Tourism Management 31 (2010) 285–290

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Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Carbon dioxide emissions from transport in Taiwan’s national parks

Tzu-Ping Lin*
Department of Leisure Planning, National Formosa University, 64 Wen-hua Rd, Huwei, Yunlin 632, Taiwan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Transport profoundly affects energy use and carbon dioxide emissions in the tourism sector. This study
Received 4 March 2008 focuses on five national parks in Taiwan, namely Kenting National Park, Yushan National Park, Yang-
Accepted 12 March 2009 mingshan National Park, Taroko National Park and Sheipa National Park, and applies a bottom-up
approach to determine the amount of CO2 emissions from domestic tourism transport in 1999–2006. The
Keywords: CO2 emission factor of private car derived in this study reveals a higher value than that of previous study
Carbon dioxide emissions
due to its lower load factors. Moreover, CO2 emissions per person are different in each national park,
Transport
influenced by the attributes of travel distance and transport mode. The scenario analysis indicates that
National parks
Taiwan CO2 emission can be reduced by increasing load factors of transport, tourist switching from private cars
to public transport and going to destinations close to their points of departure, which can be achieved by
authorities through activity management, regulation control and price adjustment. This is also an
adequate solution for Taiwan Government owing to the increases in transport volume and the limited
tourism budget.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction consumption can be translated into CO2 emissions using the

The global temperature increases with rising atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as carbon dioxide
(CO2), CH4, N2O, CFC, O3, and Non-Methane Volatile Organic
Compounds (NMVOCs). Among GHGs, CO2 is the main factor in
global warming. Direct use of fossil fuels, and indirect energy
consumption connected to fossil fuel combustion, contributes to
CO2 emissions.
The tourism industry both consumes energy and emits CO2. The
World Tourism Organization (WTO) has predicted that CO2 emis-
sions will become increasingly significant as the number of inter-
national travelers increases (WTO, 2001). For example, the energy
consumed by the tourism industry in Hawaii accounts for 60% of
the state’s total consumption (Tabatchnaia-Tamirisa, Loke, Leung, &
Tucker, 1997). Previous investigations on energy and CO2 emissions
have generally divided the tourism industry into three sections,
namely transport, accommodation and activities (Becken, Sim-
mons, & Frampton, 2003; Gössling et al., 2005). For instance, buses
and private cars consume massive amounts of fossil fuels. Addi-
tionally, air conditioning, lighting and heating water for travel
accommodation also consume electricity. Transport for tourism
activities also consumes fossil fuels, and the operation of tourism
locations consumes electricity. This fossil fuel and electricity
* Tel.: þ886 5 631 5890; fax: þ886 5 631 5887.
E-mail address: tplin@nfu.edu.tw
guidelines established by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC, 1996) based on country-specific emission factors.
Many works have indicated that transport accounts for
a significant proportion of the energy consumption and CO2
emissions by the tourism industry. Høyer (2000) proposed that
sustainable tourism should be linked with the concept of sustain-
able transport. Gössling (2000, 2002) stated that transport
accounts for the largest amount of energy consumed and GHGs
emitted by leisure activities. Additionally, air travel consumes the
most energy in the tourism industries in developing countries.
Becken (2002a, 2002b) found that flights by international tourists
in New Zealand account for 6% of national energy usage. A survey
on the western coast of the South Island in New Zealand found that
transport accounts for 65–73% of the energy consumed by local and
international travelers. Dubois and Ceron (2006) predicted that
France will see its GHG emissions from transportation in its tourism
industry rise by 90%, and its total passenger-kilometers increase by
200%, by 2050. Peeters, Szimba, and Duijnisveld (2007) predicted
that CO2 emissions from transportation associated with the tourism
sector in Europe will rise by 90% by 2020. Hence, a carbon tax for
international flights has been proposed (Mayor & Tol, 2007; Tol,
2007). Conversely, bicycle-based tourism is considered as a mode of
transport in line with sustainable development principles (Lums-
don, 2000).
In studies of the relationship between CO2 emissions and
transport, there are many studies focused on countries or regions,
such as Lebanon (El-Fadel & Bou-Zeid, 1999), the U.K. (Kwon, 2005),

0261-5177/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2009.03.009
286 T.-P. Lin / Tourism Management 31 (2010) 285–290

Australia (Lenzen, 1999) and Mumbai, India (Yedla, Shrestha, & where Pi indicates the total number of passengers taking transport
Anandarajah, 2005). Various studies have examined CO2 emissions mode i, Di is the transport distance of transport mode i (km), bi
from transport in the tourism industries in Norway (Høyer, 2000), stands for CO2 emission factor for transport mode i, i.e., CO2
France (Dubois & Ceron, 2006), the western coast of the South emissions per passenger-kilometer (kg/pkm), which can be
Island in New Zealand (Becken, 2002b), Rocky Mountain National expressed as
Park in the US, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, borders of France, the
Seychelles and Val di Merse in Italy (Gössling et al., 2005). CO2 Fi
bi ¼ (2)
emissions of different tourist locations within a single country have Ei $Li
rarely been compared.
where Fi indicates the CO2 emissions generated per liter of fossil
To compare the transport characteristics and CO2 emissions of
fuel for transport mode i (kg/l), Ei stands for fuel efficiency for
individual tourist destinations within a country, this investigation
transport mode i, i.e., the distance traveled for each liter of fossil
analyzes five national parks in Taiwan, namely Kenting National Park,
fuel (km/l). Li is the load factor for transport mode i, representing
Yushan National Park, Yangmingshan National Park, Taroko National
average number of passengers for each vehicle (people). For energy
Park and Sheipa National Park, using Statistics for 1999–2006. The
not measured in liters, the values of Ei and Fi are converted.
CO2 emissions by transport associated with local tourism destinations
Therefore, as long as bi in Eq. (2) is known, the CO2 emissions can be
are investigated. This study addresses the following issues.
determined by inputting passenger-kilometer for different trans-
port modes into Eq. (1). Additionally, the estimate in Eq. (1) only
1. The total amounts, trends and characteristics of CO2 emissions
covers one-way travel; thus, the value must be doubled when
for the five national parks are estimated.
calculating round-trip consumption.
2. The issue of how individual national parks can reduce their CO2
emissions is addressed, assuming the number of existing
2.2. Subjects
tourists and profiles of inbound tourists are the same.

Taiwan currently has seven national parks. Kinmen National

Park is not on the main island of Taiwan, and is visited by fewer
2. Method
tourists than the others. Dongsha Marine National Park is not yet
open to the public. Hence, this investigation focuses on the five
No systematic approach currently exists for estimating CO2
national parks on the main island of Taiwan, namely Kenting
emissions associated with the tourism industry. Two approaches
National Park, Yushan National Park, Yangmingshan National Park,
have been adopted, namely top-down and bottom-up (Becken &
Taroko National Park and Sheipa National Park. The locations of
Hay, 2007; Gössling et al., 2005; Peeters, 2005). The top-down
these five national park are illustrated in Fig. 1.
method approximates the percentage of CO2 emissions for tourism
in the entire system, i.e., a country or region, while the bottom-up
approach analyzes data for tourists arriving at destinations. 2.3. Data collection
Becken (2002b) and Becken et al. (2003) analyzed energy
consumption on the western coast of the South Island in New The total CO2 emissions are determined in two stages. Stage one
Zealand by the bottom-up approach. To estimate use intensity of is to derive CO2 emissions per passenger-kilometer for each
transport, they applied energy usage efficiency data obtained from
the Ministry of Transport, and the national average load factors
provided by the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Authority Yangmingshan National park
(1999). Mileage data for all transportation in the region were
generated from 435 questionnaires filled out by local and overseas
tourists (Becken et al., 2003).
This study also adopted the bottom-up approach based on the
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories published by Sheipa National Park
IPCC (1996) to establish a database for CO2 emissions associated
with tourism transport in Taiwan. Annual CO2 emissions were then Taroko National Park
derived on the basis of tourism transport associated with national
parks.

2.1. Evaluation of CO2 emissions from transport

Yushan National Park
Transportation vehicles have different requirements, fossil fuels
and electricity, as well as different energy efficiency rates. Typically,
energy consumed rises with increasing distance traveled. Every
unit of different energy sources generates different amounts of CO2
emissions. However, previous CO2 emission evaluation based on
vehicle volumes is difficult to estimate, because most tourism data
in most countries, including Taiwan, are related to tourists. Such
data include departure destinations and transport modes used by
tourists. Therefore, this work concentrates on tourists to facilitate
estimates and evaluations of CO2 emissions. Total CO2 emissions
(kg-CO2) by different vehicles can be expressed as
Kenting National Park
n
X
CO2 emission ¼ Pi $Di $bi (1)
i¼1 Fig. 1. Maps of Taiwan and the locations of the five national parks.
 T.-P. Lin / Tourism Management 31 (2010) 285–290 287

transport mode, i.e., the bi value in Eq. (2). The value of Fi in Eq. (2) is 3. Results
obtained by multiplying the net calorific value (NCV) by the
emission factor (EF). This work applied the Heat Content of Various 3.1. CO2 emissions per annum
Energy Commodities listed in the Taiwan Energy Statistical Hand-
book (Bureau of Energy, 2005) for NCV; IPCC (1996) for EF, and Table 2 presents the number of tourists and CO2 emissions for
statistical data provided by Ministry of Transport and Communi- each national park in 1999–2006. According to average values over
cations (2004a, 2004b, 2004c) (MOTC) for Ei. the last eight years, Kenting National Park had the highest number
Since the average numbers of passengers for certain transport of tourists with an average 4 million tourists annually. Kenting also
mode may change according to their purpose, e.g., commuting, had the highest level of CO2 emissions, with an average of 61.7
work or tourism, the load factor (Li) for each transport mode was million kilograms. Sheipa National Park had the fewest tour-
obtained by distributing a questionnaire survey, rather than istsd0.5 million on averagedand the lowest CO2 emission at 8.1
applying the national average data obtained from the Ministry of million kilograms per annum. Kenting National Park was the most
Transport and Communications (MOTC). This questionnaire survey popular tourist site along the southern coast, and produced the
was aimed at the tourists visiting national parks, and asked them most CO2 emissions. The average amount of CO2 emissions gener-
about their mode of transport and how many people in their ated by transport associated with the five national parks annually
vehicles. Totally 435 effective questionnaires were obtained for was as high as 161 million kilograms. The CO2 emissions associated
calculating the load factors. with Taroko and Kenting National Park rise significantly during the
Stage two was to calculate the number of passengers and period surveyed. Emissions in 2006 for Taroko and Kenting
mileage for each transport mode, i.e., Pi and Di. Pi is obtained from National Park were 3.74 and 2.2 times the levels in 1999, while the
the total number of tourists and the breakdown of transport modes remaining three national parks had more stable trends of emissions
for each national park (National Parks of Taiwan, 2007). The during the period surveyed.
breakdown of the departure destinations is first derived by data
from the report on domestic tourism in Taiwan (Tourism Bureau,
3.2. CO2 emissions per person for each national park
2005), which accumulated the demographic information, depar-
ture place, transport mode of tourists and other information from
To understand the properties of CO2 emissions associated with
a survey of 18 616 local people. Di, which represents travel distance,
transport in each national park, the average CO2 emissions per
is then determined according to digital maps for distances between
person in each national park was obtained, as listed in Table 3. The
each departure destination and national park. The number of
CO2 emissions per person were highest for Sheipa National Park
passengers and travel distance of each vehicle is determined from
(15.9 kg/person) and lowest for Yangmingshan National Park
the derived Pi and Di values, and is expressed in passenger-kilo-
(7.2 kg/person) (Table 3). That is, the CO2 emissions for one person
meters. Finally, the bi, Di and Pi values of individual vehicles are
traveling to Sheipa National Park were 1.6 times that from one
input into Eq. (1) to obtain the CO2 emissions per annum of
person traveling to Yangmingshan National Park, indicating that
different vehicles for individual national parks.
the sensitivity of CO2 emissions to number of tourists differs among
national parks.
2.4. CO2 emissions per passenger-kilometer of individual transport
modes
3.3. Effect of travel distance and transport mode on CO2 emissions
Table 1 lists the bi values per passenger-kilometer for different
Two main factors, namely travel distance and transport mode,
transport modes. Among the vehicles listed, private cars have the
affect CO2 emissions according to Eq. (1). The amount of CO2
highest CO2 emissions per passenger-kilometer (0.097 kg/pkm),
emissions increases as the travel distance rises. Average travel
approximately four times that of a tour bus (0.028 kg/pkm). The
distance can be derived (Table 4) from the total number of tourists,
average number of passengers per bus trip is significantly higher
the distribution of departure destinations and the distance between
than that of private cars; hence, taking a bus decreases the CO2
emissions per passenger-kilometer. This implies that the CO2
emissions shouldered by each person in a vehicle with numerous
passengers (e.g., tour buses) are lower than those of private cars Table 2
and motorcycles. Annual number of tourists and CO2 emissions for each national park.
Notably, this study obtained a higher load factor than MOTC, in National Park 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 Average
which the load factors are 2.2 for private cars, 4.2 for vans, 33.0 for Kenting Touristsa 2.1 4.3 5.0 4.6 3.7 4.2 4.1 4.3 4.0
tour buses and 1.3 for motorcycles. This is because the MOTC values CO2 26.9 53.0 69.5 64.5 54.2 60.6 57.3 59.8 55.7
b
are the average of the national values in Taiwan including emissions
commuting, work, freight and tourism. The average numbers of Yushan Tourists 1.3 0.5 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.2
passengers in any transport mode are generally higher for tourism CO2 8.8 3.5 7.9 10.7 14.0 11.6 12.6 12.3 10.2
than for commuting or work, thus leading to a relatively high load emissions
factor in tourism surveys. Yangmingshan Tourists 3.8 4.4 4.6 4.3 4.6 4.9 4.2 4.8 4.5
CO2 21.7 26.9 28.4 33.0 35.6 38.8 33.2 38.7 32.0
emissions
Table 1
Taroko Tourists 0.8 1.2 3.1 2.9 3.3 3.5 5.6 6.3 3.3
Fuel efficiency, load factor and CO2 emissions for each transport mode.
CO2 9.8 14.7 37.3 34.9 37.9 37.4 60.4 68.2 37.6
Transport Fuel efficiency Average load factor CO2 emissions per passenger- emissions
mode (km/l) (people) kilometer (kg/pkm)
Sheipa Tourists 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.5
Private car 8.9 2.6 0.097 CO2 4.8 2.8 5.3 9.4 12.7 8.9 6.2 7.0 7.1
Van 7.5 4.8 0.075 emissions
Tour bus 2.8 34.3 0.028 a
Motorcycle 21.8 1.9 0.054 Tourist numbers in millions.
b
CO2 emissions in million kilograms.
288 T.-P. Lin / Tourism Management 31 (2010) 285–290

Table 3
Average CO2 emission for each person in each national park from 1999–2006.
Kenting
National park CO2 emission for each person (kg/person)
Kenting 13.8
Yushan 8.3 Yushan
Yangmingshan 7.2
Taroko 11.2
Sheipa 15.9 Yangmingshan

Taroko
the departure destinations and arrival destinations. Table 4 also
presents the percentage of tourists traveling from the nearest three
counties to individual national parks (i.e., the counties in which the Sheipa
national parks are located and the two closest counties).
Yangmingshan National Park has the shortest average travel 0 20 40 60 80 100
distance (103.2 km), since it is located just outside Taipei City, the
largest metropolitan City in Taiwan. Taipei City, Taipei County and Tour bus private car
Taoyuan County, which are the nearest three counties to Yang- Van Motorcycle
mingshan National Park, are home to 58% of tourists. In contrast,
although Kenting National Park is located on the southern tip of Fig. 2. Average percentages of passengers taking different vehicles to each national
Taiwan, a high percentage of its tourists are from the north. The park.

percentage of tourists from neighboring cities and counties is only

30%. Therefore, Kenting has the longest average travel distance
emissions by 6–13% and 11–26% in these two scenarios, respec-
(234.1 km). Therefore, the average travel distance to individual
tively, thus demonstrating that transport has a significant influence
tourist spots is significantly influenced by the geographic locations
on CO2 emissions. Since the CO2 emission per passenger-kilometer
of the national park and departure destinations of tourists (Table 4).
for tour buses (0.028 kg/pkm) is much lower than that for private
Although Taiwan is not a large island, its national parks have
cars (0.097 kg/pkm), the overall CO2 emissions decline when more
significantly different travel distances.
tourists switching from private cars to tour buses. Notably, reduc-
Fig. 2 illustrates the average percentages of passengers using
tion percentages differ for different national parks. The Sheipa
different transport modes in 1999–2006. Clearly, the percentages of
National Park yielded the best result (13% and 26%), while Yushan
passengers opting for tour buses and vans when traveling to Sheipa
National Park had the worst outcome (6% and 11%) for CO2 emission
National Park and Yangmingshan National Park are under 40%.
reduction, because the percentage of tourists arriving by private car
Since the CO2 emissions per person for tour buses (0.028 kg/pkm)
was highest for Sheipa National Park (63.3%), and lowest for Yushan
and vans (0.075 kg/pkm) (Table 1) are less than those for private
National Park (23.1%) (Fig. 2).
cars, the CO2 emissions per person are reduced if passengers switch
Scenarios 4 and 5 were run to obtain the impacts of average load
to travel on tour buses or vans to a national park.
factors on CO2 emissions. The average number of people per vehicle
was increased by 20% and 40%, respectively, in these two simula-
3.4. Scenario analysis tions. For example, the original average load factor for private cars is
2.6 people. In scenarios 4 and 5, the numbers of people on the
El-Fadel and Bou-Zeid (1999) computed national CO2 emissions private cars were increased to 3.1 and 3.6 people, respectively.
from transport sources in Lebanon, and performed a scenario- Simulation results indicate that improvement effects were the same
based analysis for various factors associated with CO2 emissions. To
understand further the influences of individual factors on CO2
emissions from transport to individual national parks, CO2 emis- Table 5
sions were simulated using various scenarios, and present the Scenario analysis of CO2 emissions for the five national parks.
reductions compared with original status in different scenarios
Scenario Description CO2 emissions reduction percentage compared
(Table 5). Scenario 1 represents the original values of CO2 emissions with original status (scenario 1)
from transport in relation to individual national parks (1999–2006)
Kenting Yushan Yangmingshan Taroko Sheipa
before any adjustments. It should be noted that the total number of
tourists for all scenarios was the same. Scenario Original status 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
1 (1999–2006)
Scenarios 2 and 3 assessed the impact of tourists using different Scenario 20% of tourists taking 11% 6% 11% 9% 13%
transport modes on CO2 emissions. In these two simulations, the 2 private cars switch to
ratios of transport were adjusted by having 20% and 40% of tourists tour buses
using private cars switch to tour buses, respectively. Analytical Scenario 40% of tourists taking 22% 11% 22% 17% 26%
3 private cars switch to
results reveal that individual national parks can decrease CO2
tour buses
Scenario Average load factor is 17% 17% 17% 17% 17%
Table 4 4 increased by 20%
Average travel distance to each national park in 1999–2006. Scenario Average load factor is 29% 29% 29% 29% 29%
5 increased by 40%
National park Average travel Percentages of the tourists coming from the
Scenario 20% of departure 8% 10% 9% 4% 4%
distance (km) nearest three counties (%)
6 place of tourists
Kenting 234.1 30 moved closer to their
Yushan 130.9 33 destinations
Yangmingshan 103.2 58 Scenario 40% of departure place 16% 21% 18% 8% 8%
Taroko 199.7 20 7 of tourists moved closer
Sheipa 214.7 26 to their destinations
 T.-P. Lin / Tourism Management 31 (2010) 285–290
for all national parks, with CO2 emissions reduced by 17% and 29% for
scenarios 4 and 5, respectively. This is because CO2 emissions decline
as the average number of passengers per trip rises. Considering the
same number of total tourists, increasing the number of people in
private vehicles effectively reduces annual CO2 emissions.
Scenarios 6 and 7 were run to determine the influences of travel
distance on CO2 emissions. These two simulations moved 20% and
40% tourists, respectively, to the departure places closer to their
destinations, thus reducing the total travel distance given the same
numbers of tourists. Analytical results demonstrate that individual
national parks can decrease CO2 emissions by 4–10% and 8–16% in
these two scenarios, indicating that reducing travel distance
significantly affects CO2 emissions.
4. CO2 emission mitigation associate with tourism transport
Given the same number of tourists, how these five national
parks can reduce their CO2 emissions remains significant question.
At first, tourists taking transport with low CO2 emission factor (bi)
effectively lower the CO2 emissions. In this study, the results of
scenario analysis reveal that tourists switching from private cars to
tour buses effectively decrease CO2 emissions by 22%, particularly
for the destinations with high percentages of tourists using private
cars. The investigation by Romilly (1999) of gas emissions of urban
buses and private cars in the U.K. also suggests that switching from
private cars to buses can effectively decrease emissions of CO2 and
other gasses. Furthermore, this switch also significantly lowers
costs linked with deaths and casualties. In terms of the public
transport, the design of buses and experiences sought by tourists
must be in line. Ticket prices should be raised when necessary to
improve service quality, and thereby encourage passengers to
switch from private cars to public vehicles (Guiver, Lumsdon,
Weston, & Ferguson, 2007; Lumsdon, 2006).
According to Eq. (2), improving fuel efficiency (Ei) of transport is an
important factor for reducing bi. El-Fadel and Bou-Zeid (1999) per-
formed scenario analysis of the adoption of energy technologies to
enhance vehicle efficiency, and determined that applying emission
reduction methods such as clean-energy plan, decreasing the lifespan
of fleets by five years, and requiring all vehicles to have catalytic
converters can reduce CO2 emissions by 24% together. However, these
approaches are costly, and generate benefits over a long time.
Another factor to decrease bi is the rise in load factors. Compared
with New Zealand data (Becken & Simmons, 2005), the bi values for
buses (0.022 kg/pkm) and motorcycles (0.060 kg/pkm) in New
Zealand were similar to those for buses and motorcycles in Taiwan.
However, the bi value for private cars in Taiwan (0.097 kg/pkm) is
approximately 1.4 times that in New Zealand (0.069 kg/pkm),
because the load factors of private cars in New Zealand is 3.16
people (Becken, 2002b) but only 2.6 people in Taiwan. Conse-
quently, each tourist taking a private car in Taiwan increases CO2
emissions. According to scenario analysis, rising load factors can
lower CO2 emissions by 29%. To increase load factors, for example,
the competent authority can promote car pooling for private cars
traveling to national parks, or impose controls for average load
factors for the vehicles entering parks.
Furthermore, the CO2 emission may decline through decrease of
travel distance. Authorities could encourage tourists to visit their
nearest national parks by lowering the entrance fees. This approach
could help reduce the total travel distance, and thus decrease CO2
emission.
5. Conclusion
In Taiwan, national parks are extremely important outdoor
destinations for leisure activities. Each year approximately 13.5
289
million tourists travel to national parks on the island of Taiwan. The
number of tourists has been increasing in recent years; as a result,
the consumption of energy and amount of CO2 emissions have
increased. Therefore, National Science Council of Taiwan funded
a project analyzing the reciprocal effects of tourism and climate
change. The project focused on the five national parks on the island
of Taiwan, namely Kenting National Park, Yushan National Park,
Yangmingshan National Park, Taroko National Park and Sheipa
National Park. This project evaluated CO2 emissions generated by
domestic tourists in three sectionsdtransport, accommodation,
and activities at these five national parks. Transport accounts for
the most CO2 emissions in the tourism industry. Therefore, the first
stage of this project focuses on estimates of CO2 emissions from
tourism transport for the period 1999–2006.
This study adopted the bottom-up approach to measure CO2
emissions of five national parks based on questionnaire survey and
previous reports on domestic tourism in Taiwan. At first, CO2
emission factor for each transport is derived in this study, revealing
the private car has higher CO2 emission factor value than that in
New Zealand due to its lower load factors. Furthermore, CO2
emissions per person are different in each national park, affected by
the characteristic of travel distance and transport mode. Addi-
tionally, this investigation presents the effects of mitigation
measures associated with tourism transport for CO2 emission
reduction through the scenario analysis.
Energy saving technologies have previously been the most
popular way to reduce CO2 emission associated with transport.
However, the analytical results of this study demonstrate that CO2
emission can also be reduced by increasing load factors of trans-
port, tourist switching from private cars to public transport and
going to destinations close to their points of departure, which can
be achieved by authorities through activity management, regula-
tion control and price adjustment. This is also an appropriate
solution for Taiwan Government, given increases in transport
volume and the limited tourism budget.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the National Science Council
Taiwan for financially supporting this research under Contract No.
NSC 96-2415-H-150-004-MY2. Thanks also due to Yu-Hui Chen for
data collection and preliminary analysis in her Project Practice for
the bachelor degree at the National Formosa University (NFU),
Taiwan.
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