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Regional Security Organizations

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REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 2

Regional Security Organizations

Literature Review

Introduction

In recent years, national and international terrorism has continuously evolved and has

affected almost every single country in the world. Terrorism plans, goals and contemporary

methods are systemized and have a broad target audience across borders. Modern technology,

improved infrastructure, and substantial financial assets have replaced the old strategies of

terrorism with new ones. It is due to these factors that the cause and effects of terrorism have

become an important topic of research which aims to determine how the terrorism can be countered

since it has it has become an issue of concern to the international security. With the rising cases of

terrorism in many nations, the has also been the growing need to overcome this threat hence

countries have opted to pull together and instead of fighting this menace individually, governments

are adopting to regional architecture.

The regional security architecture is meant to bring together the different security

organizations in different countries to reason together and develop stronger ways and strategies to

fight against terrorist activities in the region. Regional integration is vital in the fight against

terrorism in that it helps in the formation of a super-national organization that is comprehensive

and systematic in the coordinating, implementing, monitoring and evaluating regional security

projects and programs. The regional organization ensures there is continuity of good spirit of the

integration while at the same time searching for solutions and fighting international acts of

terrorism.
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 3

Securitizing Terrorism

Intellectual activities around regional security can be traced back to the late 19th century.

The studies on regional security have contributed to the dynamic nature of the term region. During

the cold war, regional security was determined by the position a state took in the strategy of either

the United States or that of the Soviet Union. Currently, regional security is determined by the

relevance of geographic boundaries. The study by Buzan & Waever supports relevance of

geographical boundaries by contending that security issues do not cover long distances fairly

which results in threats occurring in many regions. The Regional Security Complex Theory thus

argues that the buffer states may at times isolate region leading to security threats, for example,

Afghanistan's location in the South Asia and Middle East1.

The rise in the prominence of regional security resulting from the interaction between states

has led to official international organizations that have different complexity, strength, and scope.

Scholars studying regional security focus on three primary questions which are: "Is the Euro

Atlantic form of security governance transferrable to other regions of the world? What is the nature

of the interaction between the regional and international systems of order? What variables

contribute to regional (in) stability and (dis)order?"2. The scholarship status on regionalism is

somewhat developed. Scholars have come up with generalizations that explain the state of both

global and regional securities.

Scholars have expounded on the response of regional terrorism for the past few decades.

Various theories have been formulated to counter check terrorism. In his approach "Balance of

1
Buzan, Barry, Barry G. Buzan, Ole Waever, Ole W'ver, Ole Waever Barry Buzan, and Ole Waever. Regions and
powers: the structure of international security. Vol. 91. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
2
Kirchner, Emil J., and James Sperling, eds. National security cultures: patterns of global governance.
Routledge, 2010.
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 4

Threats"3, Stephen Walt argues that the behavior of the alliance of states is determined by the threat

they discern from other countries. Therefore, states typically ally to balance upon identifying a

threat. Weaker states have a likelihood of following the threat to protect their boundaries. For

instance, during World War II, nations with great power allied against the main recognized threat,

Germany. Upon identifying a threat, states evaluate the source of the threat using four criteria

which are strength, geographic position, offensive intentions, and offensive capabilities. On the

strength criteria, evaluation focuses on the size, population, and the economic level of the

threatening organization while on the geographic proximity it focuses on the actual location and

accessibility of the threat. When a state possesses much of the four criteria, the allies are more

likely to consider such a state as a threat and work on balancing against it.

According to Puerta, a regional security organization should participate in many security

and peacekeeping activities as possible to make regional security concerns in the region be seen

as the domain of the regional organization.4 Nations, in making decisions to join regional security

organizations should consider whether the goals and influence of such security organizations

match with the national security interests. In this case, the national security concerns should be

more powerful and be more motivating than the regional interests in making decisions on whether

to participate in fighting terrorism and peacekeeping activities due to matters relating to regional

bias. According to Puerta in explaining regional bias, “closer the zone of conflict is to the donor

nation’s borders (especially if the zone of conflict is a neighbor), the more of a direct effect it has

3
Walt, Stephen M. "Alliance formation and the balance of world power." International security 9, no. 4 (1985):
3-43.
4
Puerta, Gene. "Regional Security Organizations: Factors behind Peacekeeping Participation." (2010).
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 5

on that nation’s interests.” Puerta suggests that anti-terrorism activities are likely to happen more

often due to the impact they have on making democratic governments5.

Puerta also suggests that a security operation is likely to be successful after a low-intensity

war whereby the mission is provided with adequate funds. Moreover, he indicates that a regional

security mission is most likely to be successful if it takes place in a nation that well developed. A

nation wishing to intervene in a regional security operation in another country should develop

interventions that can challenge the terrorists to stop their activities. Additionally, the theory of

"Balance of Power" supports the study by Puerta by outlining a response to a threat. "Balance of

Power" is an international relations theory that emphasizes that the state's security is improved by

the distribution of military capability to other countries ensuring that no single state is strong

enough to dominate the other states6. In the occurrence of a stronger nation than the others, the

theory states that such a state will take advantage of its strength to attack its weaker neighbors.

Therefore, an equilibrium of power between the rival coalitions is required to maintain a stable

security state. The study by Puerta and the theory of Balance of power affirms that is necessary for

a nation to consider national interests first before joining a regional security organization and also

consider the genocide occurrences and refugees movement7.

In regards to the past studies, I would agree with the fact that nations should ensure that

their goals and influence rhyme with those of the regional organization in the fight against

terrorism. Individual countries should feel they have an obligation to join to fight the threat of

terrorism across borders as much as they battle the menace within their borders. I would also agree

to the study by Puerta that countries need to consider the funding in regional security organizations

5
Puerta, Gene. "Regional Security Organizations: Factors behind Peacekeeping Participation." (2010).
6
Sheehan, Michael. The Balance of Power: History & Theory. Routledge, 2004.
7
Puerta, Gene. "Regional Security Organizations: Factors behind Peacekeeping Participation." (2010).
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 6

and ensure adequate financing before joining such initiatives so that their missions are not derailed

due to lack of resources8. A country participating in a regional security organization not only does

it gain a positive reputation within its geographic location but also uses its army achievements to

push forward its agendas by offering more incentives to the terrorist forces. In the understanding

of the factors behind participation, a regional security organization can more requests for armies,

which allows the individual member states to feel included in something that can be used to further

regional aspirations.

Regionalist is the current trend of security that has arisen in the response of the worldwide

transformation. Kelly9 notes that regionalism has renewed for the past 15 years. According to

Kelly, international relations ties itself around regional level autonomy analysis of the state and

the world. He, therefore, confirms the porosity of regional subsystems, the nature of local

dynamics being overlaid by interventions (a majority of the states threaten their neighbors thereby

making significant diverse dynamics in the regions), and that weak states generate an internal

safety quandary that overcomes the peripheral one. Regional and national security are subjects to

complications. In Security Theory in the "New Regionalism"10, Kelly outlines three variables that

lead to regional and national security complications. The three variables are openness, proximity,

and weak states. The region safety system consists of many partakers that are less Eurocentric. The

third world states especially those from the African continent also have a more significant

autonomy and involvement in the regional security system through the formation of the African

8
Puerta, Gene. "Regional Security Organizations: Factors Behind Peacekeeping Participation." (2010).
9
Kelly, Robert E. "Security Theory in the “New Regionalism” 1." International Studies Review 9, no. 2 (2007):
197-229.
10
Kelly, Robert E. "Security Theory in the “New Regionalism” 1." International Studies Review 9, no. 2 (2007):
197-229.
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 7

Union (AU). Formation of such a body has led to the shift of conflicts' locus from the global level

to a smaller geographical area.

Roles of Various Actors in Regional Cooperation

Regional cooperation benefits countries as they work towards finding an equitable way of sharing

their burdens and benefits. During the initial stages of regionalism, countries may be reluctant to

cooperate because of political tensions, high coordination costs, or national pride. Formation of

regional cooperations proves to be difficult as there is absence of courts which makes enforcement

of rights ambiguous at the regional level. It is therefore necessary that regional agreements be self-

enforcing in a way that reduces feasible cooperation solutions.

Challenges

Research conducted by Fulgence indicates that terrorism poses a threat to both the national

and regional economies; hence there develops the need to establish regional security integration.

Developing such organizations will play a significant role in fighting terrorist movements and

create a unique way for Africa to develop. Fulgence`s study indicates that the strength in terrorist

movements such as the Al-Qaida in Africa threatens investment opportunities and hence there is

need to establish regional security organization to develop strong regional security organization to

help in fighting the problem. The Boko Haram in northern Nigeria and the Al-Shabaab in Eastern

Africa make the fight to be communal since it is felt in the entire region. According to Fulgence.

Individual states may not be able to face terrorism atrocity; hence they need regional integration
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 8

and the aid from the United Nations to fight the menace in real action. This study identifies some

of the challenges in developing regional security organizations11.

The fight against terrorism ends up failing in most regional integration organization due to

political instability in the individual member states. The civil wars and unrests in a nation promote

and empower acts of terrorism. Each country must protect its citizens first before being concerned

about regional problems which may not concern the state directly12. According to the author,

regional integration makes it hard when it comes to sharing of profits, resources and the

distribution among the regional countries. The countries that are needed to form a regional

integration end up in competition; hence they end up failing to echo the directives and agreements

made at the regional level.

Lack of uniformity in implementing security projects caused by the absence of control

makes regional integration a hard task. These challenges and differences among member states

affect regional security organizations by the fact that most policies only remain theoretical with no

implementation thus fail to fight terrorism. States that the AU in its efforts to fight terrorism

encounters challenges that make it unable to reach the set objectives. The AU faces a shortage in

terms of resources which in this case are the financial and human resources and thence depends on

member states which makes it easy for many terrorists’ plans to go unchecked. The member states

of AU are also reluctant to establish new national laws meant to counter terrorism13.

11
Fulgence, Niyonkuru. "War on terrorism in Africa: a challenge for regional integration and
cooperation organizations in eastern and western Africa." Journal of Political Sciences & Public
Affairs (2015).
12
Fulgence, Niyonkuru. "War on terrorism in Africa: a challenge for regional integration and
cooperation organizations in eastern and western Africa." Journal of Political Sciences & Public
Affairs (2015).
13
Masabo, Conrad J., Marobe Wama, and Tekla P. Mlyansi. "Peace and Conflict Monitor, The Role of Regional
Integration in Fighting Crime and Terrorism: The Case of the African Union�s (AU�s) Initiatives, 1999-
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 9

According to Kelly14, three variables complicate regional security. One of those variables

is openness. Pesky great powers have proved that they can penetrate regions from above. Intrusion

from above is quite common and overexploited due to regional autonomy. Beside openness is

proximity. Kelly15 argues that new regionalists often lack adequate interaction in their newfound

regions. The security literature of the new territory can be written off by theorists due to issues of

scholasticism. New regions are thus unreliably operational.

Weak states pushbacks are successful but amending of regional security theories in such

states is difficult. The weakness of states makes support for integration inaccurate. Majority of the

weak states turn their security dilemma inwards which attributes to their complicated state in

regional security.

The action of regional civil societies in eradicating society is beneficent. However, various

factors hinder their functionality. For instance, political space may act against the work of civil

society. Civil societies, especially in third world countries may lack adequate funds and the

expertise to engage in counterterrorism issues. Howell & Lind16 state that civil organizations lack

the freedom of engagement due to inadequate political space and restrictive measures. Typically,

the functionality of any civil society depends on the standards of freedom of association, funding,

and freedom of information among other liberties, which are provided by the state.

2014." Peace and Conflict Monitor | University for Peace. Last modified September 18, 2014.
http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article=1066
14
Kelly, Robert E. "Security Theory in the “New Regionalism” 1." International Studies Review 9, no. 2 (2007):
197-229.
15
Kelly, Robert E. "Security Theory in the “New Regionalism” 1." International Studies Review 9, no. 2 (2007):
197-229.
16
Howell, Jude, and Jeremy Lind. Civil society under strain: Counter-terrorism policy, civil society and aid post-
9/11. Kumarian Press, 2009.
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 10

Most regional societies depend on aid and funding for security purposes from the member

states. The current focus on countering terrorism call for more funding. The approach of funding

these societies may crash with the need for mitigating poverty amongst the member states.

Therefore, civil organizations may create ice between the regional security and development

within the individual member countries especially the less developed member states17. When a

substantive amount of financial support is channeled to military institutions and operations, the

community may be at risk of poverty or hunger. In situations where the security institutions receive

foreign assistance, the police forces may be unaccountable and highly repressive. For example, in

Pakistan the police forces are unaccountable18. Therefore, aid provided to civil societies' security

organs may overlook the needs of marginalized communities.

Conclusion

The new regional security literature is comprehensive and incomparable to any other

literature. Regional security has proved to be of importance especially in the formation of regional

security organizations that help combat terrorism across different regions. Various theories have

been put across reviewing the formation of regional security organizations. Walt, Buzan, Waever,

Sheehan, and Kelly among other regional theorists contend that regional security is enhanced when

countries in a region come together to fight against a common threat. Currently, regional security

has been decentralized from being only Europe centered but a global movement. Decentralization

of regional security has contributed to the formation of the likes of African Union to tackle threats

especially terrorism across Africa. The member states of AU contribute financially to assist the

17
Howell, Jude, and Jeremy Lind. Civil society under strain: Counter-terrorism policy, civil society and aid post-
9/11. Kumarian Press, 2009.
18
Howell, Jude, and Jeremy Lind. Civil society under strain: Counter-terrorism policy, civil society and aid post-
9/11. Kumarian Press, 2009.
REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 11

organization run anti-terrorism activities. The cooperation between the member states of the

organization has ensured the success of the organization through financing and provision of

military personnel during times of need. Although regional security has been a success, it still faces

challenges that limit its efficiency. Some of these challenges include political instability, lack of

uniformity, and openness to attacks especially through the air, inadequate funds, and poverty of

the member states among other challenges. Despite the challenges that they face, regional security

organizations achieve a level of fighting crime that is fulfilling. Regional theory is thus the future

of regional security and through its focus on order rather than war explanation, it may assist the

regional security organizations increase their efficiency.

REGIONAL SECURITY ORGANIZATIONS 12

Bibliography
Buzan, Barry, Barry G. Buzan, Ole Waever, Ole W'ver, Ole Waever Barry Buzan, and Ole
Waever. Regions and powers: the structure of international security. Vol. 91. Cambridge
University Press, 2003.
Europafrica.net. AU Appoints Special Representative in charge of Counter-Terrorism
Cooperation, 2010.[Online]Available at: http://europafrica.net/2010/10/08/au-appoints-
special-representative-in-charge-of-counter-terrorism-cooperation/.
Ewi, Martin, and Kwesi Aning. "Assessing the role of the African Union in preventing and
combating terrorism in Africa." African Security Studies 15, no. 3 (2006): 32-46.
Fulgence, Niyonkuru. "War on terrorism in Africa: a challenge for regional integration and
cooperation organizations in eastern and western Africa." Journal of Political Sciences &
Public Affairs (2015).
Howell, Jude, and Jeremy Lind. Civil society under strain: Counter-terrorism policy, civil
society and aid post-9/11. Kumarian Press, 2009.
Kelly, Robert E. "Security Theory in the “New Regionalism” 1." International Studies Review 9,
no. 2 (2007): 197-229.
Kirchner, Emil J., and James Sperling, eds. National security cultures: patterns of global
governance. Routledge, 2010.
Masabo, Conrad J., Marobe Wama, and Tekla P. Mlyansi. "Peace and Conflict Monitor, The
Role of Regional Integration in Fighting Crime and Terrorism: The Case of the African
Union�s (AU�s) Initiatives, 1999-2014." Peace and Conflict Monitor |
University for Peace. Last modified September 18, 2014.
http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article=1066.
Puerta, Gene. "Regional Security Organizations: Factors Behind Peacekeeping Participation."
(2010).
Sheehan, Michael. The Balance of Power: History & Theory. Routledge, 2004.

Strydom, H.The African Union Lacks a Coherent Plan to Fight Terrorism,

2015.[Online]Available at: http://theconversation.com/the-african-union-lacks-a-
coherent-plan-to-fight-terrorism-41394.
Walt, Stephen M. "Alliance formation and the balance of world power." International security 9,
no. 4 (1985): 3-43.