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Regional Security Organizations

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REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 2

Regional Security Organizations

Literature Review

Introduction

In recent years, national and international terrorism has continuously evolved and has

affected almost every single country in the world. Terrorism plans, goals and contemporary

methods are systemized and have a broad target audience across borders. Modern technology,

improved infrastructure, and substantial financial assets have replaced the old strategies of

terrorism with new ones. It is due to these factors that the cause and effects of terrorism have

become an important topic of research which aims to determine how the terrorism can be countered

since it has it has become an issue of concern to the international security. With the rising cases of

terrorism in many nations, the has also been the growing need to overcome this threat hence

countries have opted to pull together and instead of fighting this menace individually, governments

are adopting to regional architecture.

The regional security architecture is meant to bring together the different security

organizations in different countries to reason together and develop stronger ways and strategies to

fight against terrorist activities in the region. Regional integration is vital in the fight against

terrorism in that it helps in the formation of a super-national organization that is comprehensive

and systematic in the coordinating, implementing, monitoring and evaluating regional security

projects and programs. The regional organization ensures there is continuity of good spirit of the

integration by searching for solutions and fighting international acts of terrorism through

incorporating different international and regional actors, securitizing African Union and

identifying the main challenges in the fight against terrorism.

REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 3

Roles of Various Actors in Regional Cooperation

In a study performed by Kimunguyi concerning the Terrorism and Counter terrorism in

East Africa, he discusses on the roles of both the international and regional actors in promoting

regional security especially in Eastern Africa. Kimunguyi`s study discusses the international actors

such as the United Nations, The European Union, the United States and the regional actors that

include the Intergovernmental Authority on Development and the African Union in countering

terrorism in Eastern Africa1. The study by Kimunguyi shows that these bodies have the expertise

and knowledge of regional issues hence they are able to develop approaches that take into account

the contextual and cultural aspects. The bodies are also able to undertake regional specific

initiatives that supplement and build global counterterrorism goals to increase a sense of regional

ownership of global projects through providing funds to sustain the military operations. The study

by Kimunguyi also pushes these regional actors to consider the funding in regional security

organizations and ensure adequate financing before joining such initiatives so that their missions

are not derailed due to lack of resources.

The international and regional actors also foster interest and maintain momentum on the

ground to implement counterterrorism activities. In ensuring regional security and cooperation,

these bodies also oversee the exchange of expertise and intelligence information among the non-

1
Kimunguyi, Patrick. "Terrorism and counterterrorism in East Africa." Global Terrorism Research Centre, Monash
University, Australia (2011).
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 4

governmental and governmental experts2. They also share good national practices and important

lessons from the national implementation on regional countries. The study by supplements

Kimunguyi`s research by addressing on the roles played by the regional organizations. The study

looks at the role of the United Nation in ensuring counterterrorism in different regions. The UN

acts a supplier of Regional Security Governance (RSG) by providing professional training,

capabilities, political and normative backup to the regional organizations to ensure activeness in

managing regional cooperation especially through peacekeeping.

The action of maintaining peace in a region especially fighting of terrorism is a

responsibility of the military. However, regional organizations do not have their own military

implying that they depend on the member states to provide for them. Every member state of a

regional organization plays a significant role in military provision. According to Ploch3, regional

challenges posed by terrorism, insurgencies, and state collapse are responded to by military

security cooperation programs. According to Ploch’s research on counterterrorism programs4,

other regional coalitions may intervene to assist a particular region to fight against crime acts. For

instance, the United States assists Eastern Africa in responding to threats posed by terrorists. The

military presence of the United States is centered in Djibouti. Its area of responsibility includes

Kenya, Somalia, Eritrea, Sudan, Djibouti, and Ethiopia. The US task force posted in Eastern Africa

2
Kimunguyi, Patrick. "Terrorism and counterterrorism in East Africa." Global Terrorism Research Centre, Monash

University, Australia (2011).

3
Ploch, Lauren. "Countering terrorism in East Africa: the US response." Congressional Research Service 41473
(2010).

4
Ploch, Lauren. "Countering terrorism in East Africa: the US response." Congressional Research Service 41473
(2010).
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 5

helps in formulating crime fighting plans and sustaining its participation in combined

undertakings. The US thus assists the AU and the UN with the peace keeping operations across

the Eastern Africa region.

According to Sobhan, the civil society plays an important role in regional securitization by

the fact that it helps in building confidence among the member states. In identifying the role played

by the civil society, Sobhan identifies that many years of confrontation and mistrust have divided

the south Asia region making it to be susceptible to terrorism activities and instability. According

to Sobhan “The role played by the Civil Society in confidence building, as a prerequisite to security

cooperation in countering terrorism, is of critical importance.”5 In curbing regional terrorism, the

civil society organizations build intergovernmental confidence that makes the member states

engage each other in ways that develop measures to fight the vice as a region. Fighting regional

terrorism requires mitigation of socio-economic objectives that are often exploited by terrorists in

their recruitment activities. “Confidence building measures undertaken by the civil society,

emphasizing on human security, should be an imperative component of any contemporary national

or regional counter‐ terrorism strategy.” The civil society organization can counter terrorism by

providing a strong foundation to build security cooperation in regional organizations. The Civil

society organizations have the capacity in working on initiatives that call for peaceful and inclusive

societies, and mitigate conditions that favor the spread of violent extremism.

5
Sobhan, Farooq. 2012. Exploring the Role Of Civil Society In Promoting Regional Security Cooperation.

Ebook. http://bei-bd.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/whc50c59ea041b27.pdf.
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 6

In regards to the past studies, nations should ensure that their goals and influence rhyme

with those of the regional organization in the fight against terrorism. Individual countries should

embrace the international and regional bodies. Individual countries also have an obligation to join

and fight the threat of terrorism across borders as much as they battle the menace within their

borders. A country participating in a regional security organization not only does it gain a positive

reputation within its geographic location but also uses the different actors such as the civil societies

and international organizations to push forward its agendas by offering more incentives to the

terrorist forces.

Securitizing Terrorism by the African Union

According to Masabo et al., regional security organizations form an essential bridge

between national states efforts and international efforts which are led by the United Nations. The

regional organizations are built on existing bilateral settlements to develop regional issues based

on countering terrorism6. The study by Masabo looks into Africa where the African Union (AU)

has been formed to oversee security issues in the whole of the African continent. According to the

authors, regional integration can be defined to mean “the process whereby political actors in

several distinct national settings are persuaded to shift their loyalties, expectations and political

activities toward a new center, whose institutions possess or demand jurisdiction over pre-existing

national states.”7 The African Union is responsible for inducing the individual member states to

6
Masabo, Conrad J., Marobe Wama, and Tekla P. Mlyansi. "Peace and Conflict Monitor, The Role of Regional
Integration in Fighting Crime and Terrorism: The Case of the African Union�s (AU�s) Initiatives, 1999-
2014." Peace and Conflict Monitor | University for Peace. Last modified September 18, 2014.
http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article=1066
7
Masabo, Conrad J., Marobe Wama, and Tekla P. Mlyansi. "Peace and Conflict Monitor, The Role of Regional
Integration in Fighting Crime and Terrorism: The Case of the African Union�s (AU�s) Initiatives, 1999-
2014." Peace and Conflict Monitor | University for Peace. Last modified September 18, 2014.
http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article=1066
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 7

sign and ratify its established declarations and protocol that call for efforts to fight and prevent

terrorism in the continent. This study confirms that AU requires its member states to review their

national laws and establish criminal offenses for terrorist activities and punish those found

engaging in this practice. The AU also works closely with its member states in identifying.

Detecting, confiscating and freezing any assets or funds used in committing terrorist activities. The

AU also uses such funds in compensating victims of terrorist activities. The AU on its

securitization role should serve a more significant role in creating sub-regional bodies in the Africa

region meant to handle different roles in fighting the terrorist activities. The organization should

also develop adequate human capacity to enhance the interstate relations which creates trust among

the different countries which can then come together and fight the vice jointly.

The African Union (AU) has been at the forefront of fighting terrorism in Africa. Since

1999, the organization has had a legal structure to combat terrorism. However, it was in 2010 when

the policy was implemented significantly after the Assembly underscored the "need for renewed

efforts and increased mobilization to combat the scourge of terrorism."8 In 2013, AU appointed an

experts' panel that would propose and evaluate the efficiency of the African Standby Force.

However, the committee failed due to "the unpredictability of pledges made by member states."

The member states of AU signed the “Declaration on the Code of Conduct for Inter-African

Relations” that condemned all kinds of terrorism. The declaration also enhanced cooperation in

combatting terrorism. "The Convention on the Prevention and Combatting of Terrorism" was

implemented in December 2002 and it enhances cooperation between member states in fighting

terrorism. The convention recognizes the rise in terrorism threat and the connection between the

8
Europafrica.net. AU Appoints Special Representative in charge of Counter-Terrorism Cooperation,
2010.[Online]Available at: http://europafrica.net/2010/10/08/au-appoints-special-representative-in-charge-of-
counter-terrorism-cooperation/.
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 8

illegal arm's trade, terrorism, drug trafficking, and transnational organized crime 9. Measures in

police and border control have been laid down to enhance the implementation of the obligations

of The AU's convention. The measures of the assembly also include practical judicial and

legislative proposals that counter-terrorist funding and security challenges. An African Centre for

Study and Research on Terrorism was formed in 2004 to improve the process of information

centralization, research on terrorism, and development of capacity building programs.

In 2010, an AU Special Representative for Counter-Terrorism Cooperation was appointed.

The representative duty is to necessitate on-the-ground assistance to member nations. The

representative also has the task of mobilizing countries to fight terrorism, assess the security state

of the member states and collaborate with national authorities to address the most pressing security

concerns. The African Model Law on Terrorism formulated and validated in 2011 further assists

the member nations in executing legal provisions on counter-terrorism10. The Constitutive Act

states on article 4 that the AU is obligated to intervene using military action in a state in the

occurrence of a state incapability or reluctance to safeguard its people when there is a massive

violation of human rights. Therefore, article 4 of the Constitutive Act addresses the issues which

are at times associated with terrorism and discusses the responsibility of AU to protect the member

states11.

Ewi & Aning research on the role African Union fighting terrorism establishes that this

regional organization catalyzes empowering nations to meet their obligations under an

9
Strydom, H.The African Union Lacks a Coherent Plan to Fight Terrorism, 2015.[Online]Available at:
http://theconversation.com/the-african-union-lacks-a-coherent-plan-to-fight-terrorism-41394.
10
Strydom, H.The African Union Lacks a Coherent Plan to Fight Terrorism, 2015.[Online]Available at:
http://theconversation.com/the-african-union-lacks-a-coherent-plan-to-fight-terrorism-41394.
11
Strydom, H.The African Union Lacks a Coherent Plan to Fight Terrorism, 2015.[Online]Available at:
http://theconversation.com/the-african-union-lacks-a-coherent-plan-to-fight-terrorism-41394.
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 9

international and continental counter-terrorism instrument. The organization sets up norms and

standards meant for the fight against terrorism in Africa as well as creating the link between the

continent and the international community. The African Union (AU) is also responsible for

coordinating and harmonizing the activities of individual member states and promoting interstate

cooperation in the area of countering terrorism. In countering terrorism movements, The AU has

also established the ACSRT which provides a technical ability to implement its regimes. This

regional organization also creates the committee for intelligence and security in Africa (CISSA)

which is responsible for coordinating intelligence activities of the member countries to enhance

information sharing across all levels12. The AU should link the African the continent to the

international world in the fight against terrorism. According to Martin & Aning “The AU should

seek to establish a continental warrant to facilitate the tracking, investigation and arrest and

detention of persons suspected of terrorist acts”13

Challenges

Research conducted by Fulgence indicates that terrorism poses a threat to both the national

and regional economies; hence there develops the need to establish regional security integration.

Developing such organizations will play a significant role in fighting terrorist movements and

create a unique way for Africa to develop. Fulgence`s study indicates that the strength in terrorist

movements such as the Al-Qaida in Africa threatens investment opportunities and hence there is

need to establish regional security organization to develop strong regional security organization to

12
Ewi, Martin, and Kwesi Aning. "Assessing the role of the African Union in preventing and combating
terrorism in Africa." African Security Studies 15, no. 3 (2006): 32-46.
13
Ewi, Martin, and Kwesi Aning. "Assessing the role of the African Union in preventing and combating
terrorism in Africa." African Security Studies 15, no. 3 (2006): 32-46.
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 10

help in fighting the problem. The Boko Haram in northern Nigeria and the Al-Shabaab in Eastern

Africa make the fight to be communal since it is felt in the entire region. According to Fulgence.

Individual states may not be able to face terrorism atrocity; hence they need regional integration

and the aid from the United Nations to fight the menace in real action. This study identifies some

of the challenges in developing regional security organizations14.

The fight against terrorism ends up failing in most regional integration organization due to

political instability in the individual member states. The civil wars and unrests in a nation promote

and empower acts of terrorism. Each country must protect its citizens first before being concerned

about regional problems which may not concern the state directly15. According to the author,

regional integration makes it hard when it comes to sharing of profits, resources and the

distribution among the regional countries. The countries that are needed to form a regional

integration end up in competition; hence they end up failing to echo the directives and agreements

made at the regional level.

Lack of uniformity in implementing security projects caused by the absence of control

makes regional integration a hard task. These challenges and differences among member states

affect regional security organizations by the fact that most policies only remain theoretical with no

implementation thus fail to fight terrorism. States that the AU in its efforts to fight terrorism

encounters challenges that make it unable to reach the set objectives. The AU faces a shortage in

terms of resources which in this case are the financial and human resources and thence depends on

14
Fulgence, Niyonkuru. "War on terrorism in Africa: a challenge for regional integration and
cooperation organizations in eastern and western Africa." Journal of Political Sciences & Public
Affairs (2015).
15
Fulgence, Niyonkuru. "War on terrorism in Africa: a challenge for regional integration and
cooperation organizations in eastern and western Africa." Journal of Political Sciences & Public
Affairs (2015).
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 11

member states which makes it easy for many terrorists’ plans to go unchecked. The member states

of AU are also reluctant to establish new national laws meant to counter terrorism16.

According to Kelly17, three variables complicate regional security. One of those variables

is openness. Pesky great powers have proved that they can penetrate regions from above. Intrusion

from above is quite common and overexploited due to regional autonomy. Beside openness is

proximity. Kelly18 argues that new regionalists often lack adequate interaction in their newfound

regions. The security literature of the new territory can be written off by theorists due to issues of

scholasticism. New regions are thus unreliably operational.

Weak states pushbacks are successful but amending of regional security theories in such

states is difficult. The weakness of states makes support for integration inaccurate. Majority of the

weak states turn their security dilemma inwards which attributes to their complicated state in

regional security.

The action of regional civil societies in eradicating society is efficien However, various

factors hinder their functionality. For instance, political space may act against the work of civil

society. Regional organizations, especially in third world countries may lack adequate funds and

the expertise to engage in counterterrorism issues. Howell & Lind 19 state that civil organizations

lack the freedom of engagement due to inadequate political space and restrictive measures.

16
Masabo, Conrad J., Marobe Wama, and Tekla P. Mlyansi. "Peace and Conflict Monitor, The Role of Regional
Integration in Fighting Crime and Terrorism: The Case of the African Union�s (AU�s) Initiatives, 1999-
2014." Peace and Conflict Monitor | University for Peace. Last modified September 18, 2014.
http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article=1066
17
Kelly, Robert E. "Security Theory in the “New Regionalism” 1." International Studies Review 9, no. 2 (2007):
197-229.
18
Kelly, Robert E. "Security Theory in the “New Regionalism” 1." International Studies Review 9, no. 2 (2007):
197-229.
19
Howell, Jude, and Jeremy Lind. Civil society under strain: Counter-terrorism policy, civil society and aid post-
9/11. Kumarian Press, 2009.
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 12

Typically, the functionality of any civil society depends on the standards of freedom of association,

funding, and freedom of information among other liberties, which are provided by the state.

Most regional organizations depend on aid and funding for security purposes from the

member states. The current focus on countering terrorism call for more funding. The approach of

funding these societies may crash with the need for mitigating poverty amongst the member states.

States are more likely to solve their poverty issues instead of channeling funds to regional

organizations. This means that the regional organizations suffers inadequate funds which limit

their functionality.

Conclusion

The new regional security literature is comprehensive and incomparable to any other

literature. Regional security has proved to be of importance especially in the formation of regional

security organizations that help combat terrorism across different regions. Various theories have

been put across reviewing the formation of regional security organizations. Walt, Buzan, Waever,

Sheehan, and Kelly among other regional theorists contend that regional security is enhanced when

countries in a region come together to fight against a common threat. Currently, regional security

has been decentralized from being only Europe centered but a global movement. Decentralization

of regional security has contributed to the formation of the likes of African Union to tackle threats

especially terrorism across Africa. The member states of AU contribute financially to assist the

organization run anti-terrorism activities. The cooperation between the member states of the

organization has ensured the success of the organization through financing and provision of

military personnel during times of need. Although regional security has been a success, it still faces

challenges that limit its efficiency. Some of these challenges include political instability, lack of

uniformity, and openness to attacks especially through the air, inadequate funds, and poverty of
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 13

the member states among other challenges. Despite the challenges that they face, regional security

organizations achieve a level of fighting crime that is fulfilling. Regional theory is thus the future

of regional security and through its focus on order rather than war explanation, it may assist the

regional security organizations increase their efficiency.

REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 14

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Ewi, Martin, and Kwesi Aning. "Assessing the role of the African Union in preventing and

combating terrorism in Africa." African Security Studies 15, no. 3 (2006): 32-46.

Fulgence, Niyonkuru. "War on terrorism in Africa: a challenge for regional integration and

cooperation organizations in eastern and western Africa." Journal of Political Sciences &

Public Affairs (2015).

Howell, Jude, and Jeremy Lind. Civil society under strain: Counter-terrorism policy, civil

society and aid post-9/11. Kumarian Press, 2009.

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Role of Regional Integration in Fighting Crime and Terrorism: The Case of the African
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 15

Union�s (AU�s) Initiatives, 1999-2014." Peace and Conflict Monitor |

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Strydom, H.The African Union Lacks a Coherent Plan to Fight Terrorism,

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coherent-plan-to-fight-terrorism-41394.