Physics Notes 15PHY12 - 22 - Website-1 PDF

H K B K COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
BENGALURU
Department Of Engineering Physics
Course Material
Subject : Engineering Physics

Subject Code: 15PHY12/22
Semester : I/II Sem B.E.
Engineering Physics
Course Objectives and Outcomes

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Subject Code : 15PHY12/22 I.A. Marks : 20
Hours/Week : 04 Exam Hours : 03
Total Hours : 50 Exam Marks : 80
Course Objectives:
The objectives of this course is to make students learn and understand basic concepts
and principles of physics to analyze practical engineering problems and apply its
solution effectively and meaningfully. To understand building up of models, design
issues, practical oriented skills and problem solving challenges are the great task of
the course. Knowledge about shock waves and practical applications is the prime
motto to introduce new technology in the initial stage of Engineering.
Module 1: DURATION: 10 Hours
Modern Physics and Quantum Mechanics
Objectives:
 To explain the development of particle nature of wave with experimental proof.
 To define the matter waves and calculate its characteristic properties.
 To enable the students to solve the problems on properties of matter waves.
 To highlight the importance of the Uncertainty Principle with examples.
 To explain properties and significance of wave function.
 Setting up Schrodinger wave equation and solving it under different physical
conditions.
Module2: DURATION: 10 Hours
Electrical Properties of Materials
Objectives:
 To elucidate the concept of classical free electron theory.
 To explain the shortcomings of classical free electron theory, hence develop the
idea of Quantum free electron theory.
 To develop the idea of electrical conductivity in metal using concepts of quantum
free electron theory.
 To enable students to understand electrical conductivity of semiconductors.
 To explain the Hall effect in conductors and its application.
 To explain the concept of superconductivity by formation of Cooper pair.
 To explain the effect of temperature and magnetic field on the properties of
superconductors.
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Module 3: DURATION: 10 Hours
LASERs and Optical Fibers
Objectives:
 To explain principle and production of LASER on the basis of Einstein’s
coefficients.
 To describe different types of LASER systems.
 To enable the students to be aware of applications of LASER in different fields.
 To derive the condition for propagation of signal in optical fibre.
 To explain the advantage of optical fibre over conventional techniques of
communications.
Module 4 DURATION: 10 Hours
Crystal Structures
Objectives:
 To classify crystal systems on the basis of different parameters.
 To explain directions and planes in crystals with the help of Miller Indices.
 Theoretical explanation of implementation of x-ray diffraction in detection of
different crystal structure.
 To explain Principles and working of Liquid Crystal Display
Module5 DURATION: 10 Hours
Shock Waves and Science of Nanomaterials
Objectives:
 To explain importance of shock waves in engineering.
 To study the characteristic properties of shock waves in laboratory conditions.
 To introduce nano-science and nano-technology with importance in present
scenario.
 To describe different types of carbon nanotubes.
 To explain the principle and working of Scanning Electron Microscope.
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Contents
Mod.No. Name of the Module Page No.
Course Objectives and Outcomes
1 Modern Physics and Quantum Mechanics 1
2 Electrical Properties of Materials 23
3 Lasers and Optical Fibers 46
4 Crystal Structures 71
5 Shock Waves and Science of Nanomaterials 89

Text books, Reference Books , Summary 105
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MODULE – 1
MODERN PHYSICS
Blackbody Radiation spectrum:
A Blackbody is one which absorbs the entire radiation incident on it and emits all the
absorbed radiation when it is hotter. A true blackbody does not exist practically. A
blackbody designed by Wein has features very close to the true blackbody.
The energy distribution in the spectrum of a black body
6000K
3000K
Energy
2000K
Wavelength
1) The distribution of energy is not uniform and varies with wavelength and
temperature.
2) The intensity of radiation increases up to a particular wavelength, and then
decreases with further increase in wavelength at a given temperature.
3) As the temperature of the body increases, the peak of the curve shifts towards
shorter wavelength.
Wien, Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck have given their explanations to account these
observed experimental facts as follows:
1. Wien’s Displacement Law:

The law states that “the wavelength of maximum intensity is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature of the emitting body, because of which the
peaks of the energy curves for different temperatures get displaced towards the lower
wavelength side”.
1
i.e.  m    or λmT = constant = 2.898×10-3 mK
T 
Wein showed that the maximum energy of the peak emission is directly
proportional to the fifth power of absolute temperature.
Em α T5 or Em = constant × T5
Wien’s Energy Distribution law: The relation between the wavelength of emission
and the temperature of the source is
C 
 2 
5  T 
U  d  C1  e d
Where Uλdλ is the energy / unit volume in the range of wavelength λ and λ+dλ, C1
and C2 are constants.
Department of Engineering Physics, HKBKCE Page 1
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Drawbacks of Wien’s law:
Wien’s law holds good for the shorter wavelength region and high temperature
of the source. It failed to explain gradual drop in intensity of radiation corresponding
to longer wavelength greater than the peak value.
2. Rayleigh-Jeans Law:
Rayleigh derived an equation for the blackbody radiation on the basis of

principle of equipartition of energy.
The energy/unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ + dλ is
Uλd λ = 8π λ-4kTdλ
Where k is Boltzmann constant
Drawbacks of Rayleigh-Jeans Law (or Ultra Violet Catastrophe):
Rayleigh-Jeans Law predicts to radiate all the energy at shorter wavelength

side but it does not happen so. A black body radiates mainly in the infra-red or visible
region of electromagnetic radiation spectrum and intensity of radiation decreases
down steeply for shorter wavelengths. Thus, the Rayleigh-Jeans Law fails to explain
the lower wavelength side of the spectrum. This is referred to as ultra-violet
Catastrophe.
3. Planck’s Law:
Planck assumed that walls of the experimental blackbody consists larger

number of electrical oscillators. Each oscillator vibrates with its own frequency.
i) Each oscillator has an energy given by integral multiple of hν where h is
Planck’s constant & ν is the frequency of vibration.
E = nhν where n = 1, 2, 3 . . . etc.
ii) An oscillator may lose or gain energy by emitting or absorbing radiations of
frequency ν, where ν = ΔE/h, ΔE is difference in energies of the oscillator
before and after the emission or absorption take place.
Planck derived the law which holds good for the entire spectrum of the blackbody
radiation as
8hc  1 
Uλ dλ = 5  h / kt
d (since ν = c/λ) (1)
 e 1
This is Planck’s Radiation Law.
Reduction of Planck’s law to Wien’s law and Rayleigh Jeans law:
1) For shorter wavelengths, ν = c/λ is large.

hν/kT
When ν is large, e is very large.

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. hν/kT
.. e >> 1
hν/kT
.
. . (e -1) ≈ ehν/kT = ehc/λkT
Substituting in eqn 1:
  C2 
 
8hc  1  5  T 
Uλ dλ = 5  hc/kT  d = C1  e d
 e 
Where C1 = 8πhc and C2 = hc/k
This is the Wien’s law of radiation.
2) For longer wavelengths ν = c/λ is small.

When υ is small hν/kT is very small.
Expanding ehν/kT as power series:
ehν/kT = 1 + hν/kT + (hν/kT)2 + . . .
≈ 1 + hν/kT.
..
. If hν/kT is small, its higher powers are neglected.
h hc
... ehν/kT-1 = 
kT kT
Substituting in eqn 1:
 
 8hc 
Uλ dλ =   d
 5  hc  
   kT  
 
 8kT 
=  4  d
  
This is Rayleigh Jeans Law of Radiation.
Compton Effect:
When a monochromatic beam of X-ray of wavelength λ is scattered by a

substance, the scattered radiation consists of two different wavelengths, one with
longer wave length (λ') and other with a wavelength equal to the incident wavelength
(λ).
A photon of wavelength ‘λ’ is scattered by an electron by an angle ‘θ’ with

the direction of incidence. The wavelength of the scattered photon increases to λ'.
The electron recoils in a direction making an angle ‘φ’ with the incident direction of

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photon. Compton found that λ' is independent of the target material, but ddepends on
the angle of scattering.
The change in wavelength or Compton shift is given by
h
 λ = λ' – λ = (1  cos  )
mc
Where ‘m’ is the mass of the electron, θ is the angle of scattering.
h/mc is called as Compton wavelength.
Physicall significance:
Compton Effect demonstrates the particle nature of X-ray.

X
Wave-Particle
Particle Dualism
Broglie concept of Matter Waves (de-Broglie hypothesis): de Broglie suggested

de-Broglie
that waves sometimes behaves as a particle and conversely particles can have wave
like characteristic properties. Therefore particles like electrons, protons, neutrons,
atoms or molecules will have waves associated with them, known as particle waves or
de Broglie waves.
de-Broglie’s
Broglie’s Wavelength:
De Broglie wave length is given by
λ=h/mv
Where m is mass of material particle, h is Planck’s constant and v is velocity of

material particle.
Relation between de-Broglie

Broglie wavelength and kinetic energy
Consider an electron in an electric potential V, the energy acquired is given by
1 p2
E  eV  mv 2 
2 2m

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Where ‘m’ is the mass, ‘v’ is the velocity and ‘p’ is the momentum of the particle. ‘e’
is charge of an electron.
p  2meV  2mE
The expression for de-Broglie wavelength is given by
h h h h
   
p mv 2 meV 2mE
de-Broglie Wavelength of an Accelerated Electron:
An electron accelerated with potential difference ‘V’ has energy ‘eV’.If ‘m’ is
the mass and ‘v’ is the velocity of the electron.
Then eV = 1/2(mv2) → (1)
If ‘p’ is the momentum of the electron, then p=mv
Squaring on both sides, we have
p2 = m2v2
mv2 = p2/m
Using in equation (1) we have
eV = p2/(2m) or p = (2meV)
According to de-Broglie λ = h/p
 h  1  h 
Therefore λ=
 2meV  = V  2me 
1  6.626  10 34 
λ=
V  2  9.11  10 31  1.602  10 19 
1.226  10 9
= m,
V
1.226
λ= nm
V

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Characteristics of matter waves:
1. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves because the de Broglie wavelength is
independent of charge of the moving particle.
2. Lighter the particle, longer will be the wavelength of the matter waves, velocity
being constant.
3. For a particle at rest, the wavelength associated with it becomes infinite. This
shows that only moving particle produces the matter waves.
4. The velocity of matter waves (vP) is not constant. The wavelength is inversely
proportional to the velocity of the moving particle.
Phase velocity and Group velocity:
Phase velocity:
The velocity with which a definite phase of each individual monochromatic wave
travels is called phase velocity. The phase velocity of a wave is given by vphase = (ω
/k).
Group velocity:
A group of two or more waves, slightly differing in wavelengths are super imposed
on each other. The resultant wave is a packet or wave group. The velocity with which
the envelope enclosing a wave group is transported is called Group Velocity.
d
The group velocity of a wave is given by vgroup =
dk
Derivation of expression for group velocity on the basis of superposition of

waves:
Let y1 = Asin(ωt-kx) …………… (1)
and
y2 = Asin[(ω+ Δ ω)t - (k + Δk)x] ……………. (2)
be the two waves having same amplitude & slightly different wavelengths. Where y1
& y2 are the displacements at any instant t, A is common amplitude; ω & Δk are
differences in angular velocity and wave number. x is the common displacement at
time t.
By the principle of superposition
y = y1 + y2
y = A sin (ωt - kx) + A sin{(ω+Δ ω)t - (k+Δk)x}

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 a b  a b
But, sin a + sin b = 2 cos  sin 
 2   2 
    k    2     2k  k  
y = 2A cos  t    x  sin  t   x
 2   2    2   2  
Since Δω and Δk are small
2ω +Δω ≈ 2ω and 2k + Δk ≈ 2k.
    k  
... y = 2A cos  t    x  sin t  kx  → (3)
 2   2  
From equations (1) & (3) it is seen the amplitude becomes
    k  
2A cos  t    x
 2   2  
The velocity with which the variation in amplitude is transmitted in the resultant wave
is the group velocity.
(  
vgroup= 
( k k
 d d
In the limit  , vgroup =
k dk dk
Relation between group velocity and phase velocity:
The equations for group velocity and phase velocity are:
d 
vgroup = → (1) & vphase = → (2)
dk k
Where ‘ω’ is the angular frequency of the wave and ‘k’ is the wave number.
ω = k vphase
d d
vgroup= = ( kv phase )
dk dk
dv phase
vgroup= vphase + k
dk

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 dv phase  d 
vgroup = vphase + k    ……….. (3)
 d  dk 
We have k = (2π/λ)
dk 2 d  2
Differentiating   2 or 
d  dk 2
2
d  2   
k      
dk    2 
Using this in eqn (3)
dv phase
vgroup = vphase - λ
d
This is the relation between group velocity and phase velocity.
Relation between group velocity and particle velocity:
The equation for group velocity is
d
vgroup = ………….. (1)
dk
But ω=2πυ = 2π(E/h) ………….. (2)
2
d  dE ………… (3)
h
We have k = 2π/λ = 2π(p/h) …………. (4)
2
dk  dP ………….. (5)
h
Dividing eqn (3) by (5) we have
d dE
 ……………. (6)
dk dP
But we have E = P2/(2m), Where ‘P’ is the momentum of the particle.
dE 2 P P
 
dP 2m m
Using the above in eqn (6)

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d P

dk m
But p = mvparticle, Where ‘vparticle’ is the velocity of the particle.
d mv particle
  v particle ………… (7)
dk m
From eqn (1) & (7), we have
vgroup= vparticle …………… (8)
Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
“It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and momentum

of a particle accurately. If we make an effort to measure very accurately the position
of a particle, it leads to large uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice
versa.
If ∆ x and Px are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and
momentum of the particle then the uncertainty can be written as
∆ x . Px ≥ (h/4π).
Similarly 1) ∆E.∆t ≥ h/4π 2) ∆L.∆θ ≥ h/4π
Application of Heisenberg uncertainty principle:
Electrons cannot exist in an atomic nucleus.
The diameter of the nucleus is of the order 10-14m. If an electron is to exist inside the
nucleus, the uncertainty in its position ∆ x must not exceed 10-14m.
i.e. ∆ x ≤ 10-14m
The minimum uncertainty in the momentum
h 6.63  10 34
Px min ≥ ≥ ≥ 0.5 × 10-20 kg.m/s
4 x max 4  10 14
By considering minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the electron
i.e., Px min ≥ 0.5 × 10-20 kg.m/s = p

According to Energy relativistic equation
E² = p²c² + mo2c4
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Neglecting the second term as it is smaller by more than the 3 orders of the
magnitude compared to first term.
Where mo= 9.11 × 10-31 kg
If the electron exists in the nucleus its energy must be
E² ≥ (3 × 108)2[(0.5 × 10-20)2
Taking square roots on both sides and simplifying
-12 1.5  10 12

E ≥ 1.5 × 10 J≥ ev ≥ 9.4 Mev
1.6  10 19
If an electron exists in the nucleus its energy must be greater than or equal to 9.4Mev.
It is experimentally measured that the beta particles ejected from the nucleus during
beta decay have energies of about 3 to 4 MeV. This shows that electrons cannot exist
in the nucleus.
Wave Function:
A physical situation in quantum mechanics is represented by a function called

wave function. It is denoted by ‘ψ’. It accounts for the wave like properties of
particles. Wave function is obtained by solving Schrodinger equation. To solve
Schrodinger equation it is required to know
1) Potential energy of the particle

2) Initial conditions and
3) Boundary conditions.
There are two types of Schrodinger equations:
1) The time dependent Schrodinger equation: It takes care of both the position and
time variations of the wave function. It involves imaginary quantity i.
h2d 2 ih d
The equation is:  2 2
 V  
8 m dx 2 dt
2) The time independent Schrodinger equation: It takes care of only position
variation of the wave function.
d 2 8 2 m
The equation is:  2 ( E  V )  0
dx 2 h
Time-independent one-dimensional Schrödinger equation.
The de-Broglie wavelength ‘λ’ is

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h h
λ=  → (1)
mv P
The wave equation is
  A e i ( kx  t ) → (2)
Differentiating equation (2) with respect to ‘t’ twice
d 2
2
  A 2 e i ( kxt )   2 → (3)
dt
The equation of a travelling wave is
d2y 1 d2y

dx 2 v 2 dt 2
Where ‘y’ is the displacement and ‘v’ is the velocity.
Similarly for the de-Broglie wave associated with the particle
d 2 1 d 2
 → (4)
dx 2 v 2 dt 2
where ‘ψ’ is the displacement at time ‘t’.
From eqns (3) & (4)
d 2 2
  
dx 2 v2
But ω = 2πυ and v =υ λ where ‘υ’ is the frequency and ‘λ’ is the wavelength.
d 2 4 2 1 1 d 2
  2  or 2   2 → (5)
dx 2   4  dx 2
1 2 m2v2 P2
K . E  mv   → (6)
2 2m 2m
h2
 → (7)
2 m 2
Using eqn (5)

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h2  1  d 2 h 2 d 2
K .E     2 → (8)
2m  4 2  dx 2 8 m dx 2
Total Energy E = K.E + P.E
h 2 d 2
E V
8 2 m dx 2
h 2 d 2
E V  
8 2 m dx 2
d 2 8 2 m
  E  V 
dx 2 h2
d 2 8 2 m
 E  V   0
dx 2 h2
This is the time independent Schrodinger wave equation.
Physical significance of wave function:
Probability density:If ψ is the wave function

associated with a particle, then |ψ|² is the probability
of finding a particle in unit volume. If ‘τ’ is the
volume in which the particle is present but where it is
exactly present is not known. Then the probability of
finding a particle in certain elemental volume dτ is
given by |ψ|2dτ. Thus |ψ|² is called probability density.
The probability of finding an event is real and positive
quantity. In the case of complex wave functions, the
probability density is |ψ|² = ψ * ψ where ψ* is
Complex conjugate of .
Properties of the wave function:
A system or state of the particle is defined by its energy, momentum, position

etc. If the wave function ‘ψ’ of the system is known, the system can be defined. The
wave function ‘ψ’ of the system changes with its state. To find ‘ψ’ Schrodinger
equation has to be solved. As it is a second order differential equation, there are
several solutions. All the solutions may not be correct. We have to select those wave
functions which are suitable to the system. The acceptable wave function has to
possess the following properties:
1) ‘ψ’ is single valued everywhere: Consider the function f( x ) which varies with
position as represented in the graph. The function f(x) has three values f1, f2 and f3 at

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x = p. Since f1 ≠ f2≠ f3 it is to state that if f( x ) were to be the wave function. The

probability of finding the particle has three different values at the same location which
is not true. Thus the wave function is not acceptable.
2) ‘ψ’ is finite everywhere: Consider the function f( x ) which varies with position
as represented in the graph. The function f( x ) is not finite at x =R but f( x )=∞. Thus
it indicates large probability of finding the particle at a location. It violates uncertainty
principle. Thus the wave function is not acceptable.
3) ‘ψ’ and its first derivatives with respect to its variables are continuous
everywhere: Consider the function f( x ) which varies with position as represented in
the graph. The function f( x ) is truncated at x =Q between the points A & B, the
state of the system is not defined. To obtain the wave function associated with the
system, we have to solve Schrodinger wave equation. Since it is a second order
differential wave equation, the wave function and its first derivative must be
continuous at x=Q. As it is a discontinuous wave function, the wave function is not
acceptable.
4) ‘ψ’ must be normalizable: ‘ψ’ must go to 0 as x → ±∞, y → ±∞, z → ±∞. For

bound states ‘ψ’ must vanish at potential boundary and outside. If ‘ψ*’ is a complex
function, then ψ* ψ must also vanish at potential boundary and outside. Hence ψ must
satisfy the condition,

 |  | ² xyz  1


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The wave function which satisfies the above 4 properties are called Eigen
functions.
Eigen functions:
Eigen functions are those wave functions in Quantum mechanics which

possesses the properties:
1. They are single valued.

2. Finite everywhere and
3. The wave functions and their first derivatives with respect to their variables are
continuous.
Eigen values:
Once the Eigen functions are known, they could be used in Schrodinger
equation to evaluate energy. Since there is only a restricted set of Eigen Functions,
there is also restricted set of energy values. These energy values are called Eigen
values.
Application of Schrodinger wave equation:
PARTICLE IN ONE DIMENSIONAL POTENTIAL WELL OF INFINITE

HEIGHT.
Y-Axis
V= V=0 V=
Particle x=0 xx=a X-Axis
Consider a particle of a mass ‘m’ free to move in one dimension along positive x -
direction between x =0 to x =a. The potential energy within the region is zero. The
particle is in bound state. Such a configuration of potential in space is called infinite
potential well.
The Schrodinger’s equation inside the well is:
d 2 8 2 m
 E  0 → (2) ∵V = 0
dx 2 h2

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8 2 m
Let 2
E  k 2 in eqn (2)
h
d 2
2
 k 2  0
dx
The solution of this equation is:
ψ = C cos k x + D sin k x → (4)
at x = 0 → ψ = 0
0 = C cos 0 + D sin 0
∴C=0
Also x = a → ψ = 0
0 = C cos ka + D sin ka
But C = 0
∴D sin ka = 0 (5)
D0 (because the wave concept vanishes)
i.e. ka = nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… (quantum number)
n
k= → (6)
a
Using this in eqn (4)
n
 n  D sin x → (7)
a
To find out the value of D, normalization of the wave function is to be done.
a
i.e.   n2 dx  1 → (8)
0
using the values of ψn from eqn (7)

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a
2 2 n
D
0
sin
a
x dx  1
a
 1  cos( 2 n  / a ) x 
D2 dx  1
0 
2   1  cos 2 
 sin 2    
D2 
a a
2n   2 
 dx   cos xdx   1
2  0 0
a 
2 a
D  a 2n 
 x sin x  1
2  2n a 0
D2
a  0   1
2
D2
a 1
2
2
D 
a
Hence the normalized wave functions of a particle in one dimensional infinite

potential well is:
2 n
n  sin x → (9)
a a
Energy Eigen values:
From Eq. 6 &2
8 2 m 2 n 2 2
E  k 
h2 a2
Implies n2h2
E
8ma 2
The states for which n >1 are called exited states.

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SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Find the change in wavelength of an X-ray photon which is scattered through an

angle of 90º by an electron
− = (1 − ∅)
h = 6.625×10-34 J-s
m0 = 9.1×10-31 kg
c = 3×108 m/s
Φ = 90º
. ×
− = (1 − 90)
. × × ×
-12
 − = 2.425×10 m
 − = 0.02425 Å
2. In a Compton scattering experiment, the incident photons have a wavelength

of 3×10-10 m. Calculate the wavelength of scattered photons if they are
observed at an angle of 60º to the direction of incidence.
− = (1 − ∅)
h = 6.625×10-34 J-s
m0 = 9.1×10-31 kg
c = 3×108 m/s
Φ = 60º
. ×
− = (1 − 60)
. × × ×
 − = 1.212×10-12 m
 − = 0.01212Å
λ= 3×10-10 m = 3Å
 = 3+0.01212 = 3.01212
3. Calculate the kinetic energy of an electron whose De-Broglie wavelength is equal

to that of a 10 keV photon.
The energy of a photon is given by
hc
EP 
λP

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hc
 λP 
EP
h = 6.625×10-34 J-s
c = 3×108 m/s
EP= 10 keV = 10×103×1.6×10-19 J
 EP= 1.6×10-15 J
-34 8
6.625 × 10  3 × 10
 λP = -15
1.6 × 10
 λ P = 1.242×10-10 m
The wavelength ‘ λ e ’ of an electron interms of its kinetic energy ‘E’ is given by
h
λe 
2m e E
As λ e = λ P = 1.242×10-10 m
And me = 9.1×10-31 kg,
h2 (6.625  10 34 ) 2
E 
2m e λ e2 2  9.1  10  31  (1.242  10 10 ) 2
 E = 1.563×10-17 J = 97.71 eV
4. Calculate the De-Broglie wavelength of a 0.3 kg cricket ball travelleing with a

speed of 120 km/hr.
h
λ
mv
h = 6.625×10-34 J-s
m = 0.3 kg
v = 120 km/hr = 33.33 m/s
6.625  10 34
 λ
0.3  33.33
 λ  6.626  10 35 m
5. A particle of mass 0.65 MeV/C2 has free energy 120 eV. Find its De-Broglie
wavelength. ‘c’ is the velocity of light.
h
λe 
2mE
h = 6.625×10-34 J-s
m = 0.65 MeV/C2 = 0.65×1.6×10-13 J/C2

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. × . ×
= ( × )
kg
 m = 1.156×10-30 kg
E = 120 eV = 120×1.6×10-19 J
 E = 1.92×10-17 J
. ×
 λ =√
× . × × . ×
 λ =0.995 Å
6. Compare the energy of a photon with that of a neutron when both are associated
with wavelength of 1Å given that the mass of neutron is 1.678×10-27 kg.
The energy of a photon is given by
= …………….. (1)
By De-Broglie hypothesis, for a neutron
=
 En = ……….(2)
As λp = λn = 1Å, from equation (1) and (2),
ℎ
2
= =
ℎ ℎ
2
c = 3×108 m/s
mn = 1.678×10-27 kg
λn = 1 Å = 10-10 m
h = 6.63×10-34 J-s
× × × . × ×
 = . ×
= 1.52×105
EP = 1.52 × 105 En
7. Calculate the wavelength associated with electrons whose speed is 0.01 times the
speed of light.
By De-Broglie hypothesis,
ℎ
=
h = 6.63×10-34 J-s
m = 9.1 ×10-31 kg

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v = 0.01×3×108 = 3×106 m/s

. ×
λ= . × × ×
= 2.43×10-10 m
 λ = 2.43 Å
8. Find the kinetic energy and group velovity of an electron with De-Broglie
wavelength of 0.2 nm.
h
λ
2mE
 E=
h = 6.63×10-34 J-s
m = 9.1 ×10-31 kg
λ = 0.2 nm = 0.2×10-9 m
. ×
 E= × . × ×( . × )
-18
= 6.03×10 J
 E = 37.68 eV
The group velocity is same as the particle velocity
λ=
. ×
 V = = . × × . ×
Vg = 3640.1 m/s
9. A spectral line of wavelength 4000 Å has a width of 8×10-5 Å. Evaluate the

minimum time spent by the electrons in the upper energy state between the
excitation and de-excitation processes.
By Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle,
ΔE Δt ≥
As E= ,
|Δ | = Δ
 Δλ Δt ≥
 Δt ≥
λ = 4000 Å = 4×10-7 m
c = 3× 108 m/s
Δλ = 8×10-5 Å = 8×10-15 m

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×
= × × × ×
= 5.305 ×10-9
Δt ≥ 5.305×10-9 s
10. The inherent uncertainty in the measurement of time spent by Iridium 191 nuclie
in the excited state is found to be 1.4 ×10-10 sec. estimate the uncertainty that
result in its energy in the excited state.
ΔE Δt ≥
Δt = 1.4×10-10 s
h = 6.63×10-34 J.s
Δ =
. ×
= × . ×
= 3.77×10-25 J
 ΔE = 2.35 ×10-6 eV
11. The position and momentum of 1 keV electron are simultaneously determined and
if its position is located within 1 Å what is the percentage of uncertainty in its
momentum?
The momentum ‘p’ of electrons is related to their energy ‘E’ as
= √2
-31
m = 9.1×10 kg
E = 1 keV = 1.6 ×10-16 J
 = √2 × 9.1 × 10 × 1.6 × 10
 p = 1.71×10-23 kg.m/s
Δx Δp ≥
h = 6.63×10-34 J.s
Δx = 1Å = 10-10 m
 Δp =
. ×
= ×
 Δp = 5.276×10-25 kg.m/s

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The percentage uncertainty in momentum is
Δ 5.276 × 10
× 100 = × 100
1.71 × 10
= 3.085%
12. Estimate the time spent by an atom in the excited state during the excitation and
de-excitation processes, when a spectral line of wavelength 546 nm and width 10-
14
m is emitted.
ΔE ΔT ≥
At E=
|Δ | = Δ
 Δλ Δt ≥
 Δt ≥
λ = 546 nm = 546×10-9 m
c = 3×108 m/s
Δλ = 10-14 m
×
 Δ ≥ × × ×
Δt ≥ 7.91×10-9 s

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MODULE - 2
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Classical Free Electron Theory or Drude-Lorentz Theory
Assumptions of the classical free electron theory
1. A metal is imagined as the structure of 3-dimensional array of ions in between

which, there are free moving valence electrons confined to the body of the
material.
2. The free electrons are treated as equivalent to gas molecules and they are assumed
to obey the laws of kinetic theory of gases. The kinetic energy is given by
kT = mvth2
3. The electric potential due to the ionic cores is taken to be essentially constant
throughout the body of the metal and the effect of repulsion between the electrons
is considered insignificant.
4. The electric current in a metal due to an applied field is a consequence of the drift
velocity in a direction opposite to the direction of the field.
 Drift velocity (vd ): The velocity of electrons in the steady state in an applied
electric field is called drift velocity.
 Relaxation time (r): From the instant of sudden disappearance of an electric
field across a metal, the average velocity of the conduction electrons decays
exponentially to zero, and the time required in this process for the average
velocity to reduce to (1/e) times its value is known as Relaxation time.
 Mean free path (): The average distance travelled by the conduction
electrons between successive collisions with lattice ions.
 Mean collision time (τ): The average time that elapses between two
consecutive collisions of an electron with the lattice points is called mean
collision time.
 Thermal Velocity (vth): The velocity with which the free electrons keep
moving due to thermal agitation is called Thermal velocity.
Failures of classical free electron theory:
1. Specific heat:
When metal is heated, electrons absorb some amount of energy also. Energy of each
electron is given by 3/2 (kT).If there are ‘n’ electrons per unit volume then total
energy of electrons is given by
3
U= nkT
2
Therefore, Specific heat of electron gas is given by

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dU
Cv =
dT
3
Cv = R Where R=nk
2
Cv= a constant
But, it was found experimentally that Specific heat of electrons depends on
Temperature. It varies linearly with absolute Temperature.
2. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:

According to classical free electron theory
ne 2 λ
σ=
3kTm .
1
The above equation shows that, σ α
T
But, experimentally electrical conductivity σ is found to be inversely proportional to
the temperature T.
1
i.e. σ exp α
T
It is clear that the experimental value is not agreeing with the theory.
3. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration:
According to classical free electron theory
ne 2 λ
σ=
3kTm
therefore, σ α n
Experimentally determined values of some metals are given below
Metal Electron Concentration (n) Electrical Conductivity (σ)

1028/ m3 107 /Ωm
Zinc 13.10 1.69
Cadmium 9.28 1.69
Copper 8.45 5.88
Silver 5.85 4.50
Aluminium 18.06 3.65
From the table it is clear that, though electron concentration in copper and silver is
much less than other metals, their electrical conductivity is much greater than that of

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others. Hence, the classical free electron theory fails to explain the dependence of σ
on electron concentration.
From the above discussions, it is clear that classical free electron theory fails to
explain many of the experimentally observed facts.
Quantum free electron theory

Assumptions of Quantum free electron theory:
 The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized.
 The distribution of energy among the free electrons is according to Fermi-
Dirac statistics
 The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occur as per
Pauli’s exclusion principle.
 The electrons travel with a constant potential inside the metal but confined
within its boundaries.
Fermi energy and Fermi factor
 Fermi energy:. In a metal having N atoms, there are N allowed energy levels in
each band. In the energy band the energy levels are separated by energy
differences. It is characteristic of the material. According to Pauli’s exclusion
principle, each energy level can accommodate a maximum of two electrons, one
with spin up and the other with spin down. The filling up of energy levels occurs
from the lowest level. The next pair of electrons occupies the next energy level
and so on till all the electrons in the metal are accommodated. Still number of
allowed energy levels, are left vacant. The energy of the highest occupied level
at absolute zero temperature (0K) is called the Fermi energy and the energy
level is called Fermi level. It is denoted by Ef.
 Fermi factor: When the temperature is greater than zero kelvin, the material will
receive thermal energy from its surroundings at room temperature. The available
thermal energy is small and therefore the electrons occupying energy levels much
below the Fermi level cannot absorb the thermal energy due to non-availability of
higher energy levels. But this energy can be absorbed by the electrons occupying
energy levels which are just below the Fermi level. Because there are a large

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number of unoccupied energy levels just above

above the Fermi level to which electrons
get excited. Though the excitations are random, the distributions of electrons in
various energy levels will be systematically governed by a statistical function at
the steady state.
Fermi factor is defined as the probability of occupancy of a given energy state

for a material in thermal equilibrium.
The probability f (E)

(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied at a
steady temperature T is given by
1
f(E)  (E  E F )
e kT
1
f (E) is called the Fermi factor.
Density of states:
There are large numbers of allowed energy levels for electrons in solid materials.
A group of energy levels close to each other is called as energy band. Each energy
band is spread over a few electron-voltvolt energy ranges. In 1mm3 volume of the
material, there will be a more than a thousand billion permitted energy levels in an
energy range of few electron-volts.
electron volts. Because of this, the energy values appear to be
virtually continuous over a band spread.
spread. To represent it technically it is stated as
density of energy levels. The dependence of density of energy levels on the energy
is denoted by g(E). The graph shows variation of g(E) versus E.
It is called density of states function. It is the number of allowed energy levels per
unit energy interval in the band associated with material of unit volume. In an
energy band as E changes g(E) also changes.

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Consider an energy band spread in an energy interval between E1 and E2.

Below E1 and above E2 there re are energy gaps. g(E) represents the density of states
at E. As dE is small, it is assumed that g(E) is constant between E and E+dE. The
density of states in range E and (E+dE) is denoted by g(E)dE.
 3
 1
g(E)dE =  8 2πm 2
i.e.  E 2 dE
 h3 
 
It is clear g(E) is proportional to √ in the interval dE
Dependence of Fermi factor with temperature and energy:
The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and energy is as shown in the

figure.
 Case I : Probability of occupancy for E<Ef at T=0K:
When T=0K and E<Ef
( )= = =1
f (E)=1 for E<Ef.
Therefore at T=0K all the energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied.
 Case II: Probability of occupancy for E>Ef at T=0K:

When T=0K and E > Ef
1 1
( )= = =0
+1 ∞
... f (E)=0 for E > Ef
... At T=0K, all the energy levels above fermi levels are unoccupied
 Case III: The probability of occupancy at T˃0K

At E=Ef
( )⁄
= =1

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.. . ( ) = ( )⁄ = =
Hence, the Fermi energy is the most probable or the average energy of the electrons
across which the energy transitions occur at temperature above zero degree absolute.
Expression for electrical conductivity based on Quantum free electron theory:
I = n (Av) e
I
Current density J  = nev
A
J nev
Electrical conductivity σ   …….(1)
E E
In the presence of the external field electrons experience a force, then the force on the
electron is
F= eE
dv
According to Newton’s second law of motion F  m
dt
dv
 m  eE ….(2)
dt
According to deBroglie hypothesis,
λ= ,
or, = ,
or, = = . …….. . (3)
on differentiating w.r.t ‘t’
From equation (2)
= ,
= .
ℎ ,
( )
2
=
( ) ℎ

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2
( ) − (0) = ,
ℎ
= .
= . …….. (4)
ℎ , ℎ .
Now using (3), = ,
Substituting from (4), we get = .
As initial average velocity is of electrons is zero due to random motion. Therefore

change in av. Velocity is equal to the drift velocity. i.e.,
= = …….. (5)
Electrical conductivity σ = .
Substituting vd from (5), ∴ =
This is the expression for the electrical conductivity
Success of Quantum Free Electron Theory
a) Specific heat:
According to quantum free electron theory, it is only those electron that are
occupying energy levels close to , which are capable of observing the heat energy
to get excited to higher energy levels .
According to quantum free electron theory, it can be shown

 2k 
CV    RT
 EF 
Considering = 5 eV
≈10
CV 10 4 RT which is close to experimental value.
b) Temperature depends on electrical conductivity.
Electrical conductivity  is proportional to but not which is as follows:

√

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ne2 τ
Electrical conductivity σ *
m
Where m* is called effective mass of an electron.
λ
According to quantum free electron theory  is τ 
vF
ne 2 λ
σ  *
m vF
According to quantum free electron theory EF and vF are independent of temperature.
The dependence of λ & T is as follows:
Conduction electrons are scattered by the vibrating ions of the lattice. The
vibration occurs such that the displacement of ions takes place equally in all
directions. If ‘r’ is the amplitude of vibrations then the ions can be considered to
present effectively a circular cross section of area πr2 that blocks the path of the
electron irrespective of direction of approach. Since the vibrations cover larger area of
cross section should scatter more number of electrons, it results in the reduction of
mean free path of the electron.
1
λα
π r2
Considering the facts
The energy of vibrating body is proportional to the square of amplitude.

The energy of ions is due to the thermal energy.
The thermal energy is proportional to the temperature ‘T’.
We can write r2  T
1
λ 
T
1
σ 
T
1
Thus  σ  is correctly explained by quantum free electron theory.
T
c) Electrical conductivity and electron concentration:
Aluminum and gallium, which have three free electrons per atom, have lower
electrical conductivity than that of copper and silver, which have only one free
electron per atom.

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As per quantum free electron the electrical conductivity is

ne 2 λ
σ *
m vF
The value of n for aluminum is 2.13 times higher than that of copper. But the value of
λ/vf for copper is about 3.73 times higher than that of aluminum. Thus the
conductivity of copper exceeds that of aluminum.
Similarities between the two theories:
 The valence electrons are treated as though they constitute an ideal gas.
 Valence electrons can move freely throughout the body of the solid.
 The mutual collisions between the electrons and the force of attraction between the
electrons and ions are considered insignificant.
Difference between the two theories:

According to classical free electron theory:
 The free electrons, which constitute the electron gas, can have continuous energy
values.
 It is possible that many electrons possess same energy.
 The pattern of distribution of energy among the free electron obeys Maxwell-
Boltzmann statistics.
According to quantum free electron theory:
 The energy values of the free electrons are discontinuous, because of which their
energy values are discrete.
 The free electrons obey the Pauli’s exclusion principle. Hence, no two electrons can
possess same energy.
 The distribution of energy among the free electrons is according to Fermi-Dirac
statistics, which imposes a severe restriction on the possible ways in which the
electrons absorb energy from an external source.
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS
Conductivity of Semiconducting materials
• The valence band and the conduction band are separated by a narrow forbidden gap of
about 1ev at 0 K.
• At 0 K, the conduction band is completely empty and the valence band is completely
filled.
• When a small amount of energy is supplied, the electrons easily move from valence
band to the conduction band.
• Resistivity of semiconductor lies in the range of 10-6 to 108Ωm.

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Concentration of electrons and holes in intrinsic semiconductors
Semiconductors in the purest form are known as intrinsic semiconductors. Ge and Si

are common examples. Consider Ge crystal lattice, at absolute zero, electrons are
bonded together and are not available for electrical conduction. As a result, Ge
behaves like a perfect insulator.
At higher temperatures, atom begins to vibrate about their mean positions. The
vibrational energy is sufficient to break a few covalent bonds. These electrons become
free electrons. Wherever an electron leaves a bond, a vacancy is created; such a
vacancy is called a hole. Electrically a hole is equivalent to a net positive charge. The
vacancy may get filled by an electron from the neighboring bond but the hole then
shifts to that bond. Thus, in effect the hole also undergoes displacement inside a
crystal. Hence, in a semiconductor both the electrons and the holes act as charge
carriers.
In an intrinsic semiconductor for every electron freed from the bond, there
will be one hole created in the crystal. It means that “the number of conduction
electrons is equal to the number of holes at any given temperature”.
i.e., at constant temperature, ni = pi = constant
In an extrinsic semiconductor, the carriers are generated by two different
ways. They might be from the impurity atoms (electrons for n-type and holes for p-
type) or from the broken covalent bonds (equal number of holes and electrons).
Majority charge carriers (electrons for n-type/holes for p-type) are more in numbers
than minority charge carriers (holes for n-type/electrons for p-type), as minority
charge carriers are only from broken covalent bond.
Law of mass action:
It is states that the product of majority and minority carriers remains constant
in an extrinsic semiconductor and is equal to the square of intrinsic carrier
concentration at a given temperature as
np = ni2
This relation is called “Law of mass action”.
Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor:
At T=0K, all the energy levels in the valence band are completely filled where
as all the energy levels in the conduction band are completely empty. The difference
in the energy of the bottom of conduction band and the valence band is energy gap
denoted by Eg .At room temperature some of the electrons from the top of the valence
band jump to the bottom of the conduction band due to thermal excitation. After
sometime the electrons get de-excited and hence the process of excitation and de-
excitation continues and the electrons become conduction electrons. Based on this
picture one can say that conduction electrons are distributed between the energy levels
of the top position of valence band and the bottom position of conduction band.
Therefore the average energy of the electron taking part in conduction will be almost
equal to Eg. Therefore Fermi level lies in the middle of the forbidden gap for an
intrinsic semiconductor.

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Valence Band
--- --- --- --- --- -- EF
Conduction Band
Conductivity in a Semiconductor
In a semiconductor, the current is due to free electrons as well as holes. The
current due to electrons can be written as
Ie = ne e A ve
Where ve = Drift velocity of electrons; ne = Number density of electrons
Similarly the current due to holes is
Ih = nh e A vh
Where vh = Drift velocity of holes; nh = Number density of holes
The total current is
I = Ie + Ih
 I = e A (ne ve + nh vh)
I
The current density J=
A
= e (ne ve + nh vh)
J
σ=
E
 v v 
σ = e ne e  nh h 
 E E
ve v
 μ e , the mobility of electrons; h  μ h , the mobility of holes
E E
 σ  en e μ e  n h μ h 
For intrinsic semiconductors, ne = nh = ni where ni is called the density of intrinsic
charge carriers.
 σ  n i eμ e  μ h 

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SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconductivity is the phenomenon observed ed in some metals and materials the
electrical resistivity drops abruptly to zero at critical temperature .This state is called
super conducting state. The material is called superconductor.
Temperature dependence
dependen of resistivity of a metal:
All metals are good conductors of electricity. The electrical conductivity of

metal varies with the temperature. The electrical resistance of a metal, to the flow of
current, is due to scattering of conduction electrons by lattice
lattice vibrations. When the
temperature increases the amplitude of lattice vibrations also increases, thereby
increasing the resistance. The dependence of resistance of metal (non (non-
superconducting state) is shown in figure. The resistance decreases with temp
temperature
and reaches a minimum value at T = 0K. The residual resistance at T = 0K is due to
impurities in the metal.
By Matthiessen’s rule,, ρ = ρo + ρ(T)
Where ‘ρ’ is the resistivity of the given material, ‘ρo’is the residual resistivity and
‘ρ(T)’ is the temperature dependent part of resistivity.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor:
One of the most interesting properties of solid at low temperature is that

electrical resistivity of metals and alloys vanish entirely below a certai
certain temperature.
This zero resistivity or infinite conductivity is known as superconductivity.
Temperature at which transition takes place is known as transition temperature or
critical temperature (Tc). Above the transition temperature, the substance is in the
normal state and below it will be in superconducting state. Tc value is different for
different materials.

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“The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current

abruptly drop to zero below a threshold temperature. This phenomephenomenon is called
superconductivity and threshold temperature is called “critical
“critical temperature.
temperature.”
BCS Theory:
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) in 1957 explained the phenomenon of

superconductivity based on the formation of cooper pairs. It is called BCS the
theory. It
is a quantum mechanical concept.
When a current flow in a superconductor, electrons come near a positive ion

core of lattice, due to attractive force. The ion core also gets displaced from its
position, which is called lattice distortion. The lattice
ice vibrations are quantized in a
term called Phonons. Now an electron which comes near that place will interact with
the distorted lattice. This tends to reduce the energy of the electron. It is equivalent to
interaction between the two electrons through the lattice. This leads to the formation
Cooper pairs are a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction
of cooper pairs. “Cooper
between the electrons with opposite spin and momenta in a phonon field”. According
to quantum mechanics a cooper pair is treated
treated as single entity. A wave function is
associated with each cooper pair. This holds good over a large volume with finite
value for its amplitude. The wave function of similar cooper pairs overlaps. For one
cooper pair overlapping may extend over 106 other pairs. Thus, it covers entire
volume of the superconductor. It leads to union of large number of cooper pairs. The
resistance encountered by any single cooper pair is overcome by combined action of
other pairs in the union.
When the electrons flow

flow in the form of cooper pairs in materials, they do not
encounter any scattering and the resistance factor vanishes or in other words,
conductivity becomes infinity, which is called as superconductivity.
In superconducting state electron-phonon

electron interactionn is stronger than the
coulomb force of attraction of electrons. Cooper pairs are not scattered by the lattice
points. They travel freely without slow down as their energy is not transferred. Due
to this, they do not posses any electrical resistivity.

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Meissner effect:
A superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the magnetic

flux out of its body when it is cooled below the critical temperature and thus
becomes perfect diamagnetic.
diamagnetic. This effect is called Meissner effect.
When the temperatureure is lowered to Tc, the flux is suddenly and completely expelled,
as the specimen becomes superconducting. The Meissner effect is reversible. When
the temperature is raised the flux penetrates the material, after it reaches Tc. Then the
substance will be in the normal state.
The magnetic induction inside the specimen
B = µo (H + M)
Where 'H' is the intensity of the magnetizing field and ‘M’ is the
magnetization produced within the material.
For T < Tc, B=0

µ0 (H + M) = 0
M = -H
M
= -1= χ
H
Susceptibility is -11 i.e. it is perfect diamagnetism.
Hence superconducting material do not allow the magnetic flux to exist inside the
material.
Experimental Demonstration of Meissner effect:
Consider a primary coil and a secondary coil, wound on a superconducting

material. The primary coil is connected to a battery and a key. The secondary coil is
connected to ballistic galvanometer (BG). When the key is closed the current flows
through the primary coil and the magnetic field is produced. This flux is linked with

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the secondary coil and the current flows through the secondary coil which makes a
deflection in the galvanometer. If the primary current is steady the magnetic flux and
the flux linked with the coil will become steady. As the temperatur
temperature of the specimen
is decreased below the critical temperature, BG suddenly shows a deflection
indicating that the flux linked with the secondary coil is changed. This is due to the
expulsion of the magnetic flux from the specimen.
Effect of magnetic field:
Superconductivity can be destroyed by applying magnetic field. The strength

of the magnetic field required to destroy the superconductivity below the Tc is called
critical field. It is denoted by Hc(T).
If ‘T’ is the temperature of the superconducting

superconducting material, ‘Tc’ is the critical
temperature, ‘Hc’ is the critical field and ‘Ho’ is the critical field at 0oK. They are
related by
Hc = Ho[1-(T/Tc)2]
By applying magnetic field greater than Ho, the material can never become
superconductor whatever may be the low temperature. The critical field need not be
external but large current flowing in superconducting ring produce critical field and
destroys superconductivity.

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Isotope effect
Isotopes are also exhibit superconductivity. The critical temperature (Tc) depends
upon isotopic mass (M). They are related by
TC M  constant .
Types of superconductors:
There are two types of superconductors. They are type-I

type I superconductors and
type-II
II superconductors.
Type-II superconductors:
Type-I superconductors exhibit complete Meissner effect. Below the critical

field it behaves as perfect diamagnetic.
diamagnet . If the external magnetic field increases beyond
Hc the superconducting specimen gets converted to normal state. As the critical field
is very low for type-II superconductors, they are not used in construction of solenoids
and superconducting magnets.
Type-II
II superconductors
They are having two critical fields Hc1 and Hc2. For the field less then Hc1, it
expels the magnetic field completely and becomes a perfect diamagnetic. Between
Hc1 and Hc2 the flux starts penetrating throughout the specimen. This state is called

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vortex state. Hc2 is 100 times higher than Hc1. At Hc2 the flux penetrates completely
and becomes normal conductor. Type-II Type II superconductors are used in the
manufacturing of the superconducting magnets of high magnetic fields.
High
h Temperature Superconductors:
The term high--temperature superconductor was first used to designate the new
family of cuprate-perovskite
perovskite ceramic materials discovered by Bednorz and Müller in
1986. The first high-temperature
high superconductor, LaBaCuO,, with a transition
temperature of 30 K and in the same year LSCO (La2-xSrxCuO4) discovered with TC
of 40K. In 1987 it was shown that superconductors with Tc greater than 77K could
be prepared, this temperature is greater than the liquid helium temperature.
YBa2Cu3O7 was discovered
discov to have a Tc of 92 K. Bismuth/lead strontium Calcium
Copper (Bi Pb)2Sr2 Ca2Cu3Ox (x<0.1) with Tc=105K. Thallium barium Calciu copper
oxide (Tl Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) of Tc=115K. Mercury barium calcium copper oxide (Hg
Ba2Ca2Cu3O4) with Tc=135K.
All high temperature

temperature superconductors are different types of oxides of copper,
and bear a particular type of crystal structure called Perovskite crystal structure. The
number of copper layers increases the Tc value increases. The current in the high TC
materials is direction
ection dependent. It is strong in parallel to copper-
copper-oxygen planes and
weak in perpendicular to copper-oxygen
copper planes.
High Tc materials are Type-II

Type II superconductors and they are brittle and don’t
carry enough current. The formation of electron pairs is not due to interaction of
electron lattice as in the BCS theory. Still it is not clear what does cause the
formation of pairs.. Research is being conducting in this
th direction. The high
temperature superconductors are useful in high field applications. It can carry high
currents of 105 to 106 amps in moderate magnetic fields. They are used in military
applications, Josephson junction
junction in SQUIDS, under sea communication, submarines.

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Applications of Superconductors:
Maglev vehicles (Magnetically Levitated Vehicles):
Magnetically levitated vehicles are called Maglev vehicles. The magnetic

levitation is based on the principle of Meissner effect. The magnetic field is produced
by the superconducting magnet and electric current. The superconducting magnet is
kept inside the vehicle and the electric current is in the Aluminum guide way. The
vehicle is on the Aluminum guide way. The vehicle is provided with retractable
wheels. The vehicle runs on the guide way, once it is levitated in air the wheels are
retracted into the body. The height to which the vehicle is levitated above guide way
is about 10 to 15cm. While stopping, the wheels are drawn out and the vehicle slowly
settles on the guide way by running a distance.

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Solved Problems
1. A certain conductor has electron concentration of 5.9×1028 per meter cube. What
current density in the conductor will correspond to a drift velocity of .
m/s?
Calculate the mobility of the charge carriers. Given conductivity = 6.22×107 /Ω-
m.
The current density J is given by,
J = n e vd
n = 5.9×1028 /m3
e = 1.6×10-19 C
vd = .
m/s
 J = 5.9×1028×1.6×10-19×
.
 J = 5.9×109 A/m2
The conductivity is given by,
σ=neμ
 μ=
σ = 6.22×107 /Ω-m
. ×
 =
. × × . ×
 μ = 6.59×10-3 m2/V-s
2. Find the relaxation time of conduction electrons in a metal of resistivity 1.54×10-8

Ω-m, if the metal has 5.8×1028 conduction electrons per m3.
The conductivity σ is given in terms of relaxation time τ as
=
As resistivity = ,
=
 =
m = 9.1×10-31 kg
n = 5.8×1028 per m3
ρ = 1.54×10-8 Ω-m
e = 1.6×10-19 C
. ×
 =
. × ×( . × ) × . ×
 τ = 3.98×10 -14
s

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3. Calculate the conductivity of sodium given τm = 2×10-14 s. Density of sodium is

971 kg/m3. Its atomic weight is 23 and has one conduction electron/atom.
=
23 kg of sodium contains 6.022×1026 atoms
. ×
 971 kg contains × 971 = 2.542 × 10 atoms
As 971 kg occupies 1 m3 volume and each atom contributes one conduction
electron, the density of conduction electron is
n = 2.542×1028 per m3, e = 1.6×10-19 C, τm =2×10-14 s, m= 9.1×10-31 kg
. × ×( . × )× ×
 =
. ×
 σ = 14.3×106 Ω-m
4. Calculate the fermi energy in eV for silver at 0K, given that its density is 10500
kg/m3, atomic weight is 107.9 and it has only one conduction electron per atom.
From the free electron model, the fermi energy EF is given by
/
=
h = 6.63×10-34 J.s
m = 9.1×10-31 kg
The number density of conduction electrons is obtained using the Avogadro
number.
107.9 kg of silver contains 6.025×1026 atoms.
As each atom contributes one electron, 107.9 kg of silver contains 6.025×1026
electrons.
 10500 kg i.e. 1 m3 contains
. ×
= × 10500 /
.
28 3
n = 5.863×10 per m
/
. × × . ×
 = ×
× . ×
= 8.837×10-19 J
EF= 5.52 eV
5. Find the temperature at which there is 1.0% probability that a state with an energy
0.5 eV above fermi energy will be occupied.
The fermi distribution function is
( )= /
f(E) = 1.0% = 0.01

E-EF = 0.5 eV = 0.5×1.6×10-19 J

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 E-EF = 8×10-20 J
k = 1.38×10-23 J/K
 0.01 = ×
. ×
.
1+ = 100
.
= 99
.
= 4.595
 T = 1261.6 K
6. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.02 eV above

the fermi level at 200K and 400K in a material.
The fermi distribution function is
( )= /
E-EF = 0.02 eV
k = 1.38×10-23 J/K = 8.625×10-5 eV/K
For T = 200K,
( )= .
. × ×
f(E) = 0.239
For T = 400K
( )= .
. × ×
f(E) = 0.359
7. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.02 eV above

the fermi level and 0.02 eV below the fermi level at 200K.
For 0.02 eV below the Fermi level at 200K
E-EF = -0.02 eV
k = 8.625×10-5 eV/K
T = 200K
( )= /
( )= .
. × ×
f(E) = 0.761
For 0.02 eV above the Fermi level at 200K
E-EF = 0.02 eV
( )= .
. × ×
f(E) = 0.238
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8. Calculate the fermi velocity and the mean free path for the conduction electrons in
silver, given that its fermi energy is 5.5 eV and relaxation time for electrons is
3.97×10-14 s.
1
=
2
2
=
EF = 5.5 eV = 5.5×1.6×10-19 J = 8.8×10-19 J

m = 9.1×10-31 kg
× . ×
 = . ×
 vF = 1.39106 m/s
λ = vF τ
τ = 3.97×10-14 s
λ = 1.39×106×3.97×10-14
 λ = 5.52×10-8 m
9. Calculate the conductivity of pure silicon at room temperature when the

concentration of carriers is 1.6×1010 per c3
Take μe = 1500 cm2/V-s and μh = 500 cm2/V-s at room temperature.
σi = ni e ( μe+μh)
ni = 1.6×1010 per cm3
e = 1.6×10-19 C
μe = 1500 cm2/V-s
μh = 500 cm2/V-s
 σi = 1.6×1010×1.6×10-19 (1500+500)
 σi = 5.12×10-6 mho/cm
10. The critical temperature of Nb is 9.15 K. At 0 K, the critical field is 0.196 T.

Calculate the critical field at 8 K.
Take, Critical Temperature, TC = 9.15 K, critical field at 0 K, H0 = 0.196 T.,

temperature, T= 8 K. we have to find HC (T) at 8 K .
We know that, HC (T) = Ho[1- (T/TC)2]
= 0.196 [1 – (8/9.15)2]
= 0.196 [1-0.7644] = 0.046 T.

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11. The critical temperature for Hg with isotopic mass 199.5 is 4.18 K. Calculate
its critical temperature when its isotopic mass changes to 203.4.
We take, isotopic mass, M1 = 199.5, M2 = 203.4 and TC = 4.8 K , we have to

find , TʹC.
We know that, TC M  constant

.

TC √M1 = TʹC √M2.

TʹC = TC √M1 / √M2
= 4.8 [√199.5 / √203.4] = 4.139 K.

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MODULE 3
LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBERS
Laser stands for Light
ight Amplification by Stimulated Emission of R
Radiation.
Interaction of an electromagnetic radiation with matter
Radiation interacts with matter under appropriate conditions. The interaction

leads to transition of an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the
transition is from lower state to higher state it absorbs the incident energy. If the
transition
tion is from higher state to lower state it emits a part of its energy.
If ∆E is the difference between the two energy levels, then

hen ∆E = (E2 - E1)
Joule. According to Max Planck, energy of incident photon is h.h . The interaction of
radiation with matter will happen when, ∆E = h i.e., = (E2 - E1)/h Hz.
Three types of interactions, which are possible:
1. Induced absorption
2. Spontaneous emission
3. Stimulated emission
Induced absorption:
Let E1 and E2 be the two energy levels of an atom, in which E2 > E1. When a photon
of energy h = (E2 – E1) is incident on an atom at level E1, the atom goes to a higher
energy level by absorbing the energy of the incident photon. The transition from the
lower energy level to the higher energy level, i.e. the excited state is called induced
absorption and it is represented as
Atom + Photon → Atom*
Spontaneous Emission:

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The emission of a photon by the transition of an atom from a higher energy state to a
lower energy state without the aid of an external energy is called spontaneous
emission.
The process is represented as
Atom* → Atom + Photon
The photons emitted in spontaneous

spontaneous emission may not have same direction and phase
similarities. It is incoherent.
Ex: Glowing electric bulbs, Candle flame etc.
Stimulated Emission:
Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by an atom under the influence of a

incident photon due to which the system transits from a higher energy state to a lower
energy state.
The photon thus emitted is called stimulated photon and will have the same phase,
energy and direction of movement as that of the incident photon called tthe stimulation
photon.
The process is represented as,
Atom* + Photon → Atom + 2 Photons
Expression
xpression for energy density of radiation using Einstein’s coefficients.
Consider two energy states E1and E2of a system of atom. Let there be N1 number of
atoms with energyE1and N2 number atoms with energy E2 per unit volume of the
system. N1 and N2 are called the number density of atoms in the states E1 and E2
respectively.
Case of Induced absorption:
The rate of absorption depends on number density of lower energy state and the
energy density U
Rate of absorption ∝ N1U

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Rate of absorption = B12N1U
Case of Spontaneous Emission:
Spontaneous emission depends on N2 which is the number of atoms present in the

higher level.
The rate of spontaneous emission∝ N2
The rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2
Case of Stimulated Emission:

The rate of stimulated emission depends on N2 and the energy density U.
The rate of stimulated emission∝N2U
The rate of stimulated emission = B21N2U
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission
B12N1U= A21N2 + B21N2U
U (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2
A 21 N 2
U=
B 12 N 1  B 21 N 2  , multiply and divide the denomination by B
21N2
 
 
 A N 
i.e., U=  21 2 
B21N   B N 
2  12 1 1 
 
  B 21 N 2  
= → (1)
By Boltzmann’s law,
N2=N1 e-h/KT
i.e., N1/N2 = eh/KT
Eqn. (1) becomes

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 
 
 
A 21  1  → (2)
U   
 h 
B 21      
  B 12 e  kT 
 

1 
 B  
  21  
By Planck’s law,
 
 
 
8 h  3  1  → (3)
U   
c3 h
 
     
  
kT



 
  e 1

   
 
Comparing equation (2) & (3)
= 8πh3/c3 & =1 i.e. B12 = B21
It implies that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of

stimulated emission. Because of the above identity the subscripts could be dropped
and A21 and B21 can be simply represented as A &B
A
U = [1/ eh/kT -1]
B
Condition for laser action:-
Population inversion and the metastable state are the two conditions required
for laser action.
Under normal conditions at thermal equilibrium in the atomic system there is

more number of atoms in the ground state than in the excited state. Hence the
probability of absorption is more than that of stimulated emission. The number of
atoms in each energy state is given by Boltzmann statistical law as N2/N1 = e-h/KT.
This equation implies that the population is maximum in the ground state and
decreases exponentially as one goes to the higher energy state i.e., N2< N1. Hence
stimulation emission is very weak under thermal equilibrium condition. But for
amplification N2 has to be greater than N1
Therefore, the required conditions are,
Population Inversion:
The situation in which the number of atoms in the higher energy state exceeds that
in the lower energy state is known as population inversion.

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Meta Stable State:

It is the state where the atoms get excited and remains in the excited state for longer
time than the normal state.
10-8 sec
10-3 sec
Consider 3 energy levels E1, E2, & E3 of a quantum system, such that E3>E2>E1,
Let E1 be the ground state, E2 be the Meta stable state & E3 be the excited state
respectively. Let the atoms are excited (pumped) from E1 to E3 state. The atoms from
E3 state undergo non-radiative transitions to E2 states rapidly.
Since E2 is a metastable state, those atoms which get into that state stay there
over a very long duration i.e., 10-3 sec. Because of which the population of E2 state
increases steadily. Under these conditions a stage will be reached where in the
population of E2 state overtakes that of E1, which is known as population inversion.
The process which leads to emission of stimulated photons after establishing

the population inversion is often referred to as Lasing. Hence the condition for laser
action is achieved by means of population inversion with the help of a metastable
state.
Requisites for laser system:-
The following are the requisites of a laser system
1. An excitation source for pumping action.

2. An active medium which supports population inversion and
3. A laser cavity.
 Pumping: It is the process of exciting atoms from lower energy level to higher
energy level. It can be achieved by different methods.
Optical pumping, Electric Discharge, forward bias current, etc
 Active medium for population inversion:

The quantum system between whose energy levels the pumping & the lasing
action occur, is called an active system. A part of the input energy is absorbed

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by the active medium in which population inversion occurs at a certain stage.

After this stage the medium attains capability to issue laser light.
 Laser cavity:
A laser cavity is formed by an active medium bounded by two mirrors.
The laser cavity provides the feedback necessary to tap certain permissible
part of laser energy from the active medium.
A laser device consists of an active medium bound between 2 mirrors. The

mirrors reflect the photons to & fro through the active medium. A photon
moving in a particular
particular direction represents a light wave moving in the same
direction. Thus the two mirrors along with the active medium form a cavity
inside which two types of wave exists, one type comprises of waves moving to
the right & the other moving to the left.
The two waves interfere constructively if there is no phase difference

between the two. But their interference becomes destructive if the phase
difference is π/2. For constructive interference to happen the length (L) of the
laser cavity has to be equal to nλ/2.,
i.e., L=nλ/2
where λ is the wavelength of the laser beam.
Construction
onstruction and working of CO2 laser with the help of energy level diagram
Construction:
A typical CO2 laser consists of a discharge tube of 2.5 cm in diameter and of

5cm length. The tube is water cooled and is filled with a mixture of CO2, N2 and He
gases in the ratio 1:2:3. One end of the tube has a partially silvered mirror and other
the other end has a Brewster’s windows. A completely silvered mirror is kept beyond
the Brewster’s windows.
indows.

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Working:
The high voltage across the electrodes excites the gas molecules. The Nitrogen
molecules in the gas are excited to higher levels and transfer energy to CO2molecules
by collisions.
The CO2 molecules are excited to the metastable state E5 where population
inversion takes place with respect to the two lower lasing levels E4 and E3. Transition
from E5 to E4 gives rise to 10.6 μm wavelength lasers and the transition from E5 to E3
gives rise to 9.6 μm wave lengths which are both in the far infra red region. Helium
depopulates the lower energy levels in CO2 which facilitates population inversion.
Applications of CO2 laser: CO2 lasers are frequently used in industrial applications
for cutting and welding. They are used for pollution monitoring and remote sensing
(LIDAR) applications. Due to minimal atmospheric attenuation, they find applications
in communication systems.
Semiconductor
nductor diode lasers
A Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated p-n

p n junction device that emits
coherent light when it is forward biased.
Construction and working of Semiconductor laser

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Construction:
A schematic diagram of semiconductor laser is as shown in the figure. The

diode is very small size with sides of the order of 1mm. The junction lies in a
horizontal plane. The n-section is formed by doping with tellurium whereas the p-
section is obtained by doping with zinc. The doping concentration is of the order of
1017 to 1019 dopant atoms/cm3. The top and bottom surfaces are metalized and ohmic
contacts are provided for external connection. The front and rear faces are polished.
The polished faces constitute the laser cavity. The other two faces are roughened to
prevent lasing action in that direction. The active region consists of a layer of about
1m thickness.
Working:
When the junction is forward biased electrons and holes are injected into the
junction region in high concentrations. At low forward current, the electron-holes
recombination results in spontaneous emission of photons. As the forward current is
increased gradually and when it reaches a threshold value the carrier concentration in
the junction region there will be large concentrations of electrons within the band. As
a result condition of population inversion is attained in the narrow region. This
narrow zone in which population inversion occurs is called as an active region, at that
stage a photon emitted spontaneously triggers stimulated emission. This stimulated
electron-hole recombination produces coherent radiation.
The stimulated electron-hole recombination causes emission of coherent

radiation of very narrow bandwidth. At room temperature, GaAs laser emits light of
wavelength 9000A0 and GaAsP laser radiates at 6500A0.
Energy level diagram of p-n junction diode laser

(a) Before biasing (b) After biasing.

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Application of laser:
1. Laser welding: Laser beam is allowed to fall on the surface to be welded. The
beam is absorbed and the surface starts melting due to the heat generated. During the
melting, the impurities accumulate on the surface of the material and it becomes a
homogeneous solid structure and forms a stronger joint on cooling.
The laser welding is very narrow and accurate. In laser welding, laser does not
have any physical contact with the material to be welded. Hence no contamination
occurs. The properties of the material do not change due to welding. Carbon-di-oxide
Lasers are the most popular ones used for this purpose.
2. Laser cutting:When the laser is allowed to focus onto a tiny spot, the metal gets
vaporized. There will be no physical distortion. CO2 laser is used for the laser cutting.
The laser cutting depends upon the input power for the laser beam and inversely
proportional to the thickness of the material. It also depends on the nature of the gas
used with the laser beam. Oxygen is commonly used gas. The gas is flown coaxially
with the beam. The combustion of the gas helps the metal to get vaporized and it
reduces the laser power which is required for cutting. Laser cuts the material
accurately.
3. Drilling:Laser beam can drill the hardest material or a brittle material with a hole
of diameter 10µm. Laser is used to make holes in gemstones, ceramics, without any
damage. Very small dimensional holes can be made by using lasers. No
contamination occurs as there is no physical contact.
4. Measurement of pollutants in the atmosphere: There are various types of
pollutants in the atmosphere which include nitrogen, oxides of carbon monoxide,
sulphur dioxide and a number of particulate matters. In conventional technique,
samples of the atmosphere are collected at desired heights and the chemical analysis

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is carried out to find out the composition of the pollutants. Whatever the data
obtained in this method is not a real time data. Whereas in the laser technique, the
laser senses the atmospheric density variation by scanning the required local region
and electronic data processes yield the data, which is a real time data.
In the application of laser for measurement of pollutant, laser is made use of the
way as RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) system is used. Hence it is often
referred as a LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) technique. In the LIDAR system,
the transmitting part consists of pulsed laser and the receiving part consists of a
concave mirror, photo detector and a data processor.
When measurements are carried out, the laser beam undergoes scattering at
places in the atmosphere where there is congestion due to higher concentration of
particulate matter. The back scattered light is received by the concave mirror. The
distance of congestion from the measuring station is calculated on the basis of time
delay between the pulse emission and reception of the back scattered light. By
scanning the space around the station, the concentration of pollutants can be mapped
for different vertical section of the atmosphere.
Holography
Holography is the technique of producing 3-dimentional image of an object on

2-dimentional recording aid, by the phenomenon of interference.
Principle of Hologram construction:
The principle of holography can be explained in two steps.
1. The principle involved in the process of recording of holography is the

superposition of two coherent waves (an object beam and the reference beam)
in a recording plate to produce an interference pattern.

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2. The developed interference

interference pattern is again illuminated by light of same
wavelength from another source. This produces a three dimensional image of
the original object (reconstruction of the image).
Recording the image of an object by amplitude division technique:
The beam splitter splits the expanded laser beam into two such that the splitter
reflects a part of the beam on to the mirror, which in turn reflects the beam directly
onto the photographic plate kept at suitable position for recording the image of the
object.
ect. This reflected beam is the reference beam.. The other part of the beam from
the splitter is transmitted and is incident directly on to the object and gets scattered.
This scattered beam is the object beam which has spherical wave front. These two
beams,, i.e., the reference beam and the object beam, interfere at the site of the
photographic plate and produces interference pattern. The developed photographic
plate becomes the hologram of the object.
Reconstruction of the image from the hologram:
Laser beam with same wavelength is made to incident on the hologram in the
same direction as the reference beam was incident on it at the time of recording. The
beam undergoes refraction in the hologram. Secondary wavelets originating from
each constituting zonee plate interfere constructively and generate real image on the
transmission side and virtual image on the incident side.

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Applications of holography:
Holography technology finds applications as
1) Holography Microscopy
2) Holographic diffraction grating
3) Holographic Interferometer
4) ROM (Read Only Memory) Devices
Optical Fibers
Introduction:
A very thin, flexible and transparent fiber made up of a pure glass is known as
Optical Fiber. They are light guides used in optical communication. It is a cylinder of
transparent dielectric material and designed to guide visible and infrared light over
long
ong distances. It works on the principle of Total internal reflection.
Total Internal Reflection:
When a ray of light travels from optically denser (n1) to rarer medium (n2), the
refracted ray bends away from the normal. As the angle of incidence incre increases in the
denser medium, the angle of refraction also increases. For a particular angle of
incidence called the “critical
“ angle”,
”, the refracted ray grazes the surface separating
the media and the angle of refraction is equal to 90°. If the angle of incid incidence is
greater than the critical angle, the light ray is reflected back to the same medium. This
is called “Total Internal Reflection”.
In total internal reflection, there is no loss of energy. The entire incident ray is
reflected back.
XX’ is the surface

surface separating medium of refractive index n1 and medium of
refractive index n2, n1 > n2. AO and OA’ are incident and refracted rays. θ1 and θ2 are

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angle of incidence and angle of refraction, θ2 > θ1. For the ray BO, θc is the critical
angle. OB’ is the refracted ray which grazes the interface. The ray CO incident with
an angle greater than θc is totally reflected back along OC’.
From Snell’s law,
n1sinθ1 = n2sinθ2
For total internal reflection,
θ1=θc and θ2=90°
n1sinθc = n2 (because sin90°=1)
θc= sin-¹(n2/n1)
In total internal reflection there is no loss or absorption of light energy.
The entire energy is returned along the reflected light. Thus is called Total internal
reflection.
Construction and working of Optical Fiber:
They are used in optical communication. It works on the principle of Total

internal reflection (TIR).
Optical fiber is made from transparent materials. It is cylindrical in shape. The

inner cylindrical part is called as core of refractive index n1. The outer part is ca
called as
cladding of refractive index n2, n1>n2. There is continuity between core and cladding.
Cladding is enclosed inside a polyurethane jacket. Number of such fibers is grouped
to form a cable.
The light entering through one end of core strikes the interface of the core and
cladding with angle greater than the critical angle and undergoes total internal
reflection. After series of such total internal reflection, it emerges out of the core.
Thus the optical fiber works as a waveguide. Care must be takentaken to avoid very sharp
bends in the fiber because at sharp bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal
reflection.

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Angle of Acceptance and Numerical Aperture:
Consider a light ray AO incident at an angle ‘θ0’ enters into the fiber. Let ‘θ1’
be the angle of refraction for the ray OB. The refracted ray OB incident at a critical
angle (90˚- θ1) at B grazes the interface between core and cladding along BC. If the
angle of incidence is greater than critical angle, it undergoes total internal reflecti
reflection.
Thus θ0 is called the waveguide acceptance angle and sinθ0 is called the numerical
aperture.
Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of the medium, core and cladding
respectively.
From Snell’s law,
nosinθ0= n1sinθ1 → (1)
At B the angle of incidence

incid is (90o- θ1)
From Snell’s law,
n1sin(90o-θ1) = n2sin90o
n1cosθ1 = n2
cosθ1 = n2 / n1 → (2)
From eqn (1)

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n1
Sin 0  sin 1
n0
= √1 − → (3)
Using eqn (2) in (3)
n1 n22
Sin 0  1 2
n0 n1
= → (4)
The surrounding medium is air, no = 1
Sin 0  n12  n22
Where sinθi is called numerical aperture.
N.A= −
Therefore for any angle of incidence equal to θi equal to or less than θ0, the incident
ray is able to propagate.
θi<θ0, Sin i  Sin 0
< −
< . is the condition for propagation.
Fractional Index Change:
“It is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and cladding
to the refractive index of the core of an optical fiber”.
n1  n 2
Δ=
n1
Relation between N.A and Δ:
Consider Δ =
n1  n2  n1
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We have
N.A = − = ( + )( − )
Considering n1≈n2
N.A= ( + )
. = 2
. = √2
Increase in the value of Δ increases N.A
It enhances the light gathering capacity of the fiber. Δ value cannot be increased very
much because it leads to intermodal dispersion intern signal distortion.
V-number:
The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by

a parameter called V-number.
If the surrounding medium is air, then
V= −
Where‘d’ is the core diameter, n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and
cladding respectively, ‘λ’ is the wavelength of light propagating in the fiber.
V= ( )
If the fiber is surrounded by a medium of refractive index n0, then,
2 2
πd n 1  n 2
V=
λ n0
For V >1, the number of modes supported by the fiber is given by, number of modes
≈ V2/2.
Types of optical fibers:
In an optical fiber the refractive index of cladding is uniform and the refractive
index of core may be uniform or may vary in a particular way such that the refractive
index decreases from the axis, radically.
Following are the different types of fibers:

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1. Single mode fiber

2. Step index multimode fiber
3. Graded index multimode fiber
1. Single mode fiber::
Refractive index of core and cladding has uniform value; there is an increase in
refractive index from cladding to core. They are used in submarine.
2. Step index multimode fiber:
It is similar to single mode fiber but core has large diameter. It can propagate large
number of modes as shown in figure. Laser or LED is used
used as a source of light. It has
an application in data links.

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3. Graded index multimode fiber:
It is also called GRIN. The refractive index of core decreases from the axis towards
the core cladding interface. The refractive index profile is shown in figure. The
incident rays bends and takes a periodic path along the axis. The rays have different
paths with same period. Laser or LED is used as a source of light. It is the expensive
of all. It is used in telephone trunk between central offices.
Signall distortion in optical fibers:
The propagation of a signal through the optical fiber involves total internal
reflection of light rays many times. Further, the rays are reflected at various angles.
The rays reflected at higher angles travel greater distances than the rays reflected at
lower angles. As a result, all the rays do not arrive at the end of the fiber
simultaneously and the light pulse broadens as it travels through the fiber. Since the
output pulse does not match with the input pulse, the signal is said to be distorted.
If white light is used instead of monochromatic light, another kind of

distortion occurs. Since radiation of different wavelengths has different velocities,
they do not arrive at the output simultaneously. This distortion iis called chromatic
dispersion.
The signal distortion is quite considerable in multimode step index fibers. In

graded index fibers, the light travels with different velocities in different parts of the
core as the refractive index varies radially along the core. The rays travel faster near
the interface. Hence all the rays arrive at the output almost at the same time and the
signal distortion is reduced. In a single mode step index fiber the distortion is less than
that in multimode step index fibers.

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Signal attenuation in optical fibers:
Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels through a fiber. It is

expressed in decibel/kilometer [db/km].A fiber with lower attenuation will allow
more power to reach its receiver than a fiber with higher attenuation. If Pin is the input
power and Pout is the output power after passing through a fiber of length ‘L’, the
mean attenuation constant or coefficient ‘α’ of the fiber, in units of db/km is given by
10 p 
  log10  out  dB/km
L  pin 
Attenuation can be caused by three mechanisms.
1. Absorption:- Absorption of photons by impurities like metal ions such as iron,

chromium, cobalt and copper in the silica glass of which the fiber is made of.
During signal processing photons interact with electrons of impurity atoms.
The atoms are excited and de-excite by emitting photons of different
characteristics. Hence it is a loss of energy. The other impurity such as
hydroxyl ions (OH) causes significant absorption loss. The absorption of
photons by fiber material itself is called intrinsic absorption.
2. Scattering: When the wavelength of the photon is comparable to the size of the
particle then the scattering takes place. Because of the non uniformity in
manufacturing, the refractive index changes with length leads to a scattering.
This type of scattering is called as Rayleigh scattering. It is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of wavelength. Scattering of photons also
takes place due to trapped gas bubbles which are not dissolved at the time of
manufacturing.
3. Radiation losses: Radiation losses occur due to macroscopic bends and

microscopic bends.
Macroscopic bending: All optical fibers are having critical radius of curvature
provided by the manufacturer. If the fiber is bent below that specified radius of
curvature, the light ray incident on the core - cladding interface will not satisfy
the condition of TIR. This causes loss of optical power.
Microscopic bending: Optical power loss in optical fibers is due to non-

uniformity of the optical fibers when they are laid. Non uniformity is due to
manufacturing defects and also lateral pressure built up on the fiber. The
defect due to non uniformity (microbendings) can be overcome by introducing
optical fiber inside a good strengthen polyurethane jacket.

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Fiber Optics Communication System:
Information Coder
Optical Optical
transmitter
cable
Repeater
Photo Optical
Information Decoder
detector cable
Optical fiber communication system consists of transmitter, information

channel and receiver. Transmitter converts an electrical signal into optical signal.
Information channel carries the signal from transmitter to receiver. The receiver
converts optical signal to electrical form. The block diagram of optical fiber
communication system is shown in fig.
Coder: It converts a non electrical message into an electrical signal for transmission.
Optical transmitter/Modulator: It converts the electrical message into proper format

and it helps to improve the signal onto the wave which is generated by the carrier
source. The information encoded in electric signal enters a modulator which controls
the intensity of the laser light. The electrical signals are modulated into suitable light
pulses by modulating the light emitted by the optical source.
Optical cable: A series of optical pulses are then coupled to the optical fiber cable at
an incident angles less than that of the acceptance cone angle. As it propagates, it
undergoes attenuation and distortion. So, to restore the level of signal transmission
over long distances, repeaters are
Photo detector: The optical channel then conveys the modulated optical signal to a
photo detector to convert it into an electric signal, which then reaches a high gain
amplifier. The detector separates the information from the carrier wave.
Decoder: It converts the electrical signal into original information.
Advantages of optical communication system:
1) It carries very large amount of information in either digital or analog form due
to its large bandwidth.
2) The materials used for making optical fiber are dielectric nature. So, it doesn’t
produces or receives any electromagnetic and R-F interferences.

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3) Fibers are much easier to transport because of their compactness and

lightweight.
4) It is easily compatible with electronic system.
5) It can be operated in high temperature range.
6) It does not pick up any conducted noise.
7) Not affected by corrosion and moisture.
8) It does not get affected by nuclear radiations.
9) No sparks are generated because the signal is optical signal.
 Note: - Optical fibers are used in sensors like pressure sensor, voltage
sensor and current sensors.
Optical fibers are used in local networks like data link purpose.

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Solved Problems
1. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a laser if the transition
between them produces light of wavelength 694.3 nm. Assume the ambient
temperature to be 27ºC.
=
h = 6.63×10-34 J.s
c = 3×108 m/s
λ = 694.3 nm = 694.3 ×10-9 m
k = 1.38×10-23 J/K
T = 27ºC = 300 K
. × × ×
= . × × . × ×
= 8.874 × 10
2. A laser beam with power per pulse is 1.0 mW lasts 10 ns. If the number of
photons emitted per pulse is 3.941×107, calculate the wavelength of laser.
E= P×t =
 =
N = 3.941×107
h = 6.63×10-34 J-s
c = 3×108 m/s
P = 1.0 mW= 1×10-3 W
t = 10 ns =10×10-9 s
. × × . × × ×
 =
× × ×
= 7.839×10-7 m
 λ = 7839 Å
3. The average output power of laser source emitting a laser beam of wavelength 633
nm is 5 mW. Find the number of photons emitted per second by the laser source.
E= P×t =
N=
P = 5 mW = 5×10-3 W
t =1s
λ = 633 nm = 633×10-9 m
h = 6.63×10-34 J-s
c = 3×108 m/s
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× × × ×
 =
. × × ×
 N = 1.592×1016
4. The angle of acceptance of an optical fibre is 30º when kept in air. Find the angle
of acceptance when it is in medium of refractive index 1.33.
In air,
. = − =( ∅ )
 − = sin 30
 − = 0.5
In medium of refractive index n0
∅ = −
 1.33 ∅ = 0.5
 ∅ = 22.08º
5. The refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.50 and 1.48 respectively in an
optical fiber. Find the numerical aperture and angle of acceptance.
. = −
n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.48
N.A = √1.50 − 1.48
 N.A = 0.244
Angle of acceptance θ0= sin-1(N.A) = sin-10.244

 θ0 = 14.123º
6. Calculate the number of modes an optical fiber will transmit given the following
data: ncore = 1.50, nclad = 1.48, core radius = 50 μm, wavelength of light = 1μm
The number of modes propagating through the fiber is
= ×( . )
d = 2×50=100 μm = 100×10-6 m
. = − = √1.50 − 1.48
λ = 1μm = 1×10-6 m
× × ×√ . .
= ×
N= 2941

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7. The refractive indices of the core and the cladding of a step index optical fiber are
1.45 and 1.40 respectively and its core diameter is 45μm. Calculate its relative
refractive index difference, V-number at wavelength 1000 nm and the number of
modes.
Relative refractive index difference ∆=
n1= 1.45, n2=1.40
. .
 ∆=
.
 Δ =0.0345
= −
d= 45μm = 45×10-6 m, λ=1000 nm =1000 ×10-9 m
× ×
= ×
√1.45 − 1.40
 V = 53.37
.
Number of modes = = = 1424.2
N = 1424
8. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is estimated as 2.2 dB/km. what

fractional initial intensity remains after 2 km and 6km?
The attenuation in dB is
= 10
 (10)
 = (10)
For a length of 2 km,
PL=2.2×2=4.4 dB
.
 = (10)
 = 0.363
 Pout = 0.363 Pin
For 6 km, PL = 2.2×6 = 13.2 dB
.
= (10) = 0.048
 Pout = 0.048 Pin
9. A fibre 500 m long has an input power of 8.6 mW and output power 7.5 mW.
What is the loss specification in cable?
= 10 in dB
Pin = 8.6 mW

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Pout = 7.5 mW
.
 = 10 .
 PL = 0.5944 dB
Length of cable L = 500 m = 0.5 km

.
Loss specification is = =
.
 α = 1.1888 dB/km
10. An optical fibre of 600 mts long has input power of 120 mW which emerges out
with power of 90 mW. Find attenuation in the fibre.
The attenuation is given by,
= 10 in dB
Pin = 120 mW, Pout = 90mW
 = 10
 PL = 1.25 dB

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MODULE 4
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Solids are classified as

• Amorphous Solids : Atoms in solids may be randomly positioned (e.g.
glasses)
• Crystalline Solids : Atoms are arranged in an orderly, repeated pattern within
the material
Fundamentals of Crystallography:
Lattice: In a crystal the atoms or molecules are arranged in some specific order in a
three dimensional space. The points where the atoms are situated in the crystal are
known as lattice points.
Space lattice: The geometrical representation of a crystal structure in terms of lattice

points is called space lattice.
Unit cell: A unit cell is the smallest portion of the space lattice, which on repetition
along the direction of three basis vectors generates the space lattice itself. Unit cell
has basis vectors ⃗, ⃗& ⃗ and interfacial angles α, β & γ. The basis vectors ⃗, ⃗, ⃗
and interfacial angles α, β & γ are the lattice parameters.
Y-axis
b
 
a X-axis
c 
Z-axis
Primitive cell and Non primitive cell:

Consider a Bravais lattice in two dimensions as shown in figure. A unit cell
 
with basis vectors a1 & b1 has four lattice points at the vertex. It is a primitive cell.
The other unit cell with basis vectors ⃗ and ⃗ has an additional lattice point at the
center along with four points at the corners, which is not the meeting point of the
basis vectors. This is non-primitive cell. If a unit cell consists of more than one
effective number of atoms, then it is a non primitive cell.

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a1 b1
a2
b2
A primitive cell is a unit cell with all the points in it are at the vertices.
A non-primitive cell is a unit cell, which incorporates an integral multiple of
primitive cells.
Bravais and Non Bravais lattices:

There are two types of lattice
1) Bravais lattice
2) Non Bravais lattice
A Bravais lattice is one in which all the atoms at the lattice points are identical
or all the lattice points are equivalent.
A non-Bravais lattice is one in which some of the lattice points are non-
equivalent. A non-Bravais lattice is also known as the lattice with a basis. Non-
Bravais lattice is the superposition of two or more different Bravais lattice. In the
diagram, points A, B,C etc., identical points represents Bravais lattice whereas AA`,
BB`, CC` etc., which are not identical represents non-Bravais lattice.
Basis:
To construct a crystal structure, some basic arrangement of atoms has to be
fixed at each and every lattice point. This basic arrangement of atoms is called the
basis.

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Space Lattice + Basis = Crystal Structure
Crystal systems:
There are seven crystal systems named on the basis of geometrical shape and
symmetry.
The seven crystal systems are further divided into 14 Bravais lattice. The simple
lattice has points only at the corners. A body centered lattice (BCC) has an additional
point at the center of the cell and a face centered lattice (FCC) has six additional
points one on each face. The base centered lattice has two additional poin
points one at the
bottom face and at the top face.
Crystal systems
Bravais Lattices
SC BCC FCC
Polonium Fe, Cr, W NaCl, Al,Cu
Al,Cu, Au
Cubic
a=b=c
α=β=γ=90o
simple body-centered
Tetragonal
a=b≠c
o
α=β=γ=90
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Orthorhombic
a≠b≠ a≠b≠c
o
α=β=γ=90 simple base-centered body-centered
centered face-centered
simple base-centered
Monoclinic
a≠b≠c
α=γ=90o≠β
Triclinic
a≠b≠c
α≠β≠γ≠90o
Rhombohedral
(trigonal)
a=ba=b=c α=β=γ≠90o
Hexagonal
a=b≠c
α=β=90o γ=120o

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MILLER INDICES:
Miller has introduced three numbers to explain the planes and directions in a
crystal. These numbers are called Miller indices.
Steps involved in finding Miller Indies:
1. Find the intercepts of the planes along x, y and z axis

2. Express the intercepts as multiples of lattice constants a, b, c.
3. Find out the reciprocal of these numbers.
4. Find the least common multiple (LCM) of the denominator and multiply each
term with LCM.
5. The
he result is in the form of h, k, l. are called miller indices, denoted
by (h k l)
Example for obtaining the Miller indices
The planes have intercepts 4, 1, 2

1. x:y:z=4:1:2
2. Reciprocals : :
3. LCM=4
4. 4× : 4×1 : 4×
The miller indices are 1, 4, 2 In general; the Miller indices are represented by (142)
By knowing the Miller indices we can draw the planes within the unit cell.
The two Figures have shown below gives the idea of drawing the the planes with in the
unit cell.
The Fig. 1shows the plane with Miller indices (110)
Plane with Miller indices (110)
The Fig. 2 shows the plane with Miller indices (020)

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Plane with Miller indices (020)

Derivation of expression for inter planar spacing of a crystal in terms of Miller
indices
Consider a plane ABC belongs to a family of plane whose miller indices are (h
k l). The perpendicular ON from the origin O to the plane represents the inter
inter-planar
’ ’ ’
spacing d=ON of this family of planes. Let ON makes an angle α , β , γ with the x,
y, z axes respectively
The intercepts of the plane on the three axes are

OA= a/h ; OB= a/k ; OC=a/l
where
here ‘a’ is the length of the cube edge.
Then from figure, we have
d d dh
cos  '   
OA a / h a
d d dk
cos  '   
OB a / k a
d d dl
cos  '   
OC a / l a
Therefore
For a Cartesian system of coordinates, we know that
    
cos 2  '  cos 2  '  cos 2  '  1

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Substituting the values of cos’ , cos’, cos’ in the above equation,

We get,
2 2 2
 d   d   d 
      1
 OA   OB   OC 
2 2 2
 dh   dk   dl 
       1
 a   a   a 
d2 2
2
h  k 2  l 2   1
a
a
d
h 2  k 2  l 2 
Expression for space lattice constant ‘a’ for a cube lattice
Let ‘a’ be the lattice constant, ‘ρ’ be the density of the material and ‘n’ be the
number of molecules in a unit cell.
Total mass of molecules in a unitcell

Volume of the unit cell
The total mass of the molecules in one-kilo mole of substance is equal to the
molecular weight of the molecule expressed in kg.
Therefore the mass of each molecule = M/NA
Where NA is Avogadro number
nM
The total mass of the molecule =
NA
For a cubic lattice a=b=c, therefore the volume of the unit cell = a3
nM
Hence, the density (ρ) =
a3 N A
nM
a3 
N A
1
 nM  3
a   
  N A 
where NA is Avogadro number, M is molecular weight and ρ is density of the

material.

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Co-ordination number and Atomic packing factor (APF)

Co-ordination number:
It is the number of nearest neighbors directly surrounding a given atom well within a
crystal.
Atomic packing factor (APF)

The fraction of the space occupied by atoms in a unit cell is known as Atomic packing
factor.
Or
It is the ratio of volume atoms in the unit cell to the volume of the unit cell itself.
×
ie. APF =
Volume of one atom (Va) = πr3
Volume of the unit cell (Vu) = a3
× π
APF =
Simple cubic structure (SC):
There is only one lattice point at each of the eight corners of the unit cell. In a
simple cubic structure, atom is surrounded by six equidistant neighbors. Hence, the
co-ordination number is 6. Since each atom in the corner is shared by 8 unit cells, the
total number of atoms in one unit cell is (1/8) ×8 = 1
The nearest neighbor distance ‘2r’ is the distance between the centers of two
nearest neighboring atoms.
The nearest neighbor distance 2r = a
The number of lattice points per unit cell = 1
Volume of all the atoms in a unit cell v = πr3
Volume of unit cell = V = a3 = (2r)3
× π
APF =
/
APF = 1× ( )
APF = 0.52 or 52%

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Body centered cubic structure (BCC):
In a BCC structure, eight atoms are present at eight corners and one atom is at
the center. The co-ordination number is 8. The number of atoms per unit cell is =
[(1/8) × 8]+1 = 2
The lattice constant is

(AB) 2 = a2 + a2= 2a2
(AC) 2 = (AB) 2 + (BC) 2

(4r) 2 = 2a2 + a2 = 3a2
4r
Lattice constant a 
3
4 3
Volume of all the atoms per unit cell v = 2   r 
 3 
364r 3
Volume of the unit cell V = a =
3 3
v 8r 3  3 3 3
Atomic packing factor =    0.68  68%
V 3  64r 3 8
Face centered cubic structure (FCC):
In a FCC structure eight at

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The atoms
oms are at the corners of the unit cell and six atoms are present at the
center of the six faces. The center atom is surrounded by 12 points. The co-ordination
number is 12. Each corner atom is shared by 8 unit cells and the face centered atom is
shared by 2 surrounding unit cells.
... The number of atoms per unit cell is = × 8 + 6 × = 4
Atomic radius of face centered cube
AB = 4r
(AB) 2= a2+a2
(4r) 2 = 2a2
4r
4
Lattice Constant a =
2
a 2
Nearest neighbor distance 2r =
2
4 3
Volume of all the atoms in unit cell v = 4   r 
3 
64r 3
3
Volume of unit cell V = a =
2 2
. v 16r 3  2 2 2 
. . The packing factor =  3
   0.74  74%
V 3  64r 6 3 2
Parameters SC BCC FCC
Co-ordination
ordination no.
n 6 8 12
a 3a 2a
Atomic Radius (r)
2 4 4
Atoms per unit cell 1 2 4
 3 2
APF
6 8 6
Bragg’s Law:

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Consider a set of parallel lattice planes of a crystal separated by a distance‘d’

from one another. Let a beam of X- ray of wavelength λ be incident upon these planes
at an angle θ as shown in figure. Consider two parallel rays, which are reflected by
two atoms at A and B in adjacent layers. Constructive interference takes place only
between those rays that are parallel and whose path difference of nλ, where n is an
integer.
Draw AC and AD perpendicular to the incident and reflected ray respectively.
Path difference between the reflected X-rays is given by
δ = CB + BD
From ⊿ ABC , sin θ = ; CB = d sinθ
Similarly from ⊿ ABD, BD= d sinθ
δ= d sinθ + d sinθ
δ = 2dsinθ … (1)
For constructive interference to take place, the path difference
δ = nλ … (2)
From equations (1) and (2)
2dsinθ = nλ
This condition is known as Bragg’s law for X-ray diffraction.
Bragg’s spectrometer:
The schematic diagram of Bragg’s x-ray spectrometer is shown in fig. It is

used to determine lattice constant and inter-planar distance ‘d’. It has 1) x-ray source
2) A Crystal fixed on a circular table provided with scale and Vernier. 3) Ionization
chamber.

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A collimated beam of x-rays after passing the slits S1 and S2 is allowed to fall
on a crystal C mounted on a circular table. The table can be rotated about vertical
axis. Its position can be measured by Vernier V1. An ionization chamber is fixed to
the longer arm attached to the table. The position of which is measured by Vernier v2.
An electrometer is connected to the ionization chamber to measure the ionization
current produced by diffracted x-rays from the crystal. S3 and S4 are the lead slits to
limit the width of the diffracted beam. Here we can measure the intensity of the
diffracted beam.
If x-rays incident at an angle ‘θ’ on the crystal, then reflected beam makes an
angle 2θ with the incident beam. Hence the ionization chamber can be adjusted to get
the reflected beam till the ionization current becomes maximum.
A plot of ionization current for different incident angles to study the x-ray
diffraction spectrum is shown in fig.
The rise in Ionization current for different values of ‘θ’ shows that Bragg’s
law is satisfied for various values of ‘n’. i.e. 2dsinθ = λ or 2λ or 3λ etc. Peaks are
observed at θ1, θ2, θ3 etc. with intensities of P1, P2, P3 etc.
i.e. 2dsinθ1 : 2dsinθ2 : 2dsinθ3 = λ : 2λ : 3λ
The crystal inter-planer spacing ‘d’ can be measured using 2dsinθ = nλ
If d1, d2, d3 be the inter-planar spacing for the planes (100), (110) & (111)
respectively.
It can be shown -
For cubic crystal: d1:d2:d3 = 1: :
√ √
For FCC : d1:d2:d3 = 1: :
√ √
For BCC : d1:d2:d3 = 1: :
√ √
Diamond Structure
The diamond lattice can be considered as the superposition of 2 fcc sub
lattices one of which is displaced from the other along the body diagonal of the unit
cell by (1/4) th the length of the diagonal. Thus, a carbon atom will be present at the
center of tetrahedron, with four carbon atoms of the other sub lattice as its nearest
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neighbors located at four corners of the same tetrahedron. Thus, the co-ordination
number of diamond is 4 and there will be 8 carbon atoms present per unit cell. That is
each carbon atom is at the center of a tetrahedron, 4 carbon atoms are at diagonally
opposite in the planes. The lattice constant is 3.5Ao and the bond length is 6.56Ao.
The semiconductors like Si and Ge are having diamond structure.
An FCC lattice has 4 atoms/unit cell. But the diamond lattice comprises of two
interpenetrating FCC sub-lattice.
Therefore, Number of atoms per unit cell in the diamond lattice is 2x4 = 8.
8 4 3 8 4 3
And Atomic Packing Factor = 3
 r  3
 r 3    34%
a 3  8  3 16
 r
 3 
Structure of Perovskite
The chemical formula for barium titanate is BaTiO3. The structure of barium titanate
is known as perovskite structure. It is a cubic structure in which Ba2+ ions occupy the
corner positions. The O2- ions occupy positions at the face centers and the Ti4+ ion
occupies the body center positions as shown in figure. Barium titanate shows both
piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties. It is used as a dielectric in capacitors and as
a piezoelectric material in microphones.

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Polymorphism and Allotropy
If the change in temperature or pressure is not accompanied by melting or

vaporization, it may cause change in the internal arrangement of atoms of the solid.
The ability of the material to have more than one structure is known as
Polymorphism. If the change in structure of the substance is reversible, the
polymorphic change is then called the allotropy.
Examples of allotropy are the form of Carbon, Iron, Sulphur and Phosphorus.
Diamond and graphite are the two allotropic forms of Carbon.
Allotropies of Iron : The melting point of pure Iron is 15350C. Iron may exist
in many allotropic forms, such as α, β, γ and δ forms in solid state.
The cooling curve for molten iron, temperature versus time is shown in the fig
below. The first horizontal step appears at a temperature of 15350C. It shows that the
transformation from the liquid state takes place at a constant temp. Upon freezing, i.e
from 15350 C to 14000 C, δ iron is formed. This has a bcc lattice with lattice constant
a= 0.293nm.
The second temperature effect occurs at 14000 C where δ iron transforms into
γ form. It has fcc lattice with a constant a= 0.363nm. γ iron is paramagnetic and it can
dissolve carbon upto 2% at 11300 C.
The third temperature effect occurs at 9100 C. The γ form is transformed into
α iron with a bcc lattice having a lattice constant a= 0.29nm. It is non magnetic. The
structural changes are reversed on heating the iron and therefore, these changes are
allotropic changes.
Fig. Cooling curve of molten Iron

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Solved Problems
1. Find the Miller indices of a plane making intercepts 2a, 3b, 6c respectively on [1 0
0], [0 1 0] and [0 0 1] directions. a,b,c represent the basis vectors.
The intercepts are : 2a; 3b; 6c.
The intercepts as multiples of lattice parameters are:
= 2; = 3; =6
Reciprocals of intercepts are : ; ;
The L.C.M of 2,3,and 6 is 6.
 Multiplying by 6, we get 3;2;1
 Miller indices are (3 2 1)
2. What is Miller index of plane making intercepts ratio 3a, 4b on x and y-axis and
parallel to z-axis? a,b are primitive vectors.
As the plane is parallel to z-axis, the z-intercept is ∞.
 The x, y and z intercepts are 3a, 4b, ∞.
 The intercepts as multiples of lattice parameters are 3,4, ∞.
The reciprocals are ; ; ∞
Multiplying by 12, the Miller indices are (4,3,0)
3. Copper has fcc structure of atomic radius 0.127 nm. Calculate the interplanar
spacing for (3 2 1) plane.
For fcc structre, the lattice constant
= 2√2
R = 0.127 nm = 0.127×10-9 m
 = 2 × √2 × 0.127 × 10
 a = 3.592×10-10 m
=√
(h k l) = (3 2 1)
3.592 × 10
=
√3 + 2 + 1
= 0.96×10-10
 dhkl = 0.96Å
4. X-rays are different in the first order from (1 1 0) plane of calcite crystal with
lattice constant 3.036 Å at a glancing angle of 9.6º. Calculate the wavelength of
X-rays.
The interplanar spacing can be obtained using
=√

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a = 3.036 Å
(h k l) = (1 1 0)
.
 =√ Å
By Brags’ law,
2d sinθ = n λ
n = 1, θ= 9.6º
 λ =2d sinθ
.
=2×√ sin 9.6
 λ = 0.716Å
5. An X-ray beam of wavelength 0.7Å undergoes minimum order Bragg reflection

from the plane (3 0 2) of cubic crystal at glancing angle 35º. Calculate the lattice
constant.
By Brag’s law,
2d sinθ = nλ
=
√ℎ + +
(h k l) = (3 0 2)
 =√
θ = 35º
n=1
λ= 0.7Å
2 × sin 3.5
√
= 1×0.7
 a = 2.2Å
6. Calculate the glancing angle of the (110) plane of a simple cubic crystal (a=2.814
Å) corresponding to second order diffraction maximum for the x-ray of
wavelength 0.710Å.
By Bragg’s law,
2d sinθ = nλ
=√
a = 2.814Å
(h k l) = (1 1 0)
.
 =√ = 1.99Å
n =2; λ= 0.710Å

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 2×1.99 sinθ = 2×0.710

 θ = 20.9º
7. Calculate the energy of electron that produces Bragg’s diffraction of first order at
glancing angle of 22º when incident on crystal with interplanar spacing of 1.8Å.
2d sinθ = nλ; d=1.8Å; n=1, θ=22º
 2×1.8 sin 22 = 1×λ
 λ = 1.35Å
h= 6.626×10-34 Js, c= 3×108 m/s
=
. ×
= . ×
= 4.911×10-24 kg-m/s
. ×
 = = J
× . ×
 E = 1.325×10 J -17
8. The interplanar spacing of (110) planes is 2Å for a cubic crystal. Find out
atomic radius.
d = 2×10-10 m
h = 1, k = 1, l = 0
SC : a = 2R
×
= = = 1×10-10 m
BCC: =
√
√ √ × ×
= = = = 0.866×10-10 m
FCC: = 2√2
×
= = ×√
= ×√
= 0.70×10-10 m
9. Draw the following planes in a cubic unit cell (0 1 1), (1 1 2), (1 1 0)

i) For (0 1 1) plane:
The intercepts are,
111
011
∞1 1

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ii) For (1 1 2) plane:

The intercepts are,
111
112
1 -1
iii) For (1 1 0) plane:

The intercepts are,
111
110
1 -1 ∞

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MODULE 5
SHOCK WAVES AND SCIENCE OF NANO MATERIALS
Shock Waves
Mach number
Mach number is the ratio of the speed of an object to the speed of sound in the given
medium
Object speed V
M M
speed of sound in the medium a
Acoustic waves: An acoustic wave is simply a sound wave. It moves with a speed
333 m/s in air at STP. Sound waves have frequencies between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
Infrasonic waves: Waves having frequencies less than 20 Hz.
Ultrasonic waves: Ultrasonic waves have frequencies more than 20 KHz. The human
ear is not sensitive to these waves.
Subsonic wave: If the speed of Mechanical wave or object moving in the fluid is
lesser than that of sound. All subsonic waves have Mach no. < 1.
Supersonic wave: Supersonic waves are mechanical waves which travel with speeds
greater than that of sound. Mach no.> 1.
(If the Mach no. is greater than 5.0, the flow is said to be hypersonic)
SHOCK WAVES
Description of a Shock wave:
Any fluid that propagates at supersonic speeds, gives rise to a shock wave. They are
characterized by sudden increase in pressure, temperature and density of the gas
through which it propagates. Shock waves are identified as strong or weak depending
on the magnitude of the instantaneous changes in Pressure and Temperature of the
medium. Weaker shock waves are characterized by low Mach number (close to 1)
while strong shock waves possess higher values of Mach number.

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Basics of Conservation of mass, momentum and energy:
The conservation of mass, momentum and energy are the three fundamental principles
of classical physics.
1. Law of Conservation of mass:

“The total mass of any isolated system remains unchanged and is
independent of any chemical and physical changes that could occur within the
system”
By the principle of conservation of mass, ρ1V1= ρ2V2= Constant
2. Law of Conservation of momentum:

“In a closed system, that total momentum remains a constant”
P1+ρ1V12 = P2+ρ2V22 = Constant
3. Law of Conservation of energy

“The total energy of a closed system remains constant and is
independent choice of any changes within the system”
V12 V2
h1   h 2  2  Constant (Enthalpy h = u+pv)
2 2
Rankine-Hugoniot equations.
Shock front
Up stream end Down stream end

W
Consider two regions with reference to the Shock front, one which is ahead of the
shock front and the other behind it.
Let P1, T1, ρ1 and h1 be the values of Pressure, Temperature, density and
enthalpy before creation of the shock wave. Similarly P2, T2, ρ2 and h2 be the
corresponding values after the diaphragm ruptures. Then the three conservation
relations, which correspond to the three conservation laws are

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Conservation of mass
ρ1V1= ρ2V2 ………………….(1)
where V1 is the velocity of the fluid ahead of the shock and

V2 is the velocity of the fluid following the shock
Conservation of momentum
P1  1 V12  P2   2 V22 …….. (2)
Conservation of energy
V12 V2
h1   h2  2 ………...(3)
2 2
Equation of state PV =RT …… (4)

1
1 2
P RT P= ρRT a  γRT 
V
CP
The ratio of specific heat γ 
CV
(Rankine-Hugonoit Adiabatic)
Using above relations, normal shock relations called Rankine-Hugonoit can be

derived.
P2  γ  1 P2 
1  
T2 P1  γ  1 P1 

T1 P2 γ  1

P1 γ  1
γ  1 P2
1
 2 γ  1 P1

1 γ  1 P2

γ  1 P1

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Construction and working of Reddy tube

Construction:
Pressure
Digital pressure Diaphrag
Driver section Driven section

S1 S1
Pisto
Upstream end Downstream end
Reddy tube consists of a cylindrical stainless steel tube of about 30mm

diameter and of length nearly 1m. It is divided into two sections, each of a length
about 50cm. one is the driver tube and the other one is the driven tube. The two are
separated by a 0.1mm thick paper diaphragm.
The Reddy tube has a piston fitted at the far end of the driver section where as
the far end of the driven section is closed. A digital pressure gauge is mounted in the
driven section and two piezoelectric sensors S1 and S2 are mounted towards the close
end of the shock tube.
Working: The driver gas is compressed by pushing the Piston hard into the driver
tube until the diaphragm ruptures. The Driver gas rushes into the driven section, and
pushes the driven gas towards the far downstream end. This generates a moving shock
wave. The shock wave instantaneously raises the temperature and pressure of the
driven gas as the shock moves over it.
The propagating primary shock wave is reflected from the downstream end.
After the reflection, the test gas undergoes further compression which boosts its
temperature and pressure to still higher values by the reflected shock waves. This state
of high values of pressure and temperature is sustained at the downstream end until an
expansion wave reflected from the upstream end and neutralizes the compression
from the upstream end and neutralizes the compression partially. The period over
which the extreme temperature and pressure conditions at the downstream end are
sustained is typically in the order of milliseconds.

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The Pressure rise caused by the primary shock waves and also the reflected
shock wave are sensed as signals by the sensors S1 and S2 respectively and they are
recorded in a digital CRO. The pressure sensors are piezoelectric transducers. Using
Rankine –Hugonoit equations Mach no, Pressure and temp can be calculated.
Applications of shock waves
1. They are used in the treatment of Kidney stones (used in therapy called ‘Extra-
Corporal lithotripsy to shatter the Kidney stones into smaller fragments)
2. Shock waves are used to treat fractures as they activate the healing process in
tendons and Bones
3. Shock waves develop when object like jets and rockets move at supersonic
speeds. Hence the shock waves are studied to develop design for jets, rockets and
high speed turbines.
Science of Nano Materials
Nanomaterials
The field of nano technology deals with various structures of matters having
dimensions of the order 10-9 m (billionth of a matter). These particles are called
nanoparticle. Nanoparticle can be making approximately defined as an aggregate of
atoms between 1 nm to 100 nm with dimensions less than the characteristic length of
some physical phenomenon.
Nanotechnology is based on the fact that particles which are smaller than
about 100 nm give rise to new properties of nanostructures built from them. Particles,
which are smaller than the characteristic length for a particular phenomenon, show
different physical and chemical properties than the particles of larger sizes. For Ex:
Mechanical property, Optical property, Conductivity, Melting point and reactivity.
Mesoscopic state
The physical properties such as density, thermal conductivity, elastic modulus etc.
changes from material to material. The value of physical property assigned to a
material is independent of size. But when the size is reduced to nanoscale the
physical properties become size dependent. The state of matter around this size is
called as mesoscopic state. The exact state at which mesoscopic state is attained is
different for different materials.
Quantum structures

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Based on their size range of 1nm to 100nm, there are four types of quantum
structures.
s. Large clusters/ Particles (3-D),
(3 Thin films or layers (2-D),
D), Rods and Wires
(1-D),
D), Small Clusters: Quantum Dots (0-D).
(0
When bulk material of 3-dimension

3 is reduced along one direction, 2
dimensional film structure is formed.
formed If the reduction is in 2 dimensions the resulting
structure is in 1 dimension it is quantum wire. If the reduction is in all the 3
directions the resulting structure is quantum dot. It is also called nanoparticle or
cluster.
Charge carriers are able to move in all directions in a 3-D
D material, confined to
a plane in a film, in only one direction in a quantum wire and in a 00-D structure they
will remain confined to a very small space.
The film, wire and dots have certain thickness for the material along the
direction where we say the corresponding dimension is absent. The thickness is less
than the mean free path for the electron in the material; this thickness will be in
nanometer range. The material along these directions exhibits mesoscopic propertie
properties.
Density of states for various quantum structures
Considering free electrons as electron gas in one, two and three dimensions
dimensions,
the expression for density of states can be obtained. The density of states (DOS) for
the various quantum structures as function
function of energy are shown in figures.

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The variation of DOS for a 3-D material is parabolic in shape. Though it

applies for all energy bands let us consider for the conduction band of the material. It
is for sake of comparison with structures of lower dimensions. The DOS for 3-D
materials is denoted as g(E). It varies continuously. It is of order of 10 / eV.
For a 2-D structure the DOS denoted as D (E) varies as step function. There is
sudden rises in D (E) at energy values , , etc. It is because the energy of the first
sub-band continues even when the second sub-band starts. So in the second sub-band,
in addition to its own energy states, there will be additional contribution by the
continuation of energy states of first sub-band. Hence the DOS rises at the beginning
of second sub band.
Again the combined energy of first and second sub bands enter into the third
sub band and DOS rises further at the commencement of third sub-band. The overall
variation takes a staircase shape. The locus of all the corners of the steps will be a
parabola.
If the thickness of the 2-D material is increased more sub-bands will be

formed which results in decrease of the step width. If the thickness increases
continuously then in limit the material reaches 3-D large number of steps would be
seen merged into an envelope of parabolic variation of DOS.
The density of States for 2-D structure is of the order 10 / eV. The dos for
sub bands in a 2-D structure is given by
m*
D (E) dE =
h 2
 H ( E  E ) dE
i
where ∗ is the effective mass of electron in the structure and H(E- ) is a step
function called Heaviside function, its values are zero for E< and 1 for ≥ . is
the energy level in sub band.
For a quantum wire of 1-D structure, the DOS variation is smooth there are
density peaks at energy values , etc and decreases rapidly in the range in
between. The DOS is given by
2m ni H ( E  E i )
2 
 ( E ) dE  dE where H (E- ) is heaviside function,
h ( E  Ei
is degeneracy factor. The density is of the order 10 /m eV.
For a 0-D structure, the permitted energy values are just discrete because of
confined condition for the electrons.

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Methods for synthesis of Nanoparticles
The nanoparticles are synthesized either by using the ‘top-down’

down’ approach or the
‘bottom-up’
up’ approach.
In the ‘top-down’
down’ approach, the material in bulk form is broken down to
smaller and smaller pieces till the nano sized particles are obtained.
In the ‘bottom-up’
‘bottom approach, nano particles are synthesized by bringing
individual atoms or molecules together till the nano size is reached.
The different synthesis methods are

1) Ball Milling and
2) Sol-gel
gel synthesis
Sol-gel method
A colloidal suspension of solid particles in a liquid is known as sol sol. A continuous
network of solid particles with pores filled with liquid is known as gel.
Dissolve Dehydration Rapid

Drying
Sol Gel Aerogel
Precursor
Spinning/
Dipping
Slow drying
Xerogel
Calcination
Calcination
Calcination
Thin film Dense ceramic

Powder
The process of Sol-Gel

Sol Gel method is shown in fig. The precursor is dissolved in a
suitable liquid to form the solution. The solution is dehydrated to form gel. If the gel
is subject to rapid drying, aero gel is formed. Aero gel is very low density porous
material. If the gel is dried slowly, a xerogel is formed. Xerogel on calcinations gives
rise to dense ceramic.

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If the Sol is sprayed on a substrate the gel is formed on the substrate. On

calcinations, a thin film is formed on the substrate.
If suitable surfactants are added to the Sol, it gets converted to small gelled
spheres. On calcinations the gelled spheres get converted to a powder.
The Sol-Gel
Gel method is used in making high purity nano materials in powder
form and also to deposit thin films on substrate.
Ball milling method
This is a method used for top down approach, i.e., bulk material is broken
down into nanosize particles.
The ball mill consists of a hollow

h llow cylindrical chamber that can rotate about its
own axis. There are hard & heavy balls made of tungsten carbide/steel inside the
chamber. Larger balls are used for milling to produce smaller particle size. The
chamber is mounted ed such that, its axis is slightly inclined to the horizontal to enable
the material inside to slide, and accumulate around in one region.
The given material is crushed into small grain size ad fed into the chamber. As
the cylindrical chamber is rotated around
around its own axis, the balls get carried upwards.
But under gravity, they drop down and hit the sample with high speed. This happens
repeatedly and the material will be pounded to get reduced to nanosize particles.
However, the speed of rotation must be lessless than a critical speed beyond which, the
balls, instead of falling down. Then the material misses the hit and reduction in size
stops before attaining the nanoparticle size.
Ball milling method is employed while producing metallic and ceramic

nanomaterials.
ls. When the milling time is around 20-200
20 200 hours, it will be called, high
energy ball milling which is capable of causing structural changes as well chemical
reaction.
Advantage
1. This method is suitable for large scale production at low cost.

2. It can be used to grind material irrespective of hardness.

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Carbon Nanoparticles
Carbon nano particles are of two types – fullerenes and nanotubes.
Fullerene
The fullerene is a molecule of carbon having 60 atoms. The fullerene (C60) has
a spherical structure consisting of 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons in which none of the
pentagon touches each other. The crystal structure of C60 is a face centered cubic in
which distance between centers of two C60 molecules is 1 nm. Pure solid C60 is an
electrical insulator but when doped with alkali metals, electrical conductivity is
observed to increase. The superconducting critical temperature has been observed to
increase in alkali metal doped fullerenes.
Carbon nanotubes
In graphite, each carbon atom is linked to

three carbon
on atoms through covalent bonds
forming hexagonal rings connected to each
other to form plane sheets known as
graphene. These plane sheets are linked to
adjacent layers through the weak Van der
Waal’s forces. The structure of carbon
nanotubes (CNT) can be imagined as a
cylinder formed by rolling a graphene sheet
and then closing it on both sides by fullerene
hemispheres.
The CNTs are of two types:
1. Single walled nanotubes (SWNT) which can be imagined as a single atom thick
graphite sheet, i.e. graphene, rolled
rolled into a cylinder and capped by fullerene
hemispheres.
2. Multiwalled nanotubes (MWNT) which can be considered as nanotubes within

nanotubes.
Structure
The graphene sheet can be rolled in different ways to get the three types of
SWNT’s: Zig-zag,
zag, armchair and
and chiral. The rolling of graphene sheet to form
CNT and the three types of SWNR’s are shown in figure.

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MWCNT (Multiwalled nanotubes)
Properties of carbon nanotubes
1. Mechanical: The carbon nanotubes are highly elastic. The young’s modulus
for carbon nanotubes is about 1800 GPa whereas it is about 210 GPa for steel.
Carbon nanotubes exhibit large strength under tension. Carbon nanotubes can
withstand larger strains than steel. They can be bent without breaking.
2. Electrical: They show electrical properties ranging from semiconductor to

those of good conductors. The energy gap decreases as the diameter of the
CNT is increased. Due to very low resistivity, the heat dissipation in the CNT
is very small and hence they can carry much larger currents than the metals.
The conductivity of a CNT is maximum along its axis and very low in a
perpendicular direction. Hence they are equivalent to one dimensional
conductor.
At low temperatures, the resistance decreases with increasing magnetic field
applied across the CNT. This effect is known as magneto resistance.

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3. Thermal: Carbon nanotubes are very good conductors of heat. Their thermal
conductivity is more than twice that of diamond. The conductivity is very
good along the axis of the tube and very low in a perpendicular direction.
4. Physical: CNTs have very high strength to weight ratio. They have density.
5. Chemical: CNTs are chemically more inert compared to other forms of
carbon.
Applications
1. Carbon nanotubes can store lithium due to which they can be used in batteries.
CNTs can also store hydrogen and hence find potential applications in fuel
cells.
2. They are used in the tips for atomic force microscope probe.
3. They are being used to develop flat panel displays for television and computer
monitors.
4. They are being used to develop light weight shield for electromagnetic
radiation.
5. Field effect transistors are being developed using semiconducting CNTs which
can be used to build faster processors for computers. It is estimated that these
processors will be 104 times faster than the present processors.
6. CNTs are being used to produce lightweight materials with higher strength
than steel. These can be used in automobile, aircraft and rocket parts.
7. They are used in chemical sensors to detect gases.
SYNTHESIS METHODS OF CNT
Pyrolysis method
Pyrolysis is the decomposition of a material at high temperature. The set up

for fabrication of carbon nanotubes using chemical vapour deposition method is
shown in fig. It consists of a quartz tube kept in a furnace. The quartz tube is
connected to sources of acetylene (C2H2) and nitrogen. The substrate containing
cobalt and nickel which act as catalyst is kept in quartz plate as shown. The quartz
tube is provided with an outlet for the gas. The temperature in the quartz tube is
maintained at about 700-800°C.
Due to the high temperature in the quartz tube, acetylene breaks down into
carbon atoms. When these carbon atoms come near the substrate, they get adsorbed

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and get converted into nanotubes due to presence of catalysts. This method produces
multiwalled nanotubes.
To produce single walled nanotubes, a methane or carbon monoxide source is

used instead of acetylene. The temperature for these sources is maintained at about
1200°C.
Arc discharge method
Arc discharge was the first recognized technique for producing MWNTs and
SWNTs. The arc discharge technique generally involves the use of two high-purity
graphite electrodes as the anode and the cathode separated (~ 1–2 mm) in 400 mbar of
Helium atmosphere. The electrodes were vaporized by the passage of a DC current
(~100 A). Experimental set up of arc discharge apparatus was shown in Fig.
After arc discharging for a period of time, a carbon rod is built up at the
cathode. This method can mostly produce MWNTs but can also produce SWNT with
the addition of metal catalyst such as Fe, Co, Ni, Y or Mo, on either the anode or the
cathode. The quantity and quality such as lengths, diameters, purity and etc. of the
nanotubes obtained depend on various parameters such as the metal concentration,
inert gas pressure, type of gas, plasma arc, temperature, the current and system
geometry.
Scanning Electron Microscope:

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Construction: An electron gun is used to produce high energy electrons. Two

magnetic lenses are used as condenser lenses to convert the diverging electron beam
into a fine beam of spot diameter of the order of a few nanometers. A scanning coil is
used to detect the electron beam to scan the sample. The objective lens is used to
focus the scanning beam on a desired spot on the sample. The intensities of secondary
electron, back-scattered electrons and the X-rays are recorded using detectors. The
images are then displayed on TV monitors.
Electron gun
First
condenser
Second
condenser
Scan coil
Objecti T.V
ve lens monitor
Back-scattered
electron Secondary
electron
detector
X-Ray
detector
Sample
Working: when the high energy electron beam strikes the sample, some electrons are
scattered due to elastic scattering (the back-scattered electrons), some electrons are
knocked off from the surface (the secondary electrons) and some electrons penetrate
deep into the inner shells of the sample atoms to knock off inner shell electrons due to
which characteristic X-rays are produced. These are detected using detectors and the
signals are amplified and displayed on a TV monitor.
Samples are required to be conducting. Non-conducting samples are coated
with a thin conducting material.

Engineering Physics
Applications:
1. SEM gives information about the surface features of the sample with
resolution of the order of a few nanometers. This information can be used to
study properties like reflectivity and roughness.
2. SEM images give information about the elements and compounds in the
sample and their relative abundance. This is used to study properties like
hardness and melting point.
3. SEM is used to study biological specimens like pollen grains.
4. SEM is used to study the corroded layers on metal surfaces.

Engineering Physics
NUMERICALS:
1. The distance between two sensors of the shock tube is 100mm and the time taken to
travel between them is 210µs. calculate the Mach number. Given that the velocity of
the sound is 340m/s at 300K.
Data: d=100mm= 100*10-3m/s ; t = 210 µs = 210*10-6s
M = V/a
= (d/t)/a
= (100X10-3/210X10-6)/340
M = 1.4
2. Calculate the speed of the sound in helium gas at 440K. Given γ = 1.667 for
helium, R = 2008JKg-1 K-1. Calculate Mach number if the speed of the shock wave is
1520m/s.
Data : T= 440K ; γ = 1.667 ; R = 2008JKg-1 K-1 ; V = 1520ms-1
a = √ (γ RT) M= V/a
=√ (1.667X 2008 X 440) = 1520/1213.60
a = 1213.60 ms-1 M= 1.2524
3. Calculate the wavelength of an electron accelerated under the potential difference

of 100V in Scanning Electron Microscope.
Data: V= 100V; h= 6.625X10-34JS ; m = 9.11X10-31 Kg ; e = 1.6X 10-19C
λ = h/√(2meV) m
= 1.226/√V nm
= 1.226/ √100
λ = 0.122 nm

Engineering Physics
Reference Books:
1. Engineering Physics. S. P.Basavaraju – 2010, Subhas Stores, Bangalore – 2
2. Solid State Physics Sixth Edition, S.O.Pillai, New Age International.
3. Engineering Physics, V Rajendran 2012 Tata Mc.Graw Hill Company Ltd.,
New Delhi.
4. Engineering Physics A Marikani, 2013 PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi.
5. Engineering Physics S Mani Naidu, 2014 Pearson India Limited.
Summary
The material coverage for this course includes development of modern Physics and
Quantum Mechanics, electrical properties of conductor, semiconductor and
superconductors, basic theoretical and operational concepts of Laser & optical fibers,
their application, concepts of crystal structure, discussion of different types of crystal,
basic knowledge of nano materials, definition of shock waves, methods of generating
and studying the characteristic of shock waves in laboratory conditions. This subject
is the basic for learning different subjects in the Engineering course for all the
branches.

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H K B K COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Subject : Engineering Physics

Course Objectives and Outcomes

Module 1: DURATION: 10 Hours

Modern Physics and Quantum Mechanics

Module2: DURATION: 10 Hours

Electrical Properties of Materials

Module 3: DURATION: 10 Hours

LASERs and Optical Fibers

Module 4 DURATION: 10 Hours

Module5 DURATION: 10 Hours

Shock Waves and Science of Nanomaterials

1 Modern Physics and Quantum Mechanics 1

2 Electrical Properties of Materials 23

3 Lasers and Optical Fibers 46

5 Shock Waves and Science of Nanomaterials 89

The energy distribution in the spectrum of a black body

1. Wien’s Displacement Law:

Drawbacks of Wien’s law:

Rayleigh derived an equation for the blackbody radiation on the basis of

Where k is Boltzmann constant

Drawbacks of Rayleigh-Jeans Law (or Ultra Violet Catastrophe):

Rayleigh-Jeans Law predicts to radiate all the energy at shorter wavelength

Planck assumed that walls of the experimental blackbody consists larger

Reduction of Planck’s law to Wien’s law and Rayleigh Jeans law:

1) For shorter wavelengths, ν = c/λ is large.

Department of Engineering Physics, HKBKCE Page 2

Where C1 = 8πhc and C2 = hc/k

This is the Wien’s law of radiation.

2) For longer wavelengths ν = c/λ is small.

When a monochromatic beam of X-ray of wavelength λ is scattered by a

A photon of wavelength ‘λ’ is scattered by an electron by an angle ‘θ’ with

Department of Engineering Physics, HKBKCE Page 3

The change in wavelength or Compton shift is given by

Where ‘m’ is the mass of the electron, θ is the angle of scattering.

h/mc is called as Compton wavelength.

Compton Effect demonstrates the particle nature of X-ray.

Broglie concept of Matter Waves (de-Broglie hypothesis): de Broglie suggested

De Broglie wave length is given by

Where m is mass of material particle, h is Planck’s constant and v is velocity of

Relation between de-Broglie

Consider an electron in an electric potential V, the energy acquired is given by

Department of Engineering Physics, HKBKCE Page 4

The expression for de-Broglie wavelength is given by

de-Broglie Wavelength of an Accelerated Electron:

Then eV = 1/2(mv2) → (1)

If ‘p’ is the momentum of the electron, then p=mv

Squaring on both sides, we have

Using in equation (1) we have

According to de-Broglie λ = h/p

Department of Engineering Physics, HKBKCE Page 5

Characteristics of matter waves:

Phase velocity and Group velocity:

Derivation of expression for group velocity on the basis of superposition of

Let y1 = Asin(ωt-kx) …………… (1)

y2 = Asin[(ω+ Δ ω)t - (k + Δk)x] ……………. (2)

By the principle of superposition

y = A sin (ωt - kx) + A sin{(ω+Δ ω)t - (k+Δk)x}

Department of Engineering Physics, HKBKCE Page 6

Since Δω and Δk are small

2ω +Δω ≈ 2ω and 2k + Δk ≈ 2k.

From equations (1) & (3) it is seen the amplitude becomes

Relation between group velocity and phase velocity: