Bluetongue disease

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Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.
 Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains
Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
 e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
 25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
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Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae
 Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep
A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
 18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
  Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
Navigation menu
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 Español
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 Српски / srpski
 Türkçe
17 more
Edit links
 This page was last edited on 23 March 2019, at 13:40 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.

Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus
 Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
 o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
 28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
Navigation menu
 Not logged in
 Talk
 Contributions
 Create account
 Log in
 Article
 Talk
 Read
 Edit
 View history
 Search
Go

 Main page
 Contents
 Featured content
 Current events
 Random article
 Donate to Wikipedia
 Wikipedia store
Interaction
 Help
 About Wikipedia
 Community portal
 Recent changes
 Contact page
Tools
 What links here
 Related changes
 Upload file
 Special pages
 Permanent link
 Page information
 Wikidata item
 Cite this page
Print/export
 Create a book
 Download as PDF
 Printable version
In other projects
 Wikimedia Commons
Languages
 ‫العربية‬
 Български
 Deutsch
 Español
 Français
 हिन्दी
 Polski
 Српски / srpski
 Türkçe
17 more
Edit links
 This page was last edited on 23 March 2019, at 13:40 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
 Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.

Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]
The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]
Treatment and prevention[edit]
Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
 e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
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Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification
 (unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]
Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]
Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
 17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
  Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
Navigation menu
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 Türkçe
17 more
Edit links
 This page was last edited on 23 March 2019, at 13:40 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.

Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus
 Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
 o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
 28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
Navigation menu
 Not logged in
 Talk
 Contributions
 Create account
 Log in
 Article
 Talk
 Read
 Edit
 View history
 Search
Go

 Main page
 Contents
 Featured content
 Current events
 Random article
 Donate to Wikipedia
 Wikipedia store
Interaction
 Help
 About Wikipedia
 Community portal
 Recent changes
 Contact page
Tools
 What links here
 Related changes
 Upload file
 Special pages
 Permanent link
 Page information
 Wikidata item
 Cite this page
Print/export
 Create a book
 Download as PDF
 Printable version
In other projects
 Wikimedia Commons
Languages
 ‫العربية‬
 Български
 Deutsch
 Español
 Français
 हिन्दी
 Polski
 Српски / srpski
 Türkçe
17 more
Edit links
 This page was last edited on 23 March 2019, at 13:40 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
 Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.

Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]
The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]
Treatment and prevention[edit]
Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
 e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
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Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification
 (unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]
Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]
Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
 17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
  Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
Navigation menu
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 This page was last edited on 23 March 2019, at 13:40 (UTC).
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Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.

Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus
 Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
 o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
 28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
Navigation menu
 Not logged in
 Talk
 Contributions
 Create account
 Log in
 Article
 Talk
 Read
 Edit
 View history
 Search
Go

 Main page
 Contents
 Featured content
 Current events
 Random article
 Donate to Wikipedia
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Interaction
 Help
 About Wikipedia
 Community portal
 Recent changes
 Contact page
Tools
 What links here
 Related changes
 Upload file
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 Permanent link
 Page information
 Wikidata item
 Cite this page
Print/export
 Create a book
 Download as PDF
 Printable version
In other projects
 Wikimedia Commons
Languages
 ‫العربية‬
 Български
 Deutsch
 Español
 Français
 हिन्दी
 Polski
 Српски / srpski
 Türkçe
17 more
Edit links
 This page was last edited on 23 March 2019, at 13:40 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
 Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.

Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]
The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]
Treatment and prevention[edit]
Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
 e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
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Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification
 (unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]
Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]
Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
 17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
  Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
Navigation menu
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17 more
Edit links
 This page was last edited on 23 March 2019, at 13:40 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
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Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.

Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus
 Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
 o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
 28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
Navigation menu
 Not logged in
 Talk
 Contributions
 Create account
 Log in
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 Talk
 Read
 Edit
 View history
 Search
Go

 Main page
 Contents
 Featured content
 Current events
 Random article
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 Help
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 Community portal
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 Cite this page
Print/export
 Create a book
 Download as PDF
 Printable version
In other projects
 Wikimedia Commons
Languages
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 Български
 Deutsch
 Español
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 हिन्दी
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 Српски / srpski
 Türkçe
17 more
Edit links
 This page was last edited on 23 March 2019, at 13:40 (UTC).
 Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
 Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.

Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]
The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]
Treatment and prevention[edit]
Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
 e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
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Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification
 (unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]
Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]
Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
 17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
  Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
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Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus
 Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
 o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
 28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
Navigation menu
 Not logged in
 Talk
 Contributions
 Create account
 Log in
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 Talk
 Read
 Edit
 View history
 Search
Go

 Main page
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 Featured content
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 Random article
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In other projects
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 Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit
organization.

Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification

(unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]

Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]
The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]
Treatment and prevention[edit]
Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]

Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
 e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
 Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
 Categories:
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Bluetongue disease
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search
"Bluetongue" redirects here. For the lizard, see Blue-tongued lizard.

Bluetongue virus

Electron micrograph of Bluetongue virus,

cale bar = 50 nm

Virus classification
 (unranked): Virus

Realm: Riboviria

(unranked): incertae sedis

Family: Reoviridae

Genus: Orbivirus

Species: Bluetongue virus

Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly sheep and
less frequently cattle,[1] goats, buffalo, deer, dromedaries, and antelope. It is caused by Bluetongue
virus (BTV). The virus is transmitted by the midges Culicoides imicola, Culicoides variipennis, and
other culicoids.

Contents

 1Signs
 2Microbiology
 3Epidemiology
o 3.1Overwintering
 4Treatment and prevention
o 4.1Livestock management and insect control
o 4.2Vaccines
 5History
 6Related diseases
 7References
 8External links

Signs[edit]
Infected sheep

A domestic yak infected with Bluetongue virus. Tongue is swollen, cyanotic, and protruding from the mouth.

In sheep, BTV causes an acute disease with high morbidity and mortality. BTV also infects goats,
cattle and other domestic animals as well as wild ruminants (for example, blesbuck, white-tailed
deer, elk, and pronghorn antelope).[2]
Major signs are high fever, excessive salivation, swelling of the face and tongue and cyanosis of the
tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign
is confined to a minority of the animals. Nasal signs may be prominent, with nasal discharge
and stertorous respiration.
Some animals also develop foot lesions, beginning with coronitis, with consequent lameness. In
sheep, this can lead to knee-walking. In cattle, constant changing of position of the feet gives
bluetongue the nickname The Dancing Disease.[3] Torsion of the neck (opisthotonos or torticollis) is
observed in severely affected animals.
Not all animals develop signs, but all those that do lose condition rapidly, and the sickest die within a
week. For affected animals which do not die, recovery is very slow, lasting several months.
The incubation period is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within a month. The mortality
rate is normally low, but it is high in susceptible breeds of sheep. In Africa, local breeds of sheep
may have no mortality, but in imported breeds it may be up to 90 percent.[4]
In cattle, goats and wild ruminants infection is usually asymptomatic despite high virus levels in
blood. Red deer are an exception, and in them the disease may be as acute as in sheep.[5]

Microbiology[edit]
Bluetongue is caused by the pathogenic virus, Bluetongue virus (BTV),[2] of the genus Orbivirus, of
the Reoviridae family. Twenty-six serotypes are now recognised for this virus.[6]
The virus particle consists of ten strands of double-stranded RNA surrounded by two protein shells.
Unlike other arboviruses, BTV lacks a lipid envelope. The particle has a diameter of 86 nm.[7] The
structure of the 70 nm core was determined in 1998 and was at the time the largest atomic structure
to be solved.[8]
The two outer capsid proteins, VP2 and VP5, mediate attachment and penetration of BTV into the
target cell. The virus makes initial contact with the cell with VP2, triggering receptor-mediated
endocytosis of the virus. The low pH within the endosome then triggers BTV's membrane
penetration protein VP5 to undergo a conformational change that disrupts the endosomal
membrane.[7] Uncoating yields a transcriptionally active 470S core particle which is composed of two
major proteins VP7 and VP3, and the three minor proteins VP1, VP4 and VP6 in addition to the
dsRNA genome. There is no evidence that any trace of the outer capsid remains associated with
these cores, as has been described for reovirus. The cores may be further uncoated to form 390S
subcore particles that lack VP7, also in contrast to reovirus. Subviral particles are probably akin to
cores derived in vitro from virions by physical or proteolytic treatments that remove the outer capsid
and causes activation of the BTV transcriptase. In addition to the seven structural proteins, three
non-structural (NS) proteins, NS1, NS2, NS3 (and a related NS3A) are synthesised in BTV-infected
cells. Of these, NS3/NS3A is involved in the egress of the progeny virus. The two remaining non-
structural proteins, NS1 and NS2, are produced at high levels in the cytoplasm and are believed to
be involved in virus replication, assembly and morphogenesis.[2]

Epidemiology[edit]

The molecular epidemiology of Bluetongue virus in Europe since 1998: routes of introduction of different
serotypes and individual virus strains

Bluetongue has been observed in Australia, the US, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Europe. An
outline of the transmission cycle of BTV is illustrated in article Parasitic flies of domestic animals.
Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected Mediterranean countries, subsiding when temperatures
drop and hard frosts kill the adult midge vectors.[9] Viral survival and vector longevity is seen during
milder winters.[10] A significant contribution to the northward spread of bluetongue disease has been
the ability of C. obsoletus and C.pulicaris to acquire and transmit the pathogen, both of which are
spread widely throughout Europe. This is in contrast to the original C.imicola vector, which is limited
to North Africa and the Mediterranean. The relatively recent novel vector has facilitated a far more
rapid spread than the simple expansion of habitats north through global warming.[citation needed]
In August 2006, cases of bluetongue were found in the Netherlands, then Belgium, Germany, and
Luxembourg.[11][12] In 2007, the first case of bluetongue in the Czech Republic was detected in one
bull near Cheb at the Czech-German border.[13] In September 2007, the UK reported its first ever
suspected case of the disease, in a Highland cow on a rare-breeds farm near Ipswich,
Suffolk.[14] Since then, the virus has spread from cattle to sheep in Britain.[15] By October 2007,
bluetongue had become a serious threat in Scandinavia and Switzerland[16] and the first outbreak in
Denmark was reported.[17] In autumn 2008, several cases were reported in the southern Swedish
provinces of Småland, Halland, and Skåne,[18] as well as in areas of the Netherlands bordering
Germany, prompting veterinary authorities in Germany to intensify controls.[19] Norway had its first
finding in February 2009, when cows at two farms in Vest-Agder in the south of Norway showed an
immune response to bluetongue.[20] Norway have since been declared free of the disease in 2011.
Although the disease is not a threat to humans, the most vulnerable common domestic ruminants in
the UK are cattle, goats, and especially, sheep.
Overwintering[edit]
A puzzling aspect of BTV is its survival between midge seasons in temperate regions. Adults
of Culicoides are killed by cold winter temperatures, and BTV infections typically do not last for more
than 60 days, which is not long enough for BTV to last until the next spring. It is believed that the
virus somehow survives in overwintering midges or animals. Multiple mechanisms have been
proposed. A few adult Culicoides midges infected with BTV may survive the mild winters of the
temperate zone. Some midges may even move indoors to avoid the cold temperature of the winter.
Additionally, BTV could cause a chronic or latent infection in some animals, providing another means
for BTV to survive the winter. BTV can also be transmitted from mother to fetus. The outcome is
abortion or stillbirth if fetal infection occurs early in gestation and survival if infection occurs late.
However infection at an intermediate stage, before the fetal immune system is fully developed, may
result in a chronic infection that lingers until the first months after birth of the lamb. Midges then
spread the pathogen from the calves to other animals, starting a new season of infection.[21]

Treatment and prevention[edit]

Prevention is effected via quarantine, inoculation with live modified virus vaccine and control of the
midge vector, including inspection of aircraft.
Livestock management and insect control[edit]
However, simple husbandry changes and practical midge control measures may help break the
livestock infection cycle. Housing livestock during times of maximum midge activity (from dusk to
dawn) may lead to significantly reduced biting rates. Similarly, protecting livestock shelters with fine
mesh netting or coarser material impregnated with insecticide will reduce contact with the midges.
The Culicoides midges that carry the virus usually breed on animal dung and moist soils, either bare
or covered in short grass. Identifying breeding grounds and breaking the breeding cycle will
significantly reduce the local midge population. Turning off taps, mending leaks and filling in or
draining damp areas will also help dry up breeding sites.[22] Control by trapping midges and removing
their breeding grounds may reduce vector numbers. Dung heaps or slurry pits should be covered or
removed, and their perimeters (where most larvae are found) regularly scraped.[23]
Vaccines[edit]
Outbreaks in southern Europe have been caused by serotypes 2 and 4, and vaccines are available
against these serotypes (ATCvet codes: QI04AA02 (WHO) for sheep, QI02AA08 (WHO) for cattle).
However, the disease found in northern Europe (including the UK) in 2006 and 2007 has been
caused by serotype 8. Vaccine companies Fort Dodge Animal Health (Wyeth), Merial and Intervet
were developing vaccines against serotype 8 (Fort Dodge Animal Health has serotype 4 for sheep,
serotype 1 for sheep and cattle and serotype 8 for sheep and cattle) and the associated production
facilities. A vaccine for this is now available in the UK, produced by Intervet. Fort Dodge Animal
Health has their vaccines available for multiple European Countries (vaccination will start in 2008 in
Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, Spain and Italy). However, immunization with any of the available
vaccines preclude later serological monitoring of affected cattle populations, a problem which could
be resolved using next-generation subunit vaccines currently in development.[24]
In January 2015, Indian researchers launched its vaccine. Named 'Raksha Blu', it will protect the
animals against five strains of the ‘bluetongue’ virus prevalent in the country.[25]

History[edit]
Although bluetongue disease was already recognized in South Africa in the early 19th century, a
comprehensive description of the disease was not published until the first decade of the 20th
century.[26] In 1906 Arnold Theiler showed that bluetongue was caused by a filterable agent. He also
created the first bluetongue vaccine, which was developed from an attenuated BTV strain.[27] For
many decades bluetongue was thought to be confined to Africa. The first confirmed outbreak outside
of Africa occurred in Cyprus in 1943.[26]
Related diseases[edit]
African horse sickness is related to bluetongue and is spread by the same midges
(Culicoides species). It can kill the horses it infects and mortality may go as high as 90% of the
infected horses during an epidemic.[28]
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus is closely related and crossreacts with Bluetongue virus on
many blood tests.

References[edit]
1. ^ "Q&A: Bluetongue disease". BBC. 2008-09-17. Retrieved 2010-01-
01.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c Roy P (2008). "Molecular Dissection of Bluetongue
Virus". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press.
pp. 305–354. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6.
3. ^ McGrath, Matt (29 September 2007). "'Dancing' disease set for long
run". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-10-24.
4. ^ Handbook of Animal Diseases in the Tropics, 1976. ISBN 0-901028-
10-X
5. ^ Jensen, R. and Swift, B.L. Diseases of Sheep, Lea and Febiger,
Philadelphia, 1982. ISBN 0-8121-0836-1
6. ^ Maan S, Maan NS, Nomikou K, Veronesi E, Bachanek-Bankowska
K, Belaganahalli MN, Attoui H, Mertens PP (2011). "Complete genome
characterisation of a novel 26th bluetongue virus serotype from
Kuwait". PLOS ONE. 6 (10):
e26147. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...626147M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.00
26147.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b Roy P (2008). "Functional mapping of bluetongue
virus proteins and their interactions with host proteins during virus
replication". Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 50 (3): 143–
57. doi:10.1007/s12013-008-9009-4. PMID 18299997.
8. ^ Rossmann MG, Tao Y (March 1999). "Courageous science:
structural studies of bluetongue virus core". Structure. 7 (3): R43–
6. doi:10.1016/s0969-2126(99)80031-8. PMID 10368304.
9. ^ Purse, Bethan V.; Mellor, Philip S.; Rogers, David J.; Samuel, Alan
R.; Mertens, Peter P. C.; Baylis, Matthew (February 2005). "Climate
change and the recent emergence of bluetongue in Europe". Nature
Reviews Microbiology. 3 (2): 171–
181. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1090. PMID 15685226.
10. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (51)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
11. ^ "Blue Tongue confirmed in Belgium and Germany" (Press
release). European Commission. 2006-08-21. Retrieved 2006-08-21.
12. ^ "Lethal horse disease knocking on Europe's door" (Press release).
Horsetalk.co.nz. 2007-03-28. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
13. ^ "Bluetongue dobývá Evropskou unii". Agroweb. 2008-02-19.
Archived from the original on 2009-03-06. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
14. ^ "Bluetongue disease detected in UK". BBC News Online. 2007-09-
22. Retrieved 2007-09-22.
15. ^ Gray, Richard (2007-10-14). "Bluetongue spreads from cattle to
sheep". London: Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-15.
16. ^ "Bluetongue – Europe (50)". International Society for Infectious
Diseases. 2007-10-30. Archived from the original on December 26,
2007. Retrieved 2007-10-31.
 17. ^ "Bluetongue outbreak detected in Denmark – EU", Reuters, 13
October 2007.
18. ^ "Blue tongue outbreak spreads south". Thelocal.se. 2008-09-24.
Retrieved 2008-09-24.
19. ^ "Blauzungenkrankheit in Niederlanden wieder
ausgebrochen". Westdeutscher Rundfunk. 2008-09-26.
Retrieved 2008-09-27.[permanent dead link]
20. ^ Veterinærinstituttet informs about the outbreak in Vest-
AgderArchived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, Norway National
Veterinary Institute, 20 February 2009.
21. ^ Wilson A, Darpel K, Mellor PS (August 2008). "Where does
bluetongue virus sleep in the winter?". PLoS Biology. 6 (8):
e210. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060210. PMC 2525685. PMID 187523
50.
22. ^ Gairdner, Julie. "Bluetongue (blue tongue) outbreak in the UK –
FWi's special report" Archived 2007-10-12 at the Wayback
Machine, Farmers Weekly, 24 September 2007. Offers practical
advice for preventing Bluetongue in livestock.
23. ^ Abel, Charles. "Bluetongue vaccine BTV8 questions
answered"Archived 2008-06-11 at the Wayback Machine, Farmers
Weekly, 2 April 2008.
24. ^ Anderson J, Hägglund S, Bréard E, Comtet L, Lövgren Bengtsson K,
Pringle J, Zientara S, Valarcher JF (2013). "Evaluation of the
immunogenicity of an experimental DIVA subunit vaccine against
Bluetongue virus serotype 8 in cattle". Clinical and Vaccine
Immunology. 20 (8): 1115–22. doi:10.1128/CVI.00229-
13. PMC 3754508. PMID 23720365.
25. ^ Staff Reporter (2015-01-08). "Vaccine for bluetongue disease
launched". The Hindu.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b Mertens, Peter (2009). Bluetongue (Biology of Animal
Infections) (1 ed.). Academic Press. pp. 7–21. ISBN 978-0123693686.
27. ^ Maclachlan NJ (November 2011). "Bluetongue: history, global
epidemiology, and pathogenesis". Preventive Veterinary
Medicine. 102 (2): 107–
11. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.04.005. PMID 21570141.
28. ^ African Horse Sickness – Clinical Findings and Lesions, The Merck
Veterinary Manual.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Bluetongue
disease.

 Introduction to disease in The Merck Veterinary Manual

 Current status of Bluetongue worldwide at World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE). WAHID Interface - OIE World Animal Health
Information Database
 Disease card
 UK government page from Defra
 Bluetongue page on warmwell.com
 Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) Animal Disease
Information
  Bluetongue disease fact sheet
 Biosecurity training video
 Farm-level biosecurity practices
 Takamatsu, H; Mellor, PS; Mertens, PP; Kirkham, PA; Burroughs,
JN; Parkhouse, RM (January 2003). "A possible overwintering
mechanism for bluetongue virus in the absence of the insect
vector". The Journal of General Virology. 84 (Pt 1): 227–
35. doi:10.1099/vir.0.18705-0. PMID 12533719.
 News and announcements on the Bluetongue outbreak in the
UK, Farmers Guardian
Categories:
 Insect-borne diseases
 Sheep and goat diseases
 Bovine diseases
 Animal virology
Navigation menu
 Not logged in
 Talk
 Contributions
 Create account
 Log in
 Article
 Talk
 Read
 Edit
 View history
Search
Go

 Main page
 Contents
 Featured content
 Current events
 Random article
 Donate to Wikipedia
 Wikipedia store
Interaction
 Help
 About Wikipedia
 Community portal
 Recent changes
 Contact page
Tools
 What links here
 Related changes
 Upload file
 Special pages
 Permanent link
 Page information
 Wikidata item
 Cite this page
Print/export
 Create a book
 Download as PDF
 Printable version
In other projects
 Wikimedia Commons
Languages
 ‫العربية‬
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