑟̇ (w) a cos u 𝚤𝚤̂ + a sin h u 𝚥𝚥̂ + au 𝑘𝑘�

[𝑟𝑟̇ (𝑢𝑢)] = �𝑎𝑎2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛2 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠ℎ2 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎2

= �𝑎𝑎2 (1 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠ℎ2 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑏𝑏 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ2 𝑢𝑢

=√𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 cos hu

Also limits of u are clearly from u=o to any point 𝑢𝑢.

4
∴ 𝑆𝑆 = � |𝑟𝑟̇ (𝑢𝑢)| 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑜𝑜

4
= ∫𝑜𝑜 √𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑐𝑐 2 cos ℎ 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

=√𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 Sinh u
𝑦𝑦
= √𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 �𝑏𝑏

Tangent line: The tangent line to a curve c at a point p(u) of c is defined as the
limiting position of a straight L through p(u) and neighboring point Q (u+su) on
c as approves p along the curve.

To find the unite tangent vector to a curve.: -

Consider two neighboring point p(u) and Q (u+su) on c with position vectors r
and r+ and r+sr respectively, we have

PQ=OQ-OP

or S𝑟𝑟=𝑟𝑟(u+𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕) − 𝑟𝑟(𝑢𝑢)

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑟 (𝑢𝑢+𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕)−𝑟𝑟(𝑢𝑢)
= =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Now as Q → 𝑝𝑝 , 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 → 0

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
→ (= 𝑟𝑟̇ )
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Therefore taking the limit Q → p of expression 1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟(𝑢𝑢 + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕) − 𝑟𝑟(𝑢𝑢)

𝑟𝑟̇ = = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 → 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Thus we conclude that the vector 𝑟𝑟̇ is parallel. to the tangent line at p.

The unit tangent vector is denoted by t.

𝑟𝑟̇ 𝑟𝑟̇
t= [𝑟𝑟̇ ] = �𝑠𝑠̇ = [𝑟𝑟̇ ]�
𝑠𝑠̇

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

/ = = 𝑟𝑟́ (𝑡𝑡 = 𝑟𝑟́ )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Note that t is always points in the direction of motion along the curve.

osculating plane: (or plane of curvature)

Let c be a curve. Consider two neighboring point p and Q on c. Thus, the

osculating plane of c at p is the limiting point of the plane which contain the
tangent line at p and is parallel to the tangent at Q as Q----P.

# Find the equation of osculating plane. (or plane of curvature)

let the equation of the curve c be r = r (s)

let p (s) and Q (s+ss) with position vector respectively r (s) and r(s+ss) be two
neighboring points on the curve c where the arc length s is measured from some
fined point on c.

let the position vector of a current point R on the plane containing tangent line
at P and containing the point Q be R.
Now the vectors.

PQ= r (s+ss) – r (s)

PR= R – r (s)

and ŕ = t

lie in the plane RPQ: and Therefore, their scalar triple product must be hero. ie

The equation of the plane RPQ is given by

[𝑅𝑅 − 𝑟𝑟(𝑠𝑠), 𝑟𝑟́ (𝑠𝑠), 𝑟𝑟(𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠) − 𝑟𝑟 (𝑠𝑠)] = 0

Ex2: Find The equation of osculating plane at a general point on the curve given
by

R = (u, u2, u3).

Show that the osculating planes at any three points of this curve meet at a point
lying in the plane determined by their three points.

solution: r = (u, u1, u2)

𝑟𝑟̇ = (1, 2𝑢𝑢, 3u2 )

𝑟𝑟̈ = (0, 2, 6u)

𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ = (1, 2u, 3u2) × (0, 2, 6u)

𝚤𝚤̂ 𝚥𝚥̂ 𝑘𝑘�

= �1 2𝑢𝑢 3𝑢𝑢2 �
0 2 6𝑢𝑢

= (12 u2 – 6 u2) 𝚤𝚤̂ + (-6u) 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑘𝑘�

= 2 (3u2 𝚤𝚤̂-3u 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑘𝑘� )

The equation of the osculating plane at a general point (u, u2, u3) is given by
�𝑅𝑅 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟̇ , 𝑟𝑟̈ � = 0 𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒 �𝑅𝑅 − 𝑅𝑅�. (𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ ) =0

= ��𝑥𝑥𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝑦𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑚𝑚𝑘𝑘� � − �𝑢𝑢𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑢𝑢2 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑢𝑢3 𝑘𝑘�� �. 2 (3𝑢𝑢2 𝚥𝚥̂ − 3𝑢𝑢𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑘𝑘� )=0

= 3(x-u) u2 + (y-u2) (-3u) + (m-u3) = 0

= 3u2x-3uy+m-u3=0--------1

Let u1, u2, u3 be the three distinct values of the parameter. The osculating
planes at these points are linearly independent and these planes meet at a point
say (𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0, 𝑚𝑚0 ). The point (𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0, 𝑚𝑚0 ) lies on (i) i.e the parameters u1, u2, u3
will satisfy the condition

u3 3u2𝑥𝑥0 + 3u𝑦𝑦0 -𝑚𝑚0 = 0------------2

Suppose that the equation of the plane passing through these three
points is given by

ax + by+ cm + d =0 -----------3

The parameters must therefore satisfy the condemn

Au+ bu2+cu3+d=0

= cu3+buu+au+d=0-------------------4

But the equation 4 has three distrait roots, Therefore c ≠ 0.

Comparing coefficients of like powers of u in 2 and 4 we have

1 −3𝑥𝑥0 3𝑦𝑦0 −𝑚𝑚0

= = =
𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑

= a= 3c𝑦𝑦0 , b= -3x𝑥𝑥0 , d=-c𝑚𝑚0

Putting valises in 3 The equation of the plane is

3𝑐𝑐𝑦𝑦0 𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥0 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑐𝑐𝑚𝑚0 = 0

= 3𝑦𝑦0 𝑥𝑥 − 3𝑥𝑥0 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑚𝑚 − 𝑚𝑚0 = 0

Which clearly passes through (𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0, 𝑚𝑚0 ).

Ex3 Find The osculating plane at the point ‘u’ on the helix x=a cos u, y = a sin
u, m= cu

Solution: Given x=a cos u, y=a sin u, m = cu

Thus r = a x 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝑦𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘�

= a cos u 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘�

= 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑢𝑢 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑢𝑢 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑟𝑟̈ = 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑢𝑢 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑢𝑢 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑜𝑜. 𝑘𝑘�

𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ = (a sin u, a cos u, c) × (-a cos u, - a sin u, o)

𝚤𝚤̂ 𝚥𝚥̂ 𝑘𝑘�

= � −𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 �
− 𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑢𝑢 – 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜

= a c sin u 𝚤𝚤̂ - a c cos u 𝚥𝚥̂ + (𝑎𝑎2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛2 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 2 𝑢𝑢) 𝑘𝑘�

= a c(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛2 𝑢𝑢 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 2 𝚥𝚥̂) + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑘𝑘�

∴ 𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ = 𝑎𝑎 (𝑐𝑐 sin 𝑢𝑢 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑐𝑐 cos 𝑢𝑢 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘� )

The equation of the osculating plane is given by

�𝑅𝑅 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑟𝑟̇ , 𝑟𝑟̈ � = 0

= (𝑅𝑅 − 𝑟𝑟). {𝑟𝑟̇ , 𝑟𝑟̈ } = 0

=�𝑥𝑥𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑦𝑦 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑚𝑚 𝑘𝑘� ) − (𝑎𝑎 cos 𝑢𝑢 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑎𝑎 sin 𝑢𝑢 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘� )�

a (c sin 𝑢𝑢 𝚤𝚤̂ + 𝑐𝑐 cos 𝑢𝑢 𝚥𝚥̂ + 𝑎𝑎 𝑘𝑘� ) = 0

= (X- a cos u ) c sin u+ (y-a sin u) c cos u

+ (m-cu) a = 0

= c ( x sin u – y cos u – au) a+ am=0

Which is required equation of osculating plane.

# principal normal and binormal:

All the normal to a curve at any point line is the normal plane the normal which
is aling line of the principal normal.

The normal which is perpendicular to the osculating plane at a point is called

binormal obviously is perpendicular to the principal.

T= tangent

N= normal

Bn= binormal

Direction of principal normal and bi normal

𝑡𝑡 . 𝑡𝑡 =1 = 𝑥𝑥́ . 𝑥𝑥́ = 1= 𝑥𝑥́ . 𝑥𝑥′′ + 𝑥𝑥′′. 𝑥𝑥́ = 0

= 𝑥𝑥́ . 𝑥𝑥′′ = 0

𝑥𝑥′′ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥́ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

(i) osculating plane: (𝑅𝑅-𝑋𝑋). 𝑏𝑏 =0

(ii) Normal plane : (𝑅𝑅-𝑋𝑋). 𝑡𝑡 =0 Fundamental plane

Rectifying plane: (𝑅𝑅-𝑋𝑋). 𝑏𝑏 =0

Direction

𝑡𝑡 → 𝑥𝑥́

𝑛𝑛 → 𝑥𝑥′′

𝑏𝑏 → 𝑥𝑥́ 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥′′′

The equation of principal normal:

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑋𝑋 + 𝜇𝜇𝑛𝑛 𝜇𝜇 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏

𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∶ 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡

Principal normal: The normal which lies in the osculating plane at any point is
called principal normal.

The line of intersection of the osculating plan and normal plane

(ii) binormal: The normal which is called the bi-normal plane.

Obviously bi-normal plane perpendicular the principal normal.

# Given that

𝑋𝑋= (𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑢𝑢 , 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢

Find the equation of (i) tangent line

(ii) normal line

(iii) binormal line

Solution: we know,
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥́ =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 (cos 𝑢𝑢 − sin 𝑢𝑢 , − sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢, −1) ------------- 1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 . 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑢𝑢 {(cos 𝑢𝑢 − sin 𝑢𝑢)2 + (sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢)2 + 12 } � �2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 1= 3𝑒𝑒 −2𝑢𝑢 � �2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1
= = 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √3

So tangent 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑥𝑥+x𝑡𝑡
𝑥𝑥
𝑅𝑅=(𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑢𝑢 , 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑢𝑢, −𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 ) + (cos 𝑢𝑢 − sin 𝑢𝑢, − sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢, −1)
√3
In Cartesian:

𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑢𝑢 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑢𝑢

=
cos 𝑢𝑢 − sin 𝑢𝑢 − sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢
𝑚𝑚 + 𝑒𝑒 −4 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦, 𝑚𝑚 − 2
= � = = �
−1 𝐿𝐿 𝑚𝑚 𝑛𝑛

Normal plane: (𝑅𝑅-𝑋𝑋), 𝑡𝑡 = 0

={(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑚𝑚) − (𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑢𝑢, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑢𝑢 , 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 )}. �1� (cos 𝑢𝑢 – sin 𝑢𝑢, − sin 𝑢𝑢 −
√3
cos 𝑢𝑢, −1)� = 0

=(x-𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑢𝑢) cos 𝑢𝑢 − sin 𝑢𝑢) − (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑢𝑢) (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + cos 𝑢𝑢) −
(𝑚𝑚 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 ) = 0

= x ( cos u – sin u) – y (sin u + cos u) m - 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛2 𝑢𝑢 +

𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 2 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 = 0

= x (cos u – sin u) –y (sin u + cos u) = -2 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢

= x (sin u – cos u) +y sin u + cos u = 2 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢

Binormal line: we have to find 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑛𝑛

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We know 𝑡𝑡́ = 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 1� ( − sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢, − cos 𝑢𝑢 + sin 𝑢𝑢, 𝑜𝑜)
√3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑒𝑒 4
= ( − sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢, − cos 𝑢𝑢 + sin 𝑢𝑢, 𝑜𝑜)
3

= kn. Kn
𝑒𝑒 2𝑢𝑢
= 𝑘𝑘 2 = {( − sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢)2 , +(− cos 𝑢𝑢 + sin 𝑢𝑢2 , +02 )}
9

𝑒𝑒 2𝑢𝑢
= 𝑘𝑘 2 = .2
9

√2 𝑢𝑢
∴ 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑒𝑒 .
3
 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢
∴ 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 = ( − sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢, − cos 𝑢𝑢 + sin 𝑢𝑢, 𝑜𝑜)
3

√2 𝑒𝑒 4
= 𝑒𝑒. 𝑛𝑛 ( − sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢, − cos 𝑢𝑢 + sin 𝑢𝑢, 𝑜𝑜)
3 3
2
= 𝑛𝑛 = ( − sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢, − cos 𝑢𝑢 + sin 𝑢𝑢, 𝑜𝑜)
√2

∴ 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑛𝑛
2
= (cos 𝑢𝑢 – sin 𝑢𝑢, − sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢, −1) × ( − sin 𝑢𝑢 −
√2
cos 𝑢𝑢, − cos 𝑢𝑢 + sin 𝑢𝑢, 𝑜𝑜)

2
= (sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢, sin 𝑢𝑢 + cos 𝑢𝑢, −2)
√6

∴ 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑥𝑥 × 2𝑏𝑏
2
= (𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑢𝑢 , 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 cos 𝑢𝑢, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 ) + (sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢, sin 𝑢𝑢 + cos 𝑢𝑢, −2)
√6

∴ 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −4 sin 𝑢𝑢 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑒𝑒 −4 cos 𝑢𝑢 𝑚𝑚 − 𝑒𝑒 −4
= = .
sin 𝑢𝑢 − cos 𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑢𝑢 + cos 𝑢𝑢 −2
# curvature: The rate of change of tangent direction w.r.to are length s is called
curvature. It is denoted by k.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥́
K=� � = � � = �𝑋𝑋′′� �∴ 𝑥𝑥́ = 𝑡𝑡�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Curvature vector

#𝑝𝑝 = 1�𝑘𝑘 → radius of curvature:

The reciprocal of the curvature is called radius of curvature.

# Find serret frenet formulae

State and prove serrent frenet formulae

Statement: let x-x(s) be a space corve and p be any point on This curve. If t,n,b
are unit tangent, unit principal normal and unit binormal vector respectively of
the curve at the point p.

Then the serret frenet formulae are given by

(i) 𝑡𝑡́ = 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛

(ii) 𝑛𝑛́ = 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏

(iii) 𝑏𝑏́ = 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛

Proof: we have t,n,b are mutually orthogonal unit vector at p on the space curve
X=X (s)

(i) 𝑡𝑡 = unit tangent vector

𝑡𝑡 . 𝑡𝑡 = 1

= 𝑡𝑡́.𝑡𝑡 + t. 𝑡𝑡́ = 0

= 𝑡𝑡́ . 𝑡𝑡 = 0

= 𝑡𝑡 …. 𝑡𝑡́

𝑡𝑡́ is in the direction of normal to the curb=ve

𝑡𝑡́
𝑛𝑛� =
[𝑡𝑡́]

=𝑡𝑡́ = �𝑡𝑡́�𝑛𝑛�

∴ 𝑡𝑡́ 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 − − − − − 1

(Where k is a scalar function and k is called curvature of x = x(s) at S)

(ii) Torsion: Since b is a vector of constant length it follows that

𝑑𝑑𝑏𝑏
= 𝑏𝑏́
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑏𝑏 . 𝑏𝑏 = 1
= 𝑏𝑏́ . 𝑏𝑏 = 0

= 𝑏𝑏́ … 𝑏𝑏

𝑏𝑏́ is perpendicular to 𝑏𝑏́

Now 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑏𝑏=0

= 𝑡𝑡́. 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑡𝑡. 𝑏𝑏́ = 0

= k 𝑛𝑛 . 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑡𝑡′ = 0

= 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑏𝑏́ = 0

∴ 𝑡𝑡. . 𝑏𝑏́ ∴ 𝑏𝑏́ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛

Thus, we see 𝑏𝑏′ is perpendiculal to 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑡𝑡. so 𝑏𝑏′ is along 𝑛𝑛

Hence we write

𝑏𝑏 ′ = 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆

= |𝑏𝑏 ′ | = |𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆|

= |𝑇𝑇| = |𝜆𝜆| [∵ 𝑇𝑇 = |𝑏𝑏′ | |𝑛𝑛| = 1]

= 𝜆𝜆 = ±𝑇𝑇

∴ 𝑏𝑏 ′ = −𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 … … … (2)

𝑘𝑘 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏

𝑇𝑇 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡

(ii) Since 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 × 𝑡𝑡

Differentiation with respect to S

= 𝑛𝑛′ = 𝑏𝑏 ′ × 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑏𝑏 × 𝑡𝑡′

−𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 × 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑏𝑏 × 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛

𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 [∵ 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑡𝑡

∴ 𝑛𝑛′ = 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 … … … . . (3)

(1), (2), (3)𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓

𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑜𝑜. 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑘𝑘. 𝑛𝑛 + 0. 𝑏𝑏

𝑡𝑡′ 0 𝑘𝑘 0 𝑡𝑡
𝑛𝑛′ = −𝑘𝑘. 𝑡𝑡 + 0. 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 = �𝑛𝑛′� =�−𝑘𝑘 0 𝑇𝑇� �𝑛𝑛�
𝑏𝑏′ 0 − 𝑇𝑇 0 𝑏𝑏

𝑏𝑏 ′ = 𝑜𝑜. 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑇𝑇. 𝑛𝑛 + 0. 𝑏𝑏

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Torsion: The arc rate at which the binormal change direction � � as p(r) move
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
along the curve is called the torsion of the curve. Its magnitude is denoted by
T.

Screw curvature: The arc rate at which the principal normal change direction
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
� � as p(r) move along the curve is called the screw curvature vector Its
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
magnitude is denoted by √𝑘𝑘 2 + 𝑇𝑇 2
1
Note: k=1/p where p is called the radius of curvature T= Where ∝ is called the
∝
radius of torsion.

Find curvature and torsion of a curve with parameter other than S:

Case I: When the equation of curve is 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑢𝑢)

𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We know 𝑥𝑥′ = = . = 𝑥𝑥 ′ . 𝑆𝑆 ′ = 𝑆𝑆′𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑋𝑋̈ = �𝑠𝑠𝑡𝑡̇� = 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡̈ + 𝑆𝑆 2̇ 𝑡𝑡 = . = 𝑡𝑡 ′ . 𝑆𝑆
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

̇
= 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡̈ + 𝑆𝑆 2 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑 ̇ )
𝑋𝑋̈ = (𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡̈ + 𝑆𝑆 2 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑆𝑆⃛𝑡𝑡 + 𝑆𝑆̈𝑆𝑆̇𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑆𝑆̇𝑆𝑆̈𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡 𝑆𝑆 3 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛′ + 𝑆𝑆 2̇ 𝑘𝑘̇ 𝑛𝑛

= 𝑆𝑆⃛𝑡𝑡 + 𝑆𝑆̈𝑆𝑆̇𝑡𝑡 + 2𝑆𝑆̇𝑆𝑆̈𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑆𝑆𝑘𝑘 3 (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘)

= �𝑆𝑆⃛ − 𝑆𝑆 3̇ 𝑘𝑘 2 �𝑡𝑡 + (3𝑆𝑆̇𝑆𝑆̈𝑘𝑘 + 𝑆𝑆 2 𝑘𝑘)𝑛𝑛 +̇ 𝑆𝑆 3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏

̇
∴ 𝑥𝑥⃛ = �𝑆𝑆⃛ − 𝑆𝑆 3̇ 𝑘𝑘 2 �𝑡𝑡 + (3𝑆𝑆̇𝑆𝑆̈𝑘𝑘 + 𝑆𝑆 2 𝑘𝑘)𝑛𝑛 +̇ 𝑆𝑆 3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏
̇

𝑥𝑥̇ ^ 𝑥𝑥̈ = 𝑆𝑆 3 𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 × ̇ 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑆𝑆 3̇ 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏 … … … (1)

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴�𝑥𝑥̇ ^ 𝑥𝑥̈ �. 𝑥𝑥⃛ = 𝑆𝑆 6̇ 𝐾𝐾 2 𝑇𝑇 … … … . (2)

𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 �𝑋𝑋̇� = �𝑆𝑆̇𝑡𝑡� = 𝑆𝑆̇ ≠ 0

𝑥𝑥̇ ^ 𝑥𝑥̈ �𝑥𝑥̇ 𝑥𝑥̈ � |𝑥𝑥̇ ^ 𝑥𝑥̈ |

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (1) K=� �=� �=
𝑆𝑆 3 𝑏𝑏 |𝑆𝑆̇ 3 | |𝑥𝑥̇ |3

�𝑥𝑥̇ ^ 𝑥𝑥̈ �𝑥𝑥̈ (𝑆𝑆 3 )2

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (2) 𝑇𝑇 =. .
𝑆𝑆 6̇ 𝑘𝑘 2 �𝑥𝑥̇ ^ 𝑥𝑥̈ �

�𝑥𝑥,𝑥𝑥̈̇ ,𝑥𝑥⃛�
2
�𝑥𝑥̇ ^ 𝑥𝑥̈ �

𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥̇
Case II: When the equation of the curve is 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾 2 𝑇𝑇 We have 𝑋𝑋̇ = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

= 𝑥𝑥′ = 𝑡𝑡 … … … … … … . (2)

= 𝑥𝑥 ′′ = 𝑡𝑡′ = 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 … … … … … … … (3)

∴ 𝑥𝑥 ′′ . 𝑋𝑋′′ = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘 2 … … … … (4)

= 𝑘𝑘 2 = 𝑥𝑥 ′′ . 𝑋𝑋′′

From serret Frenet Formula

∴ 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑡𝑡^ 𝑛𝑛
−𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛. 𝑛𝑛 = �𝑡𝑡 ′ × 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑡𝑡 × 0′ �. 𝑛𝑛 � �
𝑏𝑏′ = −𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

−𝑇𝑇 = 0 + 𝑛𝑛�𝑡𝑡 × 𝑛𝑛′ �

𝑇𝑇 = −𝑛𝑛�𝑡𝑡 × 𝑛𝑛′ � [𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (2)𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (3)

𝑥𝑥 ′′ 𝑥𝑥 ′′
=− �𝑋𝑋 ′ ^ ( �
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘)

𝑇𝑇 = −𝑘𝑘 −1 𝑥𝑥′′. [𝑥𝑥 × 𝑘𝑘 −1 𝑥𝑥 ′′′ ]

= −𝑘𝑘 −2 𝑥𝑥 ′′ . [𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ′′′ ]

−𝑘𝑘 2 𝑥𝑥 ′′ . 𝑥𝑥′𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥′′′
[𝑥𝑥 ′ ,𝑥𝑥 ′′ ,𝑥𝑥 ′′′ ]
𝑘𝑘 2

[𝑥𝑥 ′ ,𝑥𝑥 ′′ ,𝑥𝑥 ′′′ ]

(𝑥𝑥 ′′ .𝑥𝑥 ′′ )

[𝑥𝑥 ′ ,𝑥𝑥 ′′ ,𝑥𝑥 ′′′ ]

[𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐] = 𝑎𝑎. 𝑏𝑏 × 𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥 ′′ .𝑥𝑥′′

Ex 10. prove that for any curve

𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇
(𝑖𝑖 )[ 𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝑡𝑡 ′′ , 𝑡𝑡 ′′′ ] = [𝑥𝑥 ′′ , 𝑥𝑥 ′′′ , 𝑥𝑥 ′′′′ ] = 𝑘𝑘 3 (𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ − 𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇) = 𝑘𝑘 5 ( )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘

𝑑𝑑 ∝𝑘𝑘
(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )�𝑏𝑏 ′ 𝑏𝑏 ′′ 𝑏𝑏 ′′′ � = 𝑇𝑇 3 (𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇 ′ 𝑘𝑘 ) = 𝑇𝑇 5 ( )
𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇

𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘
or (i) [𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝑡𝑡 ′′ , 𝑡𝑡′′′] = [𝑟𝑟 ′′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′′ , 𝑟𝑟′′′′]=𝑘𝑘 3 (𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ − 𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇) = 𝑘𝑘 5 ( )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇

𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘
(ii) [𝑏𝑏 ′ , 𝑏𝑏 ′′ , 𝑏𝑏′′′] = 𝑇𝑇 3 (𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇′𝐾𝐾) = 𝑇𝑇 5 ( )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇

Solution: (i) we have, by Friends formulae,

𝑟𝑟 ′ = 𝑡𝑡, 𝑟𝑟 ′′ = 𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 … … … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)

𝑟𝑟 ′′′ = 𝑡𝑡 ′′ = 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛′ + 𝑘𝑘′𝑛𝑛

= 𝑘𝑘�𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡� + 𝑘𝑘′𝑛𝑛

= −𝑘𝑘 2 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑘𝑘 ′𝑛𝑛 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏 … … … … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)

′
𝑟𝑟 ′′′ = −𝑘𝑘 2 𝑡𝑡 ′ − 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑘𝑘 ′′ 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑘𝑘 ′𝑛𝑛 + (𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ )𝑏𝑏 + 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏′

= −𝑘𝑘 3 𝑛𝑛 − 2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑘𝑘 ′′𝑛𝑛 + 𝑘𝑘 ′ �𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡� + (𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ )𝑏𝑏

= −3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ′𝑡𝑡 + (−𝑘𝑘 3 + 𝑘𝑘 ′′ − 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 2 )𝑛𝑛 + (2𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ )𝑏𝑏 … … … … … . (3)

𝑟𝑟 ′′ × 𝑟𝑟 ′′′ = 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 +𝑘𝑘 3 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑡𝑡′ × 𝑡𝑡 ′′ [𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 (𝑖𝑖 )𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (2) … … … . . (4)

∴ 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 (1), (2), (3)𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (4)𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

[𝑡𝑡 ′ , 𝑡𝑡 ′′ , 𝑡𝑡 ′′′] = [𝑟𝑟 ′′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′′ , 𝑟𝑟′′′]

= 𝑟𝑟 ′′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′′ , 𝑟𝑟′′′

�𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 + 𝑘𝑘 3 𝑏𝑏�. �−3𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 ′𝑡𝑡 + (𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘 3 + 𝑘𝑘 ′′ − 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 2 )𝑛𝑛 + (2𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 ′ )𝑏𝑏�

= −3𝑘𝑘 3 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + 𝑘𝑘 3 (2𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ )[𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (3)𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (4)]

= 𝑘𝑘 3 (𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ − 𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇)

𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ −𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇
= 𝑘𝑘 5 ( )
𝑘𝑘 2

𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇
= 𝑘𝑘 5 (
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐾𝐾)

(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

𝑏𝑏′ = 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 … … … … . (5)

𝑏𝑏 ′′ = −𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛′ − 𝑇𝑇′𝑛𝑛

= −𝑇𝑇�𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡� − 𝑇𝑇′𝑛𝑛

= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 − 𝑇𝑇 ′𝑛𝑛 − 𝑇𝑇 2 𝑏𝑏 … … … . . (6)

𝑏𝑏 ′′′ = (𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ )𝑡𝑡 + 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 ′ − 𝑇𝑇 ′′𝑛𝑛 − 𝑇𝑇 ′ �𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡� − 2𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ′ 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑇𝑇 2 𝑏𝑏′

(𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 + 𝐾𝐾𝑇𝑇 ′ )𝑡𝑡 + 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 − 𝑇𝑇 ′′𝑛𝑛 − 𝑇𝑇 ′ �𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡� − 2𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ′𝑏𝑏 + 𝑇𝑇 3 𝑛𝑛

[𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 + 2𝐾𝐾𝑇𝑇 ′ )𝑡𝑡 + (𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇 ′′ + 𝑇𝑇 3 )𝑛𝑛 − 3𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇′𝑏𝑏

𝑏𝑏 ′ × 𝑏𝑏 ′′ = −𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 2 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇 3 𝑛𝑛 × 𝑏𝑏 [𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 (5)𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (6)]

= 𝐾𝐾𝑇𝑇 2 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑇𝑇 3 𝑡𝑡

= 𝑇𝑇 3 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 2 𝑏𝑏 … … … . . (8)

Taking scalar product of (7) and (8) we get

[𝑏𝑏 ′ , 𝑏𝑏 ′′ , 𝑏𝑏 ′′′ ] = 𝑏𝑏′ × 𝑏𝑏′′ × 𝑏𝑏′′′

= 𝑇𝑇 3 (𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 + 2𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ ) − 3𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 3 𝑇𝑇′

= 𝑇𝑇 3 (𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇 ′ )

𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑇𝑇−𝐾𝐾𝑇𝑇 ′
= 𝑇𝑇 5 ( )
𝑇𝑇 2

𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑘
= 𝑇𝑇 5 ( )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇

Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be a straight line

is that its curvature 𝑘𝑘 = 0

Proof: necessary condition: The equation of straight line is 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠 +

𝑏𝑏 �𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣�

= 𝑥𝑥′ = 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎

= 𝑡𝑡′ = 0

= 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 = 0

= 𝑘𝑘 = 0 [𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 , 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0]

Sufficient condition: Conversely if k=0

𝑡𝑡′ = 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 [𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓]

 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
= =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎 [𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠, 𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣]

= 𝑥𝑥′ = 𝑎𝑎

= 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏 [𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣]

𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙.

Theorem: A necessary and sufficient condition for a carom to be a plane is

that it’s curvature T=0

at all points

proof: necessary condition:

let x=x (s) line is plane.

since the osculating plane containing the plane and is therefore fixed. so in
this case b is fixed and constant vector.

𝑏𝑏 ′ = 0

= -T𝑛𝑛=0

= T = 0 �𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣�

Sufficient condition: conversely, if T=0

𝑏𝑏 ′ = 0

= 𝑏𝑏 ′ = 0

= 𝑏𝑏 ′ = Constant vector

∴ 𝑡𝑡 . 𝑏𝑏 = 0

= 𝑡𝑡 ′ . 𝑏𝑏 + 𝑡𝑡 ′ . 𝑏𝑏 ′ = 0

x’ . b = 0
= (x . b)’ = 0

A curve must be a plane curve. Because vector variable vector is projection

on binormal vector.

Theorems3: To Show that necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be a

plan curve is

[𝑟𝑟 ′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′ , 𝑟𝑟′′′] = 0

proof: we have 𝑟𝑟́ = 𝑡𝑡 − − − − − −1

= 𝑟𝑟 ′′ =𝑡𝑡 ′ [𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑤𝑤. 𝑟𝑟. 𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠]

= 𝑟𝑟 ′′ = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − − − − − −2

Taking vector product of 1 and 2.

𝑟𝑟 ′ × 𝑟𝑟 ′′ = 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏 �∴ 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏� − − − − − − − 3
= 𝑟𝑟 × 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑟𝑟 × 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑏𝑏 + k 𝑏𝑏′ [𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑤𝑤. 𝑟𝑟. 𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠]
′ ′′′ ′′ ′′

= 𝑟𝑟 ′ × 𝑟𝑟 ′′′ = 𝑘𝑘 ′ 𝑏𝑏- KT𝑛𝑛-------4

Taking scalar product of 1 and 4 .

𝑟𝑟 ′′ . (𝑟𝑟 ′ × 𝑟𝑟 ′′′ ) = −𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇 �𝑛𝑛. 𝑏𝑏 = 0 𝑛𝑛. 𝑛𝑛 = 1�

= [−𝑟𝑟 ′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′′ ] = 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇

= [−𝑟𝑟 ′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′′ ] = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 2 𝑇𝑇 − − − − − − − − − − − − − 5

If The curve is straight line then k= 0 or lie on a plane then T=0. so, either
T or k is mero. when

[−𝑟𝑟 ′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′′ ] = 0

Conversely: If T=0 i.e. The curve is a plane and therefore from The
equation 5.

[−𝑟𝑟 ′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′ , 𝑟𝑟 ′′′ ] = 0

Therefore, the condition is necessary as well as well as sufficient.,

B-3

Ex: 7: If a curve x = x (s) lie on the sphere whose radius is ‘a’ and centre is at c
whose equation is

(x-c). (x-c) =a2

Then show that

c = x + Rn-r’ T b
1
where R= 𝑇𝑇 = 1�𝑇𝑇
𝑘𝑘

1 𝑘𝑘′
or, C = X + 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑏𝑏
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇

Solution: Since X (s) lies on sphere (x-c). (x-c) =

so we have

(x-c). (x-c) =a2....................1

= x’. (x-c) +(x-c).x’=0 [Differentiating ] w.r.to s)

= 2x’. (x-c) =0

= x’. (x-c) =0

= t. (x-c) = 0---------------2

= x’.t + (x-c).t’=0 [Differentiating w. r. to s]

= t. t + (x-c) kn = 0
1
= (x-c).n=- ------------------3
𝑘𝑘

𝑘𝑘′
=x'.n + (x-c). n’= [Differentiating w. r. t s ]
𝑘𝑘 2

𝑘𝑘′
=t.n + (x-c). (-kt+Tb) =
𝑘𝑘 2

𝑘𝑘′
= 0 + (-k) (x-c).t +T(x-c). b =
𝑘𝑘 2
 𝑘𝑘′
=T (x-c). b = [as (x − c). t = 0 by 2 ]
𝑘𝑘 2

𝑘𝑘′
= (x-c) b = ----------------4
𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇

using 2, 3 and 4 we get

1 𝑘𝑘′
x-c = -0.t - 𝑛𝑛 + b
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇

1 𝑘𝑘′
= c = x + 𝑛𝑛 + b
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇

∴ 𝑐𝑐 = 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅𝑛𝑛 + 𝑅𝑅′ 𝑇𝑇 𝑏𝑏 (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝)

Ex 1: Calculate and torsion of the cubic curve given by r = (u, u2, u3)

Solution: Here 𝑟𝑟 = (u, u2, u3)

= 𝑟𝑟̇ = (1, 2𝑢𝑢, 3u2 )

=𝑟𝑟̈ = (0, 2, 6u)

∴ 𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ = (1, 2u, 3u2) × (0, 2, 6u)

= (6𝑢𝑢2 , −6𝑢𝑢, 2)

= 2 (3𝑢𝑢2 , −3𝑢𝑢, 1)

∴ �𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ � = 2 √9𝑢𝑢2 + 9𝑢𝑢 + 1

Also �𝑟𝑟̇ , 𝑟𝑟̈ , 𝑟𝑟⃛� = �𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ �. 𝑟𝑟⃛

= 2 (3u2, - 3u, 1). (0,0,6)

= 2(0+0+6)

= 12

�𝑟𝑟̇ ×𝑟𝑟̈ � 2 √9𝑢𝑢4 +9𝑢𝑢+1

K= =
�𝑟𝑟̇ �
2
1+4 𝑢𝑢2 + 9 𝑢𝑢4 )3�2

�𝑟𝑟̇ ,𝑟𝑟̈ ,𝑟𝑟⃛� 12

and T = 2 =
�𝑟𝑟̇ ×𝑟𝑟̈ � 4 (9𝑢𝑢4 +9𝑢𝑢+1)
 3
=T=
(9𝑢𝑢4 +9𝑢𝑢+1)

Ex 3: Find the radius of curvature and torsion of the helix

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∝

Solution: Here 𝑟𝑟 = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∝)

∴ 𝑟𝑟̇ = 𝑎𝑎(−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∝) [𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤. 𝑟𝑟. 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑢𝑢]

= 𝑟𝑟̈ = 𝑎𝑎(−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑜𝑜)

= 𝑟𝑟⃛ = 𝑎𝑎(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, −𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 0)

𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ = 𝑎𝑎2 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∝, −𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝ .1)

�𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ � = 𝑎𝑎2 √𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑏𝑏 2 𝑢𝑢 tan2 ∝ + cos2 tan2 +1

= 𝑎𝑎2 √tan2 ∝ +1

= 𝑎𝑎2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝

�𝑟𝑟̇ , 𝑟𝑟̈ , 𝑟𝑟⃛� = 𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ . 𝑟𝑟⃛ = 𝑎𝑎3 (sin2 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∝ + cos2 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∝ +0)

= 𝑎𝑎3 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∝

𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 |𝑟𝑟̇ | = 𝑎𝑎 √sin2 𝑢𝑢 + cos2 + tan2 ∝ 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∝

�𝑟𝑟̇ ×𝑟𝑟̈ � 𝑎𝑎2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠∝ cos2 ∝
∴ 𝑘𝑘 = = =
|𝑟𝑟̇ | 𝑎𝑎3 sec3 ∝ 𝑎𝑎

1
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐: 𝑝𝑝 = = asec 2 ∝
𝑘𝑘

[𝑟𝑟̇ ,𝑟𝑟̈ ,𝑟𝑟⃛] 𝑎𝑎3 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡∝ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠∝

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇 = = =
|𝑟𝑟̇ ×𝑟𝑟|̈ 2 𝑎𝑎$ sec2 ∝ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎∝

1
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡: ∝= = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∝ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝.
𝑇𝑇

Ex 5: Given the curve 𝑟𝑟 = (𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 )

Find ≠at any point u of this curve
(i) unit tangent vector 𝑡𝑡
(ii) The equation of the tangent
(iii) The equation of normal plane
 (iv) The curvature
(v) The unit normal vector 𝑛𝑛
(vi) The equation of the principal normal
(vii) The binormal vector 𝑏𝑏 and
(viii) The equation of the binormal

Solution: The equation of curve is

𝑟𝑟 = (𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 )
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∴ 𝑡𝑡 = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= (𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, −1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

−2𝑢𝑢 [( 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
= 𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)2 + (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)2 + (−1)2 ] � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
= 1 − 3𝑒𝑒 −2𝑢𝑢 � �
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢
= = … … … . . (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √3

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑒𝑒 4
putting 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 (𝑖𝑖)
√3

1
∴ 𝑡𝑡 = (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, −1) … … . . (3)
√3

𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

(ii) The equation of the tangent line to the curve at u

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡
𝜆𝜆
= (𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 ) + (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, −1)
√3

If R=(x, u, z) In Cartesian coordinates

𝑥𝑥−𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦−𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒 −4
= = 𝑧𝑧 −
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1
This 𝑒𝑒𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙.
(iii) The equation of the normal plane

�𝑅𝑅 − 𝑟𝑟�. 𝑡𝑡 = 0
1
{𝑅𝑅 − (𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 sin 𝑢𝑢, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 )} (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 1) = 0
√3

if 𝑅𝑅 = (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧)𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) + (𝑧𝑧 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 ) =
0

= 𝑥𝑥(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐) + 𝑦𝑦(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) + 𝑧𝑧 = 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢

(𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 3 𝑤𝑤. 𝑟𝑟. 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 ′ = = = (−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, −𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 0)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 √3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑝𝑝4
= 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 = (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, −𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 0)[𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (2)]
3

𝑒𝑒 2𝑢𝑢
= 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛. 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛 = [(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)2 + (−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)2 + 02 ]
9

2𝑒𝑒 2𝑢𝑢
= 𝑘𝑘 2 =
9

√2𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢
∴ 𝑘𝑘 = . 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
3

(vi) substituting the value of k in (4)

√2 𝑢𝑢 𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢
𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 = (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, −𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 0)
3 √3

1
= 𝑛𝑛 = − (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 0)
2

(viii) the equation of the principal normal

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛
𝑣𝑣
𝑅𝑅 = (𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 ) − (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 0)
√2

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥−𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2−𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢
= 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑥𝑥 − =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 0
 1 −1
(𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ) 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑡𝑡 × 𝑛𝑛 = (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, −1) × � � (𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 +
√3 √2
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 0)
1
= 𝑏𝑏 = − (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − cos 𝑢𝑢, 2)
√6

1
= 𝑏𝑏 = (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, −2)
√6

𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝜆𝜆
= (𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 ) + (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, −2)
√6

𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑥𝑥−𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑦𝑦−𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2−𝑒𝑒 −𝑢𝑢
= =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠+𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −2

The equation binormal

Ex 17: show that if the space curve c, r=r(s) has constant torsion T, than
the curve 𝑐𝑐1
𝑛𝑛
𝑟𝑟1 = − + ∫ 𝑏𝑏𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇

ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ± 𝑇𝑇

Solution: let the quantities belonging to 𝑐𝑐1 be distinguished by the use of

suffix unit. This 𝑟𝑟1 denotes the position vector of a current point on 𝑐𝑐1
etc.

Now, we are given that

𝑛𝑛
𝑟𝑟1 = − + ∫ 𝑏𝑏𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 .................(i)
𝑇𝑇

𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟1 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑛𝑛′

= =− + 𝑏𝑏 [𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤. 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠 ]
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇

[ 𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ]
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 1
𝑡𝑡1 = − )𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡) + 𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑘𝑘
= 𝑡𝑡1 =− 𝑡𝑡 … … … … … . (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡, 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡

𝑡𝑡 = ±𝑡𝑡 … … … … … (3)

using (3) and (2)

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑘𝑘
=±
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇

𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 (3)𝑤𝑤. 𝑟𝑟. 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠, 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡1 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
. = ±𝑡𝑡 ′ = ±𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
= 𝑡𝑡1 = ±𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑘𝑘
= 𝑘𝑘1 𝑛𝑛1 �± � = ±𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛
𝑇𝑇

= 𝑘𝑘1 𝑛𝑛1 = 𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 … … … … … (5)

The relation (5) shows that 𝑛𝑛1 is parallel to 𝑛𝑛, we may take

𝑛𝑛1 = ±𝑛𝑛 … … … . . (6)

𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 (5)𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (6)𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

𝑘𝑘1 = ±𝑇𝑇

∴ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑐𝑐1 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 ± 𝑇𝑇 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

Helixes/ curve of constant slopes:

A helix is a space curve which is traced on the surface of a cylinder, this fixed
line and cuts the generator at constant angle ∝ (say)

Note: plane G Pvcv‡bv _vK‡j spiral space

........................Helix

Find the equation of Right circular helix.

Circular helix: A helix described on the surface of the circular cylinder is called
a circular helix or Right circular helix
The axis of the helix coincides with the axis of the cylinder.

Equation of circular helix:

let the equation of the cylinder be 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 𝑎𝑎2 so that axis of 2 is the axis of
the cylinder and radius of the cylinder is `a’ the axis of X is taken along The
radius through the point A where the circular helix meets the xy-plane.

let AP be the are S of the circular helix who makes a constant angle ∝ with the
general.

The arc A𝑃𝑃1 = 𝑆𝑆1 is the projection of AP on NY-plane which subtend an angle
𝜃𝜃 at the origin so that

𝑆𝑆1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 … … … … (1)

let (x,y,z) be the co-ordinate of P on the helix then as P lies on the cylinder, so
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

Also 2 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∝ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑆𝑆1 = 𝑆𝑆 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝

𝑠𝑠1
= 𝑆𝑆 =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠∝

𝑠𝑠1
∴2= cos∝
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠∝

= 𝑆𝑆1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝

𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∝

Hence the equation of the circular helix is

𝑋𝑋 = (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∝)

𝑖𝑖, 𝑒𝑒 𝑋𝑋 = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∝= 𝑏𝑏(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)

State and prove necessary and sufficient condition of helix.

𝐾𝐾
Satement : For all helices curvature bears a constant ratio with torsion. 𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 =
𝑇𝑇

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

Necessary condition: let a be a constant vector parallel to the generator of the

cylinder 𝑡𝑡 the unit tangent vector to the helix.

𝑡𝑡. 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ≠ 0 … … … … . (1)

= 𝑡𝑡. 𝑎𝑎 = 0 [𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤. 𝑟𝑟. 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠]

= 𝐾𝐾 𝑛𝑛. 𝑎𝑎 = 0
Since 𝐾𝐾 ≠ 0 hence 𝑛𝑛. 𝑎𝑎 = 0

That is 𝑎𝑎 is perpendicular to 𝑛𝑛 and hence 𝑎𝑎 lies in the plane of 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑏𝑏

𝑎𝑎 = 𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡 + 𝜆𝜆𝑏𝑏

= 𝑎𝑎. 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜆𝜆 𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇 𝑏𝑏. 𝑡𝑡

= 𝑎𝑎. 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝ [𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 (1)]

∴ 𝑎𝑎. 𝑏𝑏 = 𝜇𝜇

∴ 𝑎𝑎 . 𝑎𝑎 = 1 = 𝑎𝑎(𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇𝑏𝑏)

1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝. 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝ +𝜇𝜇2 [𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝]

= 𝜇𝜇2 = 1 − cos2 ∝

∴ 𝜇𝜇 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝

∴ 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝. 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑏𝑏

= 0 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝ 𝑡𝑡′ + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑏𝑏′ [𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑤𝑤. 𝑛𝑛. 𝑡𝑡]

= 0 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝. 𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝ (−𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛)

𝐾𝐾
= = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ∝= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 .
𝑇𝑇

𝐾𝐾
Sufficient condition: conversely if = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑇𝑇

𝐾𝐾
∴ = 𝑐𝑐
𝑇𝑇

= 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

∴ 𝑡𝑡′ = 𝐾𝐾𝑛𝑛 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏′ = −𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛 ..........(2)

= 𝑏𝑏′𝑐𝑐 = −𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 ..........(3)

(2) + (3) = 𝑡𝑡′ + 𝑏𝑏′𝑐𝑐 = 0

𝑑𝑑
= �𝑡𝑡 + 𝑏𝑏𝑐𝑐� = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑏𝑏𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)

= 1 + 0 = 𝑎𝑎. 𝑡𝑡

𝑎𝑎. 𝑡𝑡 = 1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. Showing that 𝑡𝑡 make a constant angle ∝ with direction a

and Hence The curve is helix

Ex 9: Prove that the curve 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎. 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑏𝑏𝑢𝑢2 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢2 is helix if 3ac= ±2𝑏𝑏 2

Solution: Here 𝑟𝑟 = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏𝑢𝑢2 , 𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢2 )

= 𝑟𝑟̇ = (𝑎𝑎, 2𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏, 3𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢2 )

= 𝑟𝑟̈ = (0, 2𝑏𝑏, 6𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)

= 𝑟𝑟⃛ = (0, 0, 6𝑐𝑐)

∴ 𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟̈ = (6𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑢𝑢2 , −6𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎, 2𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎)

� 𝑟𝑟̇ , 𝑟𝑟̈ , 𝑟𝑟⃛, � = (𝑟𝑟̇ × 𝑟𝑟).̈ 𝑟𝑟⃛ = 12𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

̇ ̈2
|𝑟𝑟×𝑟𝑟|
𝑇𝑇 � 𝑟𝑟̇ ,𝑟𝑟̈ ,𝑟𝑟⃛,�
= ̇ ̈2 /
𝐾𝐾 | 𝑟𝑟×𝑟𝑟| |𝑟𝑟|̇ 3

� 𝑟𝑟̇ ,𝑟𝑟̈ ,𝑟𝑟⃛,�×|𝑟𝑟|̇ 3

= ̇ ̈2
|𝑟𝑟×𝑟𝑟|
 3
12𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑎𝑎2 +4𝑏𝑏2 𝑢𝑢2 +9𝑐𝑐 2 𝑢𝑢4 )2
= 3
(3𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑢𝑢2 +36𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑢𝑢2 +4𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 )2

3
1 2 +4𝑏𝑏2 𝑢𝑢2 +9𝑐𝑐 2 𝑢𝑢4 )�2
12𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 27𝑐𝑐 3 � (𝑎𝑎
9𝑐𝑐2
3
1
8.27𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐 3 � (9𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑢𝑢2 +3𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑢𝑢2 +4𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 )�2
9𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐2

3
4 4𝑏𝑏2 2 𝑎𝑎2 2
3𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 �𝑎𝑎 + 2 𝑢𝑢 + 2 �
9𝑐𝑐 9𝑐𝑐
3 … … … . (1)
2𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎2 2 𝑎𝑎2 2
4
�𝑎𝑎 + 2 𝑢𝑢 + 2 �
𝑏𝑏 9𝑐𝑐

equation (1) will be constant if

𝑎𝑎2 4𝑏𝑏2
=
𝑏𝑏2 9𝑐𝑐 2

𝑎𝑎 2𝑏𝑏
=±
𝑏𝑏 3𝑐𝑐

= 3𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ±2𝑏𝑏 2

𝑇𝑇
We know that the curve is helix if = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 For which we must have
𝑘𝑘

4𝑏𝑏2 𝑎𝑎2
=
9𝑐𝑐 2 𝑏𝑏2

= 3𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ±2𝑏𝑏 2 (proved)

Theorem: Uniqueness theorem for space curve: A curve is uniquely determined

except as to position in space when its curvature and Torsion are given
function of its arc length s.

Proof: If possible let there be two curves C and 𝐶𝐶1 having equal curvature K and
equal torsion T for the same values of S. let suffix unity by used for
quantities belonging to 𝑐𝑐1.
Now if 𝑐𝑐1 is moved (without detormation) so that the two points on c and 𝑐𝑐1
corresponding to same value of S coincide we have

𝑑𝑑
�𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡1 � = 𝑡𝑡𝑘𝑘1 𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛. 𝑡𝑡1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑
�𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡1 � = 𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛. 𝑡𝑡1 [∵ 𝑘𝑘1 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑
= (𝑛𝑛. 𝑛𝑛1 = 𝑛𝑛. �𝑇𝑇 𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡1 � + �𝑇𝑇 𝑏𝑏1 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡1 � 𝑛𝑛1 − − − − 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑
= (𝑏𝑏. 𝑏𝑏1 = 𝑏𝑏. �−𝑇𝑇 𝑛𝑛1 ) + (−𝑇𝑇𝑛𝑛�. 𝑏𝑏1 − − − − 3
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Adding equations 1, 2 and 3, we get

𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡1 + 𝑛𝑛. 𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑏𝑏. 𝑏𝑏1 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Which on integrating gives

𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡1 + 𝑛𝑛. 𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑏𝑏. 𝑏𝑏1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − − − −4

If c1 is moved in such a manner that at s=o the two trids (t1, n1, b1) coincide.
Then at that point 𝑡𝑡=𝑡𝑡1 , 𝑛𝑛=𝑛𝑛, 𝑏𝑏=𝑏𝑏1 . and Then The value of constant in 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑛 4
becomes 3.

𝑡𝑡.𝑙𝑙1 + 𝑏𝑏. 𝑏𝑏1 = 3

But The sum of There cosines is equal to 3 if each is mero or is an integral

multiple of 2𝑥𝑥.

Thus for each pair of cores corresponding points

𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡1 , 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛1 , 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏1

Also 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡1 , 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑟𝑟́ = 𝑟𝑟́ 1

𝑑𝑑
i.e (𝑟𝑟 − 𝑟𝑟1 ) = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑟𝑟 − 𝑟𝑟1 = 𝑎𝑎 (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)
but as S= o. r - r1 = 0 or r = r1 at all corresponding paint and hence the two
curves the two corves concede or the two curies are congruent. This Theorem is
called uniqueness Theorem.

Ex1: If a curve lies on a sphere show that p and a are related

𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝
(𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝́ ) + =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎

show That a necessary and sufficient condition that a curve lies on a sphere is
that

𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝́
+ � �=0
𝜎𝜎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇

at every point on the curve.

solution: Necessary condition: let the curve lie on a sphere Then to prove the
given condition. Now the sphere will be osculating sphere for every point. The
radius R of the osculating sphere is given by

𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑝𝑝2 + 𝑎𝑎2 𝑝𝑝́ 2

Differentiating w.r.t. S we get.

0 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝́ + 𝜎𝜎 2 𝑝𝑝′𝑝𝑝′′ + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎′𝑝𝑝́ 2

Dividing by a 𝑝𝑝́ 𝑎𝑎 we get

𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑
0= + (𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎′)
𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝́
= + ( )= 0
𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇

𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝′
Sufficient condition: If + � �=0
𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇

to show that the curve lies on a sphere on reserving the order of steps we get

p2 + 𝜎𝜎 2 𝑝𝑝′2 = 𝑎𝑎2 [= 𝑅𝑅2 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 (1)] Thus a=R,

Snowing that the radius of osculating sphere is independent of the point on the
curve.

Again the centre of the spherical curvature is given by

𝑐𝑐 = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝑝𝑝𝑛𝑛 + 𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝́ 𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐
= 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑝𝑝́ 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑝𝑝 �𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡� + 𝑎𝑎́ b + 𝜎𝜎 ′ 𝑝𝑝́ 𝑏𝑏+𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎′′𝑏𝑏-𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝́ Tn
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑝𝑝
= ( + 𝑎𝑎́ 𝑝𝑝́ +a𝑝𝑝′′)𝑏𝑏
𝜎𝜎

𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑
But + 𝜎𝜎́ 𝑝𝑝́ + 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎′′ (𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒 + (𝑝𝑝́ 𝑎𝑎)) is hero by pothesis.
𝜎𝜎 𝜎𝜎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= C = Constant vector.

i.e. The centre of osculating sphere is independent of the point on the curve.

Hence The curve lies on The sphere.

Involutes: when the tangent to a curve c are formals to another curve c1, Then
the later of is called an in volute of c and c is called an evolutes of c1.

Find The equation of Involutes

solution: let c1 be an involute, of Involutes, of c. let the equation of c be

𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟 (s)

let the equation belonging to c1 be distinguished by the suffix unit.

any point p1 on c1 is given by

op1 = op + pp1

= 𝑟𝑟1 = 𝑟𝑟 + 𝜇𝜇 𝑡𝑡

Differencing with respect to s1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
t1 = (𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇́ t + 𝜇𝜇𝑡𝑡́)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑡𝑡1 = �𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇́ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘�
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑡𝑡1. 𝑡𝑡 = �𝑡𝑡1. 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇́ 𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜇𝜇 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝑡𝑡�
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 0 = (1 + 𝜇𝜇́ + 0)
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1

= 𝜇𝜇́ = −1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= = −1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
= 𝜇𝜇 + 𝑠𝑠 = 6 (integrating both side)

= 𝜇𝜇=c-s

∴ 𝑟𝑟1 = 𝑟𝑟 + (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠) 𝑡𝑡 This is eqn of involutes c1 of curve c

Differentiating with respect to s

𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟1 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟1
= 𝑟𝑟́ + (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)𝑡𝑡́ − 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=𝑟𝑟́ 1 = (c-s) 𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛 (∴ 𝑟𝑟́ = 𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= t1 = (c-s) k 𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1

= t1 = n [Since t1 and n are unit vector]

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
∴ = (c-s) kn
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

#find The curvature k1 and torsion T1 of the involute.

solution: differentiating 𝑡𝑡1 = 𝑛𝑛, we get

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
= 𝑡𝑡́1 = 𝑛𝑛́ = (T𝑏𝑏-k𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∴ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑛𝑛
= k1 𝑛𝑛1 = (T𝑏𝑏-k𝑡𝑡) � �
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 = 𝑙𝑙1 = 𝑘𝑘1 𝑛𝑛1
1
= k1 n1 = (T𝑏𝑏-k𝑡𝑡)
𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠)

Tb−kt
=k1 𝑛𝑛1= --------1
𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠)

�Tb−kt�. (Tb−kt)
=k1 n1. k1 n1 = {𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠)𝑥𝑥}2

𝑡𝑡 2 +𝑘𝑘 2
= 𝑘𝑘1 2 =
𝑘𝑘 2 (𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠)2
 √𝑡𝑡 2 +𝑘𝑘 2
= k1 = -------------2
𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠)

b1 = t1 × 𝑛𝑛1
𝑇𝑇 𝑏𝑏−𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡
= 𝑛𝑛 ×
𝑘𝑘1 𝑘𝑘 (𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠)

𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡−𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏
=
𝑘𝑘1 𝑘𝑘 (𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠)

𝑇𝑇 𝑡𝑡−𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏
�∴ 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛1 = �
𝑘𝑘1 𝑘𝑘 (𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑟𝑟1 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑟𝑟12

T1= � �
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠12 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠13

dr1 d1 r1 d ds
= t1 = n , = (n)
ds1 ds1 s ds1
𝑛𝑛́
=
𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏−𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡
=
𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠)

𝑑𝑑3 𝑟𝑟1 𝑘𝑘 (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠) �𝑇𝑇′𝑏𝑏 + 𝑇𝑇 �– 𝑡𝑡𝑛𝑛� − 𝑘𝑘́ 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑘𝑘(𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛� − �𝑡𝑡𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡�𝑘𝑘́ �(𝑐𝑐 − 𝑟𝑟́ 𝑠𝑠) − 𝑘𝑘�
=
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑘𝑘 2 (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)2

−𝑘𝑘 2 𝑡𝑡1 − 𝑘𝑘 (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠) (𝑇𝑇 2 + 𝑘𝑘 2 )𝑛𝑛 + {𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇(𝑘𝑘 ′ (𝑘𝑘 − 𝑠𝑠) − 𝑘𝑘)} 𝑏𝑏
=
𝑘𝑘 3 (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)3

−𝑘𝑘 2 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑘𝑘 (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠) (𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑘𝑘 2 )𝑛𝑛 + {𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 + (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘′ − 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡′)} 𝑏𝑏

𝑘𝑘 3 (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)3

𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟1 𝑑𝑑2 𝑟𝑟1 𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡 + 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏

× 𝑛𝑛 × =
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾(𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)

𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟1 𝑑𝑑2 𝑟𝑟1 𝑑𝑑3 𝑟𝑟1 −𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑘𝑘 (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)(𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡́ − 𝑡𝑡𝑘𝑘́ )

� �=
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 2 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 3 𝐾𝐾4(𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)4
 𝑘𝑘𝑇𝑇́ − 𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘́
= 3
𝑘𝑘 (𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)3

𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡́ − 𝑡𝑡𝑘𝑘́
𝑇𝑇1 = [𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 2]
𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐 − 𝑠𝑠)(𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑘𝑘 2

Bertnard curves: A point of curve c and c1 having their principal normal in

common and said to be conjugate or associated Bertnard curve

Properties:

1. let 𝑟𝑟 and 𝑟𝑟1 be the position vectors of two corresponding points p and Q on
the corves c and c1 respectively w.r.t some fixed origin Here cleanly

𝑟𝑟1 = 𝑟𝑟2 + a𝑛𝑛----------1

Where a is length pQ. Is to determined.

𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟1 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
= = 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛́ + 𝑎𝑎́ 𝑛𝑛 [𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑤𝑤. 𝑟𝑟. 𝑡𝑡 𝑆𝑆 ]
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
= 𝑡𝑡1 � � = 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎 �𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏 − 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡� + 𝑎𝑎́ 𝑛𝑛-------------2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Assume
 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑛𝑛1=𝑛𝑛2-------------3 � �
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Dot product of 3 in 2

o = o+a(o)+𝑎𝑎́

= 𝑎𝑎́ =0 =a = constant
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
2= 𝑡𝑡1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑡+a (T𝑏𝑏-k𝑡𝑡)------------4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
= t1 ( ) = (1-ak) 𝑡𝑡 + a T 𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

i.e. 𝑡𝑡1, 𝑡𝑡, b are coplanar.

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
(ii) �𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡1 � = 𝑡𝑡́. 𝑡𝑡, +𝑡𝑡 . 𝑡𝑡 ́
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
= 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛. 𝑙𝑙1 + 𝑡𝑡 𝑘𝑘1 . 𝑛𝑛1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
= 𝑘𝑘𝑛𝑛1 . 𝑡𝑡1 + 𝑘𝑘1 𝑡𝑡. 𝑛𝑛 [∴ 𝑛𝑛1 = 𝑛𝑛]
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

=0

= 𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.

∴ 𝑡𝑡. 𝑡𝑡1 maintains a constant angle.

(iii) From equation------- 4

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
𝑡𝑡1 = (1 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )𝑡𝑡 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4. 𝑏𝑏1= 0 = (1-ak) cos (90-∝)+aT cos∝

= (1-k) sin∝ + aT cos∝------------5

k and T maintain linear relation relationship

(iv) Now we show k1. T1 are linearly connected

(v) 𝑟𝑟1= 𝑟𝑟 –a𝑛𝑛

= 𝑟𝑟1 = 𝑟𝑟 - a𝑛𝑛1 [∴ 𝑛𝑛1 = 𝑛𝑛]

Thus The point p (r) is at distaste –a Wong at ∅ .

and also t is inclined at angle – 𝜑𝜑 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡, 𝑖𝑖 − 𝑒𝑒 The relation between c and c1 is a
reciprocal one Here From (5), we have,

−(1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘1 )𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝ +(−𝑎𝑎)𝑇𝑇1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝= 𝑜𝑜

= (1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘1 )𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝ +𝑎𝑎𝑇𝑇1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝= 𝑜𝑜 … … … … . (6)

Theorem 1: The torsion of the Bertrand curves has the same sign and their
product is constant

It is evident from

the figure

𝑡𝑡1 = 𝐴𝐴𝑡𝑡 + 𝐵𝐵𝑡𝑡

= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝ 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑡𝑡 … … … (7)

Comparing (4) and (7)

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 1−𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

= = =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐∝ −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠∝

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
= 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝= (1 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝= −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 �.............(8)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

For The curve 𝑐𝑐1 The relation corresponding to (8) are obtained by setting a by-
a, ∝ 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏−∝, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 interchanging s by 𝑠𝑠1 Thos

𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 ∝= (1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘1 )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠1 � … … (9)
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ∝= 𝑎𝑎𝑇𝑇1
𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠

Multiplying 8 and 9
𝑎𝑎
sin2 ∝ = 𝑎𝑎2 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇1 = − sin2 ∝
𝑎𝑎2

cos2 ∝= (1 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )(1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘1 ) = (1 − 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )(1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘1 ) = cos ∝

pro 7: Show that the involutes of circular helix are plane curve.

solution: The torsion of the involutes is volutes is given by

𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡́−𝑘𝑘́ 𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇1 =
𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐−𝑠𝑠)(𝑘𝑘 2 +𝑡𝑡 2 )

we know for the circular helix

k= constant and T = constant

𝑘𝑘́ = 0 𝑇𝑇́ = 0

Therefore T1=0

hence the involute of the circular helix must be a plane curve.

Surface: A surface is the locus of a point whose position vector (𝑟𝑟) is a function
of two independent parameters, say u, v that is
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣)

This is also called gaussian from of the surface

Note: 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 ) 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 ) 𝑧𝑧 = ℎ (𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣)

are called parametric or freedom 𝑒𝑒𝑞𝑞 𝑛𝑛 of surface 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) reqresents monges
form of surface 𝐹𝐹 (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 0 implicit/ constant form

Theorem (a) : The parametric equations of a surface are not unique

(b) Sometimes the constraint equation of a surface represents more than the
parametric more than the parametric equations.

(a) proof: we shall prove it by giving an example consider two parametric

representations

x = u, y = v, m= u2+v2--------(1)

and x = u+v, y = u-v, m=4uv ----------(2)

[𝑊𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣]

Elimination of u, v in both vases give the constraint equation.

x2 – y2----------(3)

This represents the whole of a certain hyperbola

(b) proof: ut x = u cos h u, y = u sin h u , m = a2 ----------(4)

be the parametric equations of surface where u.v take all real values.

These parametric equations represent only a part of a surface as m ≥ 0. Since u

takes only a real values.

But it we eliminate u, v between equation (4)

we get,

x2 – y2=m
which is constraint equation of the surface and represents the whole of the
hyperboloid

**S: Curve linear equations of the curve on the surface.

Togent plane and Normal:

Let the equation of curve be u + u(t), v=u(t). Then the tangent is parallel to the

vector 𝑟𝑟̇ .
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Where 𝑟𝑟̇ = = +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑟𝑟̇ = r𝑢𝑢 + r𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟= r𝑢𝑢 du + r𝑣𝑣 dv.

But r, r𝑢𝑢 , r𝑣𝑣 are non-zero and independent vectors. Therefore tangents to a
curve (on the surface) Through a point lie in the plane which contain’s the two
vectors r𝑢𝑢 , r𝑣𝑣 .

Hence r𝑢𝑢 × r𝑣𝑣 gives the direction of the normal to the tangent plane.

The equation to the tangent plane is

(𝑅𝑅 - 𝑟𝑟). r𝑢𝑢 × r𝑣𝑣 = 0

R is a current point on the plane.

Normal:

The equation of the normal line at point P to the surface is

𝑅𝑅 = r + L (r𝑢𝑢 × r𝑣𝑣 ).

Cartesian Formulation:

It the equation of the surface is F(x, y, z) = o.

The equation of the tangent at point (x,y,z) is given by

𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
+ + =o
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

∈ (Fx, Fy, Fz), (𝑥𝑥̇ , 𝑦𝑦̇ , 𝑧𝑧̇ ,) = o

The line joining any point (x, y, z) on the tangent plane to the point (x, y, z) is
perpendicular to (Fx, Fy, Fz)

(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥)𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 + (𝑦𝑦 − 𝑦𝑦)𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 + (𝑧𝑧 − 𝑧𝑧)𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = 0

Cartesian form of tangent plane since normal line parallel to (𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 , 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 , 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 )
𝑋𝑋−𝑥𝑥 𝑌𝑌−𝑦𝑦 𝑍𝑍−𝑧𝑧
= =
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

Note: let the equation of the curve be u = u (t), v= v(t)

∴ x= x (u, v)

∈ x= x(u (t), v (t) )

The tangent is parallel to 𝑥𝑥̇

𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥̇ = +
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

∈ = 𝑥𝑥u +𝑥𝑥v
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

∈ 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥udu+𝑥𝑥vdv

We recall the linearly independent vector 𝑥𝑥u, and 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 are tangent to the U-
parameter and v- parameter curves respectively. Thus, the tangent to the surface
at a point p are linearly independent upon two independent vectors 𝑥𝑥u and 𝑥𝑥v at
the point.

The tangent lies in a plane which contains

(𝑅𝑅 - 𝑟𝑟). (xu^ xv) = o

Normal: R- 𝑥𝑥 = L(xu^ xv)

𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑢 ^ 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣
𝑁𝑁 =
|𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢 − 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 |

𝑉𝑉 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 → 𝑢𝑢 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐/ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

� �
𝑢𝑢 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 → 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐/𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

First fundamental form or metric:

let x = x (u,v) be the equation of a surface then the quadratic differential form.
ds2 =Edu2 + 2Fdudv + Gdv2 ______(i)

Where E = xu. xu F = xu. xv, G = xv. xv

is called the first fundamental form and matric and the quadties E.F.G are called
first fundamental coefficient.

Geometric interpretation:

Consider a curve u = u(t), v=v (t) on the surface 𝑥𝑥 =𝑥𝑥 (u, v)

let 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑥𝑥 + d𝑥𝑥 be the position vectors of the two neighboring points P and Q
corresponding to u, v and utdu, vtdv respectively on the surface.

We have 𝑥𝑥 =𝑥𝑥 (u, v)

𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥
∴ dx = du + dv
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= 𝑥𝑥udu+𝑥𝑥vdv __________ (2)

Since P and Q are two neighboring points, we have,

ds = |dx|

≫ ds2 =|d𝑥𝑥|2

= d𝑥𝑥.d𝑥𝑥

= (𝑥𝑥 udu+ 𝑥𝑥 vdv). (𝑥𝑥udu+𝑥𝑥vdv)

= 𝑥𝑥 2udu2 +2𝑥𝑥u. 𝑥𝑥vdudv+𝑥𝑥vdv2

Which is quadratic differential equation

Where E = 𝑥𝑥 2u = 𝑥𝑥u. 𝑥𝑥u

F = 𝑥𝑥u. 𝑥𝑥v

G = 𝑥𝑥2v =𝑥𝑥v. 𝑥𝑥v

Relation between first fundamental coefficient

E.F.G.

(𝑥𝑥u ^ 𝑥𝑥v)2 = (𝑥𝑥u ^ 𝑥𝑥v). (𝑥𝑥u ^ 𝑥𝑥v)

= (𝑥𝑥u. 𝑥𝑥u) (𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣. 𝑥𝑥v)- (𝑥𝑥u. 𝑥𝑥v) (𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣. 𝑥𝑥u)

= EG –F2

∴ (𝑥𝑥u ^ 𝑥𝑥v)2 =EG-F2

let = |xu^ xv) >0

∴H2= FG-F2

≫ H= √𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐹𝐹 2 [∴ 𝐻𝐻 > 0]

≫ √𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐹𝐹 2 > 0 for G, F> 0

which is the required relation.

1 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸−𝐹𝐹 2
≫ ds2 = (𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)2 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣 2
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸

1st fundamental property:

(i) The metric is a quadratic positive form.

(ii) Invariance property.

(iii) Element of area.

(i) The 1st fundamental form is given by

I = ds2 = Edu2 +2Fdudv+Gdv2

=1
[E2(du)2+2EF^ dudv+EG (dv)2]
𝐸𝐸
 =1
[(Edu+Fdv)2+ (EG-F) dv2] _____ (i)
𝐸𝐸

Since EG- F2>0, E>o and for all real values of du and dv. We have from (i)

I = Edu2 +2Fdudv+Gdv2>o

If I=o, i.e

Edu +2Fdudv+Gdv2= o
1
≫ [(Edu+Fdv)2+(EG-F)2 dv2] =o
𝐸𝐸

≫(Edu+Fdv)2+(EG-F2) dv2] =o

≫(Edu+Fdv)2=o and (EG-F2) (dv)2= o

≫(Edu+Fdv)2=o and dv= o [∴ 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝐹𝐹 2 >o

≫Edu=o and dv= o

≫du=o and dv= o [∴ 𝐸𝐸>o]

But both du and dv cannot vanish together. Thus I>o. The first fundamental
form is quadratic positive form.

(ii) invariance property)

I= ds2 =Edu2+2Fdudv +Gdv2 ________ (i)

where E= 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑢𝑢 F = 𝑥𝑥u. 𝑥𝑥v G = 𝑠𝑠 2 v

Transform u, v to 𝑢𝑢̇ , 𝑣𝑣̇ , by the following relation,

𝑢𝑢̇ = θ (u, v) 𝑣𝑣̇ = ψ (u,v)

So we have,

u =u (𝑢𝑢̇ , 𝑣𝑣̇ )
(2)
v = v (𝑢𝑢̇ , 𝑣𝑣̇ )

and 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 ((𝑢𝑢̇ , 𝑣𝑣̇ ) _________ (3)

Differentiating with respect to 𝑢𝑢̇ , we get

𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
= +
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
≫x𝑢𝑢́ = x𝑢𝑢 + 𝑥𝑥 v , ________ (4)
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

Again, differentiating w.r.t 𝑣𝑣́ , we have

𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
= +
𝑙𝑙𝑣𝑣́ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑢́

𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
≫x𝑣𝑣́ = 𝑥𝑥u + 𝑥𝑥 v _________ (5)
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

From (2) we can write

𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
du = d𝑢𝑢́ + , dv ________(6)
𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑢́ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑢 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
dv = d𝑢𝑢́ + , dv _________ (7)
𝑙𝑙𝑢𝑢́ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

After transformation with parameter 𝑢𝑢́ and 𝑣𝑣́

(i) => ds = 𝐸𝐸́ (d𝑢𝑢́ )2 + 2𝐹𝐹́ d𝑢𝑢́ d𝑣𝑣́ + 𝐺𝐺́ (d𝑣𝑣́ )2

=
𝑥𝑥̀ u.𝑥𝑥̀ u (d𝑥𝑥̀ )2 +2𝑥𝑥̀ u.𝑥𝑥̀ v˄ d𝑣𝑣́ d𝑢𝑢́ + 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣́ . 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣́ (d𝑣𝑣́ )2
= ́ 2 (d𝑢𝑢́ )2 +2 𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢́ . 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 d 𝑢𝑢́ 𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣́ + (𝑥𝑥̀ v)2 (d𝑣𝑣́ )2
(𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢)
=
(𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢́ d𝑢𝑢́ + 𝑥𝑥́ 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣́ )2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= [(𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢́ + 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 ) d𝑢𝑢́ +(𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢 + 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 ) d𝑣𝑣́ ]2
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑣𝑣́

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= [𝑥𝑥u ( , d𝑢𝑢́ + d𝑣𝑣́ ) +𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣́ ( , d𝑢𝑢́ + , d𝑣𝑣́ )]
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑣𝑣́ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑣𝑣́

= [𝑥𝑥u du+xvdv)2 using (6) and (7)

= Edu2+2Fdudv +Gdv2 is invariant under transform

(iii) Element of area:

v- parametric curve u- parametric curve
u = constant v= constant
Du =o Dv =o
D𝑥𝑥= 𝑥𝑥 u Du+𝑥𝑥 v Dv D𝑥𝑥= 𝑥𝑥 u Du+𝑥𝑥 v Dv
=> D𝑥𝑥= xv Dv => D𝑥𝑥= xv Dv

𝑥𝑥 =𝑥𝑥 (u, v) => dx =xudv

We know for u- parametric curve, v=constant.

∴ dv= o

Thus d𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥udu +𝑥𝑥vdv

=>d𝑥𝑥 =𝑥𝑥udu

Again for v-parametric curve, u= constant.

d𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥udu +𝑥𝑥vdv

=>d𝑥𝑥 =𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣dv

let xudu and xvdv be the two direction on the surface. X= x (u,v)

Now it the element of area is DA. Then we have

dA =|𝑥𝑥udu˄𝑥𝑥vdv|

=|𝑥𝑥u˄𝑥𝑥v|dudv

= √𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝐹𝐹 2 dudv [∴xu˄xv= √𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝐹𝐹 2]

∴ [sdA =]] √𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝐹𝐹 dudv

Note: Total area of the surface X= x (u,v) is given by.

A = [[s √𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝐹𝐹 2 dudv.

# Angle between two direction on the surface:

v- parametric curve

d𝑥𝑥= 𝑥𝑥udu+𝑥𝑥 udv

let ∝ the angle between two directions d x and dx on the surface X = X (u,v).

Now d𝑥𝑥.d𝑥𝑥 = |d𝑥𝑥| |s𝑥𝑥| cos∝

𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧
=> cos∝ =
|𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

Id𝑥𝑥l = √𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣) (𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

 = �𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥. 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 2

= √𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 + 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑣𝑣 2

Similarly

|s𝑥𝑥| = √𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑣𝑣 2

Where F = 𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢, 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣,

Now d𝑥𝑥. 𝑠𝑠𝑥𝑥 =Edudu+(dusv+dvsu) F+Gdvsv

∴ cos∝ = Edusu +F(dusv+dvsu) +Gdvsv

√𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑣𝑣 2 √𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝑣𝑣 2

Which is the required angle between the two direction on the surface.

2nd fundamental form:

(i) Surface normal: let 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 (u, v) be a surface eqn.

(ii) The direction of the vector area 𝑥𝑥 ˄ 𝑥𝑥 is called surface normal in this
direction.
The unit surface Normal is called defined by
𝑥𝑥 ˄𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 = .
|𝑥𝑥˄𝑥𝑥

2nd fundamental form:

let 𝑥𝑥 =𝑥𝑥 (u, v) be any surface and N be unit surface normal. Then the quadratic
differential form.

II = Edu2 +2fdudv +gdv2

𝑥𝑥 ˄𝑥𝑥
Where𝑁𝑁 = .
|𝑥𝑥˄𝑥𝑥

E= 𝑥𝑥 uu. 𝑁𝑁

f = 𝑥𝑥 uv. 𝑁𝑁

g= xuv. 𝑁𝑁
Geometric interpretation of 2nd fundamental form

ut x and 𝑥𝑥 + d𝑥𝑥 be The position vectors of the two reighbouring points p and Q
corresponding to u,v and u+du, v+dv respectively on The surface 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 (u,v)

By Taylor`s Theorem, we have

𝑥𝑥+d𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + (𝑥𝑥 u du+𝑥𝑥vdv) 1�2 �𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 2 � +............

= d𝑥𝑥 = (𝑥𝑥u du+ 𝑥𝑥v dv) 1�2 �𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑢𝑢2 + 2𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 2 � +............

let QR be the length of the parameter from Q on the tangent

QR= projection of PQ on the normal at p.

= 𝑁𝑁.d𝑥𝑥

𝑁𝑁. d𝑥𝑥

= 𝑁𝑁 (x𝑢𝑢 du+x𝑣𝑣 dv) +y2(𝑁𝑁 uu d𝑢𝑢2 +2x𝑢𝑢v dudv+x𝑢𝑢vdv .........+ [by]

1
= (Ldu2+2mdudv+ndv2)
2

=> 2θR = Ldu2+2mdudv+Ndv2

Thus geometrically, the second fundamental form is the twice of the length of
the perpendicular from the contiguous point θ on tangent plane at p.

From 2nd fundamental form

∏ =L du2 + m dudv + N dv2

= Xuu. N du2+Xuv. N dudv + Xvv. N dv2

= (Xuu. du2+Xuv dudv + Xvvdv2).N

here dx = 𝑥𝑥udu + xv dv

d2x=d (dx) = d (xudu + xvdv)

= xuudu2 + xuvdudv + xvu du du + xvvdv2

= xuu d2u + 2 x uv dudv + xvv d2v

∴ − − −= 𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥 . 𝑁𝑁

Since xu and xv N

xu.N=0 xv.N=0

xuu.N = - xu.Nu, xvv. N = -xv.Nv

xuv.N=-xu Nu, xuv.N=-Xv.Nu

--= xuu.N d2u+ 2 xuvndudv + xuv N d2v

= - xu.Nu d2u - 2 xu.nu dudv + xv d2v d2v

Ex1: calculate the fundamental magnitudes for the mox form of the surface z =
f(x, y)

Solution: The equation of surface

z= f(x,y). Then
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙 2 𝑧𝑧 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
p= 𝑞𝑞 = , r 2
,s ,t=
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑥𝑥 2 𝑦𝑦 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

Now taking x,y as parameters. We get

𝑥𝑥 = (x, y, f (x, y))

∴ 𝑥𝑥 x =(1,0,p) 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 = (0,1,9)

𝑥𝑥 xx =(0,0,r) 𝑥𝑥yy =(0,0,t), 𝑥𝑥xy =(0,0,s)

Therefore E= 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋. 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 1 + 𝑝𝑝2 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋. 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 1 − 𝑝𝑝2

𝐺𝐺 = 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋. 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 1 + 𝑞𝑞2

𝐻𝐻 2 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝐹𝐹 2 = (1 + 𝑝𝑝2 )(1 − 𝑞𝑞2 ) − 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞2

1 + 𝑝𝑝2 + 𝑞𝑞2

𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 ^ 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 −𝑝𝑝,−𝑞𝑞,1

𝑁𝑁 = =
𝐻𝐻 2 𝐻𝐻 2

𝑟𝑟 𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑡
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑁𝑁. 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = , 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑁𝑁. 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁. 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 =
𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻

𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟−𝑠𝑠 2
𝑇𝑇 2 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 𝑀𝑀2 =
𝐻𝐻 2

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸2: 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟ℎ𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑥𝑥 =
𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

Solution: With u, v as parameters we have

𝑋𝑋 = (𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)

∴ 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = (𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 0), 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = (−𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 𝑐𝑐)

𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = (0,0,0) 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = (−𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, −𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢, 0)

𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = (−𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 0)

∴ 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑋𝑋 2 𝑢𝑢 = cos2 𝑣𝑣 + sin2 𝑣𝑣 = 1

𝐹𝐹 = 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋. 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = −𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 + 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 0

𝐺𝐺 = 𝑋𝑋𝑣𝑣 2 = 𝑢𝑢2 sin2 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢2 cos2 𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑐𝑐 2

𝐻𝐻 2 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝐹𝐹 2 = 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑐𝑐 2

𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢^ 𝑋𝑋𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑢𝑢

𝑁𝑁 = =
𝐻𝐻 2 √𝑢𝑢2 +𝑐𝑐 2

𝐿𝐿 = 𝑁𝑁. 𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 0

−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛2 𝑣𝑣−𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 2 𝑣𝑣+0 𝑐𝑐

𝑀𝑀 = 𝑁𝑁. 𝑋𝑋𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = =−
√𝑢𝑢2 +𝑐𝑐 2 √𝑢𝑢2 +𝑐𝑐 2

𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁. 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋

=0

𝑐𝑐 2
𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 𝑀𝑀2 = −
𝑢𝑢2 +𝑐𝑐 2

Ex: 3: calculate the fundamental magnitudes for the conicoid

x = u cos v y = u sin v z= f (v)

with u, v parameters.

Solution: Given

x = (u cos v, u sin v, f (v))

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
xu = (cos v, sin v, o) xv = (-u sin v, u cos v, 𝑓𝑓′) �𝑓𝑓 ′ = �
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕2 𝑡𝑡
xuu = (o,o,o) xvv = (-u cos v, - u cos v, 𝑓𝑓′′ �𝑓𝑓 ′′ = �
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 2

xuv = (- sin v, cos v, o)

where dashes represent differential w. r. t v.

E = x2u + sin2 v = 1

F = u cos v sin v + u sinv cos v + 0 =0

G = x2v = u2 sin2 v + u2 cos2 v + 𝑓𝑓′2 = u2 + 𝑓𝑓′2

H2 = EG-F2 = u2 𝑓𝑓′2

𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢 ^ 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 𝑓𝑓′ sin 𝑣𝑣,−𝑓𝑓′ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑢𝑢2

n= =
𝑀𝑀2 𝑀𝑀

L = N. xuu = 0
1 𝑓𝑓′
m = N. x uv = (−𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑛𝑛2 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑠 2 𝑣𝑣 ) = −
𝑀𝑀 𝐻𝐻

1 𝑓𝑓′′𝑢𝑢
N = N. Xvv = (−𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 ′ cos 𝑣𝑣 sin 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓 ′ cos 𝑣𝑣 sin 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑓𝑓′′𝑢𝑢 ) =
𝑀𝑀 𝐻𝐻

𝑓𝑓′2
T2 = LN-M2 = , Sin u F = 0 The parametric curve are orthogonal.
𝑀𝑀2

Ex:4: calculate the fundamental magnitudes for the surface of revolution.

x = u cos u, y = u sin v m= f (v)

with u, v parameters.

Solution: Given

x = (u cos v, u sin v, f (u))

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
∴ xu = (cos v, sin v, 𝑓𝑓′) � = 𝑓𝑓 ′ � xv = (-u sin v, u cos v, o)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝜕𝜕2 𝑡𝑡
xuu = (o,o,o 𝑓𝑓 ′′ ) � = 𝑓𝑓 ′′ � xvv = (-u cos v, - u cos v, 𝑜𝑜)
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢2

xuv = (- sin v, cos v, o)

where dashes represent differential w. r. t v.

E = xu. xu = cos2v + sin2v+𝑓𝑓′2 =1+𝑓𝑓′2

F = xu. xv = 0

G = x v. x v = u2 sin2 v + u2 cos2 v = u2

H2 = EG-F2 = u2 (1+𝑓𝑓′2 )

𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢 𝜋𝜋 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣 (−𝑓𝑓′ cos 𝑣𝑣,−𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢′ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐, 𝑢𝑢2

N= =
𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻
 1 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢′
∴L = N. xuu = 𝑢𝑢𝑓𝑓 ′ =
𝑀𝑀 𝐻𝐻

1
M = N. x uv = (−𝑢𝑢2 𝑓𝑓 ′ sin 𝑣𝑣 cos 2 𝑣𝑣 − 𝑢𝑢 𝑓𝑓 ′ sin 𝑣𝑣 cos 𝑣𝑣 + 0) = 0
𝑀𝑀

1 𝑢𝑢2 𝑓𝑓′′
N = N. Xvv = (𝑢𝑢2 𝑓𝑓 ′ cos2 𝑣𝑣 + sin 𝑣𝑣 + 𝑢𝑢2 𝑓𝑓 ′ sin 𝑣𝑣 ) =
𝑀𝑀 𝐻𝐻

𝑢𝑢3 𝑓𝑓′2 𝑓𝑓′′

T2 = LN-M2 = .
𝑀𝑀2

# State and prove Weingarten Equations.

Weingarten equations

(a). H2 Nu = (FM – GL) Xu + (FL-EM) xv

(b). H2 Nv = (FN – GM) Xu + (FM-EN) xv

(c). HNu × 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = (LN – M2) N

Proof: Since N is a unit normal vector. so that it is of constant magnitude and

therefore both Nu and Nu are perpendicular to N i.e Nu and Nv are tangent to
the surface. Hence both Nu and Nv lie in the plane of vectors Xu and Xv

∴ 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 𝑛𝑛------------1

Where a and b are constants whose values we have to find

Xu. Nu = a X2u + b Xu.Xv = aE+bF=-L

= aE + bF+L=0-------------2

Xu. Nu = Xu.Xv + b Xv.Xv + b Xv.Xv = aE+bG=-M

= aF + bG+M=0-------------3

Solving for a, b =

𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 1
= =
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝐹𝐹 2
 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 1
= = = 2
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐻𝐻
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
= 𝑎𝑎 = , 𝑏𝑏 =
𝐻𝐻 2 𝐻𝐻 2
Putting The values of a,b into (i) =

𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢 = 𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢 + 𝑋𝑋𝑣𝑣
𝐻𝐻 2 𝐻𝐻 2
= 𝐻𝐻 2 𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢 = (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺) 𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢 + (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)𝑋𝑋𝑣𝑣 --------------4

Again Nu = p Xu + q Xv -----------------5

Where p and q are constants whose values we have to fine.

Xu. Nv = P X2u + q Xu. Xv = - M=PE + qF

= PE + qF+m=0-------------6

Xv. Nv = P Xv.Xu + q Xv.Xv = - N = PF+qG

= pF +qG+N=0-------------7

Solving 6 and 7.

𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎 1 1
= = = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 𝐹𝐹 2 𝐻𝐻 2
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
= 𝑃𝑃 , 𝑞𝑞
𝑁𝑁 2 𝐻𝐻 2
Putting the values of p and q into 5 =

H2 Nu = (FN – GM) Xu + (FM-FN) Xv ----------8

Taking The cross product of 4 and 8

(H2Nu) × (H2Nv)= �(𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺)𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢 + (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)𝑋𝑋𝑣𝑣� ×

�(𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺)𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 + (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)𝑋𝑋𝑣𝑣�

= H4 Nu × Nv = [(𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺) (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸) − (𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸)(𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 − 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺)]

 �𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑢𝑢 𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢. 𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢 = 0 𝑋𝑋𝑣𝑣 × 𝑋𝑋𝑛𝑛 = 0, 𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢. 𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢. 𝑋𝑋𝑢𝑢 = −𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻�

= (F2m2 - GLFM - EFMN+GLN-F2LN+EFMN+FGLM-EGM2)

HN

= (F2m2-F2LN + EGLN – EGm2) HN

= [𝐹𝐹 2 (𝑚𝑚2 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿) + 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 (𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 𝑚𝑚2 )] HN

= (LN-m2) (EG-F2) HN

= H3 (LN-M2) N

= H4 Nu × Nv = H3 (LN-M2) N

= H4 Nu × Nv = (LN-M2) N

Ex:2: Show that if L, M, N vanish everywhere on a surface then the surface is a

part of a plane.

Solution: we know that the surface normal’s at every point of a plane surface
are parallel and hence the surface normal N is constant for a plane surface.
Thus, in This equation we are to show that N is constant to every point of a
surface.

Given L = M = N= 0

But L= -Nu. Xu M= - Nu. Xv = Nv. Xu

Therefore, we have

Nu. Xu = 0 Nu. Xv = 0

Nv. Xu = 0 Nu. Xv = 0

Now as Xu ≠ 0 Xv ≠ 0, The equation 1 implies that either

Nu = 0

or Nu is perpendicular to the vectors Xu and Xv both

= Nu is parallel to the vectors Xu ^ Xu and Xv

= 𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢 is parallel to the vector H 𝑁𝑁

= 𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢 is parallel to the vector 𝑁𝑁

But this is not true. as 𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢 is perpendicular to 𝑁𝑁, 𝑁𝑁 being vector of constant

magnitude. Henle from (1), we must have

𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢 = 0 𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒 𝑁𝑁 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑢𝑢.

Applying similar reasoning to equation (2) we ge 𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢 =

0 𝑖𝑖. 𝑒𝑒 𝑁𝑁 𝑖𝑖𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑣𝑣

Thus 𝑁𝑁 is independent of both u and v

Hence N is a constant vector at every pain of the sortace (Hence

proved)

Ex 1: Show that if 𝜓𝜓 is the angle at the point (u, v) between the two-direction
given by

𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑2 𝑢𝑢 + 2∅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣 2 = 0 𝑇𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒

1
2𝐻𝐻(∅2 −𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)2
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡=
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸−2𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹+𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺

Hence or otherwise find the condition that the two direction are orthogonal.

Solution: We have 𝑝𝑝𝑑𝑑2 𝑢𝑢 + 2∅𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑣𝑣 2 = 0

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑃𝑃 � � + 2𝑄𝑄 + 𝑅𝑅 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
This is quadratic equation in
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
let the two direction and
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2𝑄𝑄 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑅𝑅
∴ + =− and =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑃𝑃

We know that

|𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕−𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑|
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜓𝜓 =
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹+𝐹𝐹(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑+𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)+𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
� − �𝐻𝐻
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐸𝐸 +𝐹𝐹 � �+𝐺𝐺
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝐻𝐻 � � + � � − 4
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑅𝑅 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝐸𝐸 − 2 + 𝐺𝐺
𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃

4𝑄𝑄
𝐻𝐻� − 4 𝑅𝑅�𝑃𝑃
𝑝𝑝2
=
𝑅𝑅 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝐸𝐸 − 2 + 𝐺𝐺
𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃

4𝑄𝑄
𝐻𝐻� − (𝑄𝑄 2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)
𝑝𝑝2
=
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 2𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃
1
2𝐻𝐻(𝑄𝑄 2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) �2
=
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 2𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

2nd part: The two direction are orthogonal if 𝜔𝜔 = 𝜋𝜋�2

1
𝜋𝜋 2𝐻𝐻(𝑄𝑄 2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) �2
tan �2 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 2𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
1
1 2𝐻𝐻(𝑄𝑄 2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) �2
= �0 =
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 2𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

= ER – 2 FQ-PG=0 (Proved)
Ex:2 Show that the curves bisecting the angles between the parametric curves
are given by

E du2-Gdv2=0
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸+𝐹𝐹 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑+𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) 𝐺𝐺 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Solution: If 𝜓𝜓 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

let (𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕) refer the parametric carver and (𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕) The required curves.

If 𝜔𝜔1 is the angle between The parametric curve v= constart and the bisecting
curve of the direction (du,dv)
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜓𝜓1 =
√𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Similarly if 𝜔𝜔1 is the angle between the parametric curve v = const. and (du, dv)

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜓𝜓1 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑√𝐺𝐺 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
If parametric curve are orthogonal F = 0

and we most have 𝜓𝜓1 = 𝜓𝜓2

𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜓𝜓1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜓𝜓2
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
= =
√𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑√𝐺𝐺 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

=√𝐺𝐺 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − √𝐺𝐺 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0

The curve orthogonal to √𝐸𝐸 du - √𝐺𝐺 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 will also bisect one pair of angles
between the orthogonal curves the orthogonal curve is

√𝐸𝐸 du - √𝐺𝐺 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0

Hence the required curves are given by the differential equation

Edu2-Gdv2=0