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Atmospheric
pressure Air flow Atmospheric Air flow Coil
P1 pressure P1 P2
Pressure
gauge Fluid Fluid
A B C
1 View A—measurement of static pressure, h. View B—measurement of static pressure, h, within a duct. View C—mea-
surement of static pressure drop, h, across a heating or cooling coil.
content has been arranged as a refresher for seasoned in. WG = 0.036 psi = 69.22 ft of air.
practitioners and also as a bridge from theory to prac- The same fluid statics principle would apply in the
tice for entry-level individuals. use of a manometer to measure an air pressure differ-
Since air is a fluid, the four basic principles of fluid ence across an obstruction to flowing air, such as the
mechanics all have application in the conveying of air coil indicated in Fig. 1C. Here, the pressure drop due
in an effective and energy-conserving manner. These to the energy level reduction of the air as it passes
concepts are fluid statics, conservation of mass, con- through the coil is registered by the deflection of the
servation of energy, and conservation of momentum. column. The pressure drop is always considered posi-
These will be treated separately before their practical tive when the pressure reduces in the direction of air
application to air systems is presented. flow. Notice that no reference to atmospheric pressure
is made in this measurement—only the pressure
Fluid statics change that has occurred through the process.
Unlike the other concepts of fluid mechanics, the Thus, the fluid statics principle provides us with
concept of fluid statics is based on the physics of fluids the universal unit of inches water gauge to predict or
at rest rather than in motion. Though it is unusual in measure pressures or pressure differences in air sys-
HVAC work to consider air that is not in motion, the tems. Whether field readings are made with a U-tube
concept of fluid statics provides the basis for manome- or inclined-tube manometer, whether the fluid is wa-
ters and the resulting set of units necessary to mea- ter or gauge oil (with a lower density to increase de-
sure air pressure. Consider the vessel shown in Fig. flections and make readings more accurate), or even if
1A, filled with fluid as indicated. The fluid statics the gauge does not function on a manometer principle
principle indicates that the pressure read on the pres- at all (as in the case of a Magnehelic gauge), the prin-
sure gauge attached to the vessel would be: ciple of fluid head as established by the fluid statics
P=ρh (1) concept is the basis for all air pressure calculations
and measurements in the HVAC industry.
where
P = pressure, lb per sq ft Conservation of mass
ρ = density of fluid in vessel, lb per cu ft The law of conservation of mass, simply stated, is
h = height of fluid level above pressure gauge, ft that fluid mass flowing in an enclosed duct is con-
The fluid creates a pressure on the gauge in excess served—it is neither created nor destroyed as it
of atmospheric pressure based on the height of the passes through the system. In fluid mechanics, this
fluid column and the density of the fluid in the vessel. concept is described by the continuity equation as dis-
This principle permits the conversion of pressure to played in Fig. 2A. If air is flowing from left to right in
a unit of fluid “head” if the density of the fluid is this duct at a constant flow rate (steady flow), the
known. Based on the density of water at 70 F (62.3 lb mass flow rate would be given by the following equa-
per cu ft), the fluid statics principle indicates a con- tion:
version factor of 1 psi equal to 2.31 ft of water. ˙ = ρ VA = constant
m (2)
Using the same principle, Fig. 1B extends the con-
cept of the measurement of air pressure in a duct us- where
ing the fluid statics equation. Here, an air pressure, m˙ = mass flow rate, lb per min
P1, in excess of atmospheric pressure is exerted on one ρ = air density, lb per cu ft
side of the manometer while the other side is exposed V = air velocity, fpm
to atmospheric pressure. The deflection of the fluid A = duct area, sq ft
column indicates the head difference (and therefore Referring to Fig. 2A, writing the mass flow equation
the pressure difference) between the air pressure at between Stations 1 and 2 would yield the following
the sensed point and atmospheric pressure. This de- equation:
flection for air systems is commonly expressed as ρ1V1 A1 = ρ2V2 A2 (3)
inches water gauge (in. WG) or inches water column If the density were assumed to be constant between
(in. WC) as this represents a convenient unit for the these two stations, then the classical form of the conti-
range of air pressures typically encountered in HVAC nuity equation for air systems would be derived:
work. Since the pressure measured in this case was Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2 (4)
above atmospheric pressure (with the deflected col-
where
umn rising toward the atmosphere), the pressure is
termed positive. If the air pressure at P1 had been be- Q = volumetric flow rate, cfm
low atmospheric pressure, the fluid column would This equation forms the basis for the calculation of
have deflected in the opposite direction, and the pres- accelerating and decelerating flows, which will have
sure would be termed negative. Incidentally, the fluid significant application to all areas of air system tech-
statics equation and the standard density of air (0.075 nology. But before exploring this concept more fully,
lb per cu ft) would yield the following relationship: 1 let’s spend just a moment on the assumption of con-
V1 V2
pressibility of a flowing air stream is correct within an
accuracy limit of approximately ±10 percent for typi-
A1 A2 cal HVAC processes. Since the accuracy is acceptable
A for most measurements that are made in the field, the
assumption is valid. However, when evaluating the
necessity of a safety factor in calculating pressure re-
Reheat
1 coil 2
quirements for the selection of a fan, remember this
margin of error is inherent in the incompressible fluid
V1
mechanics on which most of our calculations are
55 F V2 = 1.073V1 95 F
based.
The real power of the continuity equation comes
from its ability to predict the volumetric flow rate
A1 A2
B based on the duct area and velocity and its ability to
predict duct velocities based on changes in the geome-
try of the duct system. Fig. 2C indicates the use of the
1
continuity equation for a simple process. Air flowing
2 from Station 1 to Station 2 passes through a transi-
tion fitting. Since the area of the duct at Station 2 is
V1 V2 smaller than at Station 1, it is intuitively obvious that
the flow has accelerated between these two stations.
The continuity equation permits the exact calculation
A2
A1 of this effect based on the use of Equation 4:
Transition section V2 = V1 ( A1 / A2 ) (5)
C
Knowing the velocity entering the fitting and the
2 View A—classical form of the continuity equation for air ratio of the flow areas, we can calculate the velocity
systems is Q = V1A1 = V2A2, where Q = volume, V = velocity, leaving the fitting.
and A = area. View B—change in density between 1 and 2
above is –7.3 percent. If A1 = A2, V2 = 1.073V1. Therefore, Conservation of energy
the assumption of incompressibility of a flowing air The law of conservation of energy is based on the
stream is correct within an accuracy limit of ±10 percent principle that energy is neither created nor destroyed
for typical HVAC processes. View C—When duct size as it passes through a system. The steady flow energy
changes, velocity also changes: V2 = V1(A1/A2). equation that is developed from this concept sets up
an accounting format to keep track of all of the energy
stant density that was made to derive Equation 4. forms. It is obtained from the first law of thermody-
The assumption of constant density for a flowing air namics, which considers both mechanical and ther-
stream (or to put it another way, the assumption that mal forms of energy. It states that the amount of heat
the flow can be considered incompressible, as for a wa- added to the air stream as it passes through a system
ter stream) is only an approximation. Even if the duct is equal to the change in energy content of the air
is fully insulated with no temperature change in the stream plus any work done by the air stream. The
air stream, any real duct system will experience pres- steady flow equation written between Stations 1 and
sure losses in the direction of air flow due to frictional 2 in Fig. 2A per pound of air flowing would have the
and dynamic effects. This reduction in air pressure at following form:
a constant temperature will, according to the perfect W1− 2 + (V12 / 2 g) + JU1 + JQ1− 2 + P1v1 + Z1 =
gas law, reduce the density of the air slightly as it
passes down the duct stream flowing with losses. For (V22 / 2 g) + JU2 + P2 v2 + Z2 (6)
a constant area duct with a pressure drop from Sta- where
tion 1 to Station 2 of 10 in. WG, the density of the air at W1− 2 = work done on the air stream between
Station 2 will decrease by 2.4 percent and, based on
Stations 1 and 2 (this value would be
Equation 3, the velocity will increase by 2.4 percent. If
we superimpose on this the effect of temperature, the negative if it represented work done by
deviation becomes more extreme, as indicated in Fig. the air stream), ft - lb per lb of air
2B. flowing or ft
Assume that a duct-mounted reheat coil with a V = air stream velocity, fps
pressure drop of 0.5 in. WG heats an air stream from g = acceleration of gravity, 32.2 fps2
55 to 95 F. Under these conditions, the density of the J = mechanical equivalent of heat,
air at Station 2 will decrease by 7.3 percent and, as- 778.2 ft - lb per Btu
suming A1 = A2, the velocity at Station 2 will increase
U = internal energy, Btu per lb
by 7.3 percent. Therefore, the assumption of incom-
gy, p
Q1− 2 = heat transfer into the system between fan energy source (electric motor, steam turbine, etc.)
Stations 1 and 2 (this value would be to the air stream to provide the motivating energy for
negative if heat were transferred from air movement. It is the only point within an air sys-
tem (except at heating sources) when the air stream
the system), Btu per lb
energy level increases. At all other locations, the net
P = air pressure, lb per sq ft energy level is decreasing. The terms Pv and V2/2g are
v = fluid specific volume, cu ft per lb illustrated in Fig. 3A since their use forms the basis of
Z = elevation of air above a datum plane, ft almost all measurements and analysis work done on
This is an energy statement since each component HVAC air systems. Pv is called flow work but is re-
represents the energy of the air per unit of mass flow- ferred to as static pressure (SP) or static head in air
ing (ft-lb per lb or simply ft). The various energy com- systems. V2/2g is called kinetic energy but is referred
ponents would generally be referred to as follows: to as velocity pressure (VP) or velocity head in air sys-
W = work energy tems. The numerical sum of these two energy compo-
V 2 / 2 g = kinetic energy nents (Pv + V2/2g) is referred to as total pressure (TP)
or total head. All of these components are normally re-
JU = internal energy
ferred to in units of inches water gauge as registered
JQ = heat energy by the manometer arrangements shown in Fig. 3A.
Pv = flow work energy With these two terms now defined, Equation 7 can
Z = potential energy be applied to two common situations that require
Fortunately, when we use this equation for air analysis in typical HVAC duct systems. Fig. 3B shows
systems, several of the terms can usually be elimi- a section of an air duct system containing a supply fan
nated, thus simplifying things a bit. If we assume and a section of supply air ductwork. Equation 7 can
that the air system does not receive or dissipate be rewritten into a similar form to determine the out-
heat, then Q1-2 = 0. If the duct system is horizontal, come of the work performed by the fan:
then Z1 = Z2, and the steady flow energy equation for W1− 2 = [(V22 − V12 ) / 2 g] + ( P2 v2 − P1v1 ) + J (U2 − U1 )
an air system can be restated as follows:
(8)
W1− 2 + (V12 / 2 g) + JU1 + P1v1 = (V22 / 2 g) +
Analysis of this equation indicates that the work
JU2 + P2 v2 (7) applied to the fan wheel creates in the air stream an
Three of the terms of this equation are quite impor- increase in kinetic energy (or velocity pressure), an in-
tant and deserve further discussion. The term W1-2 re- crease in flow work energy (or static pressure), and an
lates to the work done by a fan in moving air through increase in internal energy. Recognizing the thermo-
a system. It refers to the shaft energy imparted by the dynamic property of enthalpy, we can write:
h = ( Pv / J ) + U (9)
Total pressure = Static pressure + Velocity pressure where
TP = SP + VP
h = air enthalpy, Btu per lb
Air flow Impact tube
Substituting into Equation 8 yields the following
TP TP form:
SP SP W1− 2 = [(V22 − V12 ) / 2 g] + [ J (h2 − h1 )] (10)
Since the enthalpy rise for a perfect gas is given by
the following:
∆h1 = C p ∆t (11)
where
∆h = air stream enthalpy change, Btu per lb
Static pressure, Total pressure, Velocity pressure,
C p = specific heat capacity of air at constant
in. WG in. WG VP = TP – SP pressure, Btu per lb - F
A in. WG ∆t = air stream temperature change, F
2 Supply it follows that a large portion of the work put in at
1 duct 3 the fan shows up as a heat rise across the fan. A more
Supply continued on page 72
fan
2
3 View A—illustration of Pv and V /2g. Flow work energy,
Pv, is referred to as static pressure (SP). The kinetic en-
Work (W1-2) ergy term V2/2g is referred to as velocity pressure (VP).
Return View B—addition of a fan to an air duct system increases
duct B the flow work, kinetic energy, and internal energy of the air
stream.
rigorous treatment of this phenomenon1 indicates (or a heating or cooling coil) does the temperature of
that all of the shaft work done by the fan appears as the air stream change.
heat (otherwise known as fan heat rise or simply fan Since the steady flow energy equation should be
heat). Since the term in Equation 8 for the rise in in- valid for flow with or without frictional and dynamic
ternal energy is related to inefficiencies in the fan loss effects, our second and more important recogni-
pressure increase process, the temperature rise for tion from Equation 13 relates to duct air stream en-
standard air can be approximated by the following: ergy levels and the source of the losses. Rearranging
∆tfan = ∆TP / 2.7η f (12) Equation 13 yields the following:
(V22 / 2 g) + P2 v2 = (V32 / 2 g) + P3v3 + J (U3 − U2 ) (15)
where J(U3 – U2) represents fluid friction and turbulence
∆tfan = air temperature rise across fan, F in the form of kinetic energy in eddies transformed
∆TP = total pressure increase across fan, in. WG into thermal energy. This heat addition occurs inter-
η f = fan efficiency, decimal nally in an irreversible process as a result of frictional
Another important concept identified by Equation 8 dissipation of mechanical energy into internal heat in
is that the fan imparts its energy rise to the air stream the gas stream. (This internal heat addition counter-
not only in the form of static pressure increase but acts the reduction in temperature that would have oc-
also in the form of velocity pressure increase. Thus, curred in a reversible polytropic gas process con-
the total pressure rise across the fan is the only truly ducted in a reversible manner for this reduction in
meaningful method of assessing fan performance and pressure.1) Stated in words, Equation 15 reveals that
power required.2 Our industry’s fondness with static the static pressure plus the velocity pressure at Sta-
pressure and ratings based on fan static pressure can- tion 2 are equal to the static pressure plus the velocity
not negate the principles of fluid mechanics on which pressure at Station 3 plus the pressure loss that has
Equation 8 is based. occurred between these two stations. Using the rela-
Referring again to Fig. 3B, consider a second appli- tionship that the total pressure is equal to the static
cation of Equation 7 as it relates to duct system losses. pressure plus the velocity pressure, the following
If we consider the run of ductwork between Stations 2 equation is derived:
and 3, our experience tells us that for any real duct TP2 = TP3 + (TPloss ) 2 − 3 (16)
system, a pressure drop will occur in the direction of Three very important observations are apparent
air flow between these two points. As we will discuss from this equation:
in a later section, these losses are generally character- ● In any duct section without a fan, the total pres-
ized as frictional losses, which relate to fluid viscosity sure is constantly dropping in the direction of air flow.
and the roughness of the confining duct walls, or to Such a statement cannot necessarily be made with re-
dynamic losses, which relate to duct stream turbu- spect to static pressure or velocity pressure.
lence or obstructions to straight-ahead flow. For the ● The measure of the energy level in an air stream
purpose of the current discussion, though, we will re- at any point is uniquely given by the total pressure
fer to these effects collectively as losses to see what in- only. Reference to static pressures or velocity pres-
sight the steady flow energy equation can yield into sures alone in this regard can be quite misleading.
this phenomenon. If no work is done on the system (no ● The losses in duct systems occurring due to fric-
fan is in this section of ductwork) and no heat is added tional and dynamic effects must, based on the equa-
to or dissipated from the air system, Equation 7 re- tion, be losses in total pressure. Any other evaluation
duces to the following: of losses must be qualified by assumptions regarding
(V22 / 2 g) + P2 v2 + JU2 = (V32 / 2 g) + P3v3 + JU3 (13) the duct system geometry (such as that the area of the
Substituting Equation 9 would yield the following: duct does not change).
(V22 / 2 g) + Jh2 = (V32 / 2 g) + Jh3 (14)
Our first realization from the equation then relates Conservation of momentum
to temperature conditions as the pressure is progres- Newton’s first law of motion states that a body will
sively lost. It can be shown1 that the processes gener- maintain its state of rest or uniform motion (at con-
ating duct losses approximate a classical throttling stant velocity) along a straight line unless compelled
process wherein the enthalpy remains constant. Re- by some unbalanced force to change that state. The
ferring to Equation 11 and recognizing that in an momentum of a body, given by the product of its mass
equal area duct the velocity would not change be- and its velocity, will thus tend to be conserved. Mo-
tween Stations 2 and 3 (except for the slight varia- mentum is a vector quantity whose direction is that of
tions in air density described in the section on the con- its velocity so that a change of direction must be
tinuity equation), one can see that the temperature of caused by an unbalanced force. Conservation of mo-
the air stream does not change as the air passes mentum concepts in fluid mechanics are usually used
through pressure drops. Only at the location of a fan to calculate the dynamic forces exerted by moving flu-
ids on fixed obstructions to the flow path. Though this
1
Superscript numerals indicate references at end of article. is not a concern in most HVAC applications, the law of
Pitot-static tube
Air
flow
Duct wall
air systems. Consider the duct section shown in Fig.
Eight 0.04-in. holes 6. Air flow is from left to right, moving from Station
90 deg from air flow 1 to 2 in a duct that is assumed, for the purpose of
circling outer tube this illustration, to be without losses. It therefore fol-
lows that if there are no losses, the total pressure
TP SP (TP) relating to the overall air stream energy level
VP would be unchanged between these two stations.
This is indicated by the plot of total pressure shown
below the duct section, with pressures given as posi-
tive values with respect to surrounding air pressure
Manometer (Pa). At Station 1, which represents a relatively high-
velocity duct section, the total pressure TP1 is com-
5 The pitot-static tube (a modified pitot tube) is almost posed of static pressure SP1 and velocity pressure
universally used in the field to determine the total, static, VP1. Since the flow area at Station 1 is smaller than
and velocity pressures of a fluid stream. When VP is that at Station 2, the continuity equation (Equation
known, the fluid velocity can be calculated. 4) indicates that the velocity at Station 2 must de-
crease. Based on Equation 21, this dictates that the
air flowing or simply head in terms of ft of air. Setting velocity pressure VP 2 must decrease compared to
the kinetic energy term equal to the velocity pressure VP 1. However, assuming no losses occur between
head and with appropriate conversions for ft of air to these two stations, the energy equation (Equation
inches water gauge, one can derive the following 13) dictates that the static pressure at Station 2
equation: must increase. Notice, referring again to Fig. 6, that
VP = (V / 1096) 2 ρ a (20) a tradeoff has occurred between static pressure and
velocity pressure based on straightforward applica-
where tion of basic fluid mechanics concepts and the geom-
VP = velocity pressure, in. WG etry of the system with no actual losses occurring.
V = air velocity, fpm The phenomenon depicted here is called static
ρ a = density of air, lb per cu ft pressure regain, and it is a very important principle
For standard air (sea level pressure, 75 F, and a re- of air system design. A similar principle explains the
sulting density of 0.075 lb per cu ft), the equation re-
duces to:
VP = (V / 4005) 2 (21) Transition section Pa 2
This is one of the simplest yet most powerful equa- 1
tions in all of air system technology since it permits Air flow
the measurement of flow quantities in operating
ductwork and therefore permits the field balancing A1, V1
A2, V2
of air systems. Without this principle, flow tests in
operating air systems would be much more difficult.
Fig. 3A indicated a field test arrangement to mea- VP2
VP1
sure velocity pressure utilizing the properties of to- TP1,2 Positive
tal, static, and velocity pressures. In the early 1700s, SP2 pressures
a French physicist named Henri Pitot invented a de- SP1
vice to simplify measurements of this type through a Pa
single duct insertion point. This device, shown in TP1 = TP2 = SP1 + VP1 = SP2 + VP2
(Datum pressure)
Fig. 5, is known today as a pitot-static tube and is
used almost universally for field velocity measure- 6 Interchangeability of static and velocity pressures in air
ment of duct air flow. Devices of very similar config- systems. Graph below the duct shows the change in VP
uration are utilized in flow hoods to measure the air and SP as the fluid flows from the smaller duct through the
delivered to rooms through diffusers. Measurement transition section and into the larger duct.
of the velocity pressure permits the direct calcula-
tion of the duct velocity, using Equation 20, if the air basis of operation of a centrifugal fan. One of the
density is known. Use of the continuity equation main purposes of a fan is not only to move air but to
(Equation 4) then permits the determination of the increase the pressure of the air to overcome losses in
air flowing in the duct or out the flow hood if the flow the remainder of the system. As air passes through
area is known. the fan, kinetic energy is imparted to the air stream
Another concept relating fluid statics, the continu- and the velocity of the air is increased. As the air
ity equation, and the energy equation relates to the passes at high velocity from the relatively small
interchangeability of static and velocity pressures in blade passages to the connecting ductwork, the ve-
D X
πD2
ity, air quantity, and round duct size. It should be 7 Comparison of 4 Area x2
noted that many of the duct sizing programs and a round and Wetted
square duct on πD 4x
manual duct sizing slide rules relating flow, duct perimeter
the basis of the D Hydraulic radius, x
size, and frictional loss per unit length in use today hydraulic radius, 4 Rh 4
are based on research done prior to 1950.4 This re- Rh. The round
search was done on a limited number of duct sizes With equal flow areas
duct is the more
and was based on duct materials and joining tech- πD2 = x2 D = 1.13x
efficient means of 4
niques that are quite different from those used com- conveying air.
mercially today. Data based on this research ap-
peared in copies of the ASHRAE Handbook of fore, the hydraulic radius of the round duct (D/4) is
Fundamentals up to and including 1985. New re- larger than the hydraulic radius of the square duct
search, completed in 1987,5 conclusively showed that (X/4) if their flow areas are equal. The result is that
the frictional losses then in use were conservative, with the same flow velocity and the same flow area
particularly in smaller ductwork at higher veloci- for each duct, the round duct has a larger hydraulic
ties. Table 1 is a comparison of friction loss per unit radius and therefore a lower pressure drop. On the
length based on results from the 1985 ASHRAE basis of this relationship, the round duct is the more
Handbook of Fundamentals utilizing the earlier efficient means of conveying air between two points.
data versus the 1993 edition of the same volume uti- The equivalent square duct with the same pressure
lizing the results of the most recent friction loss test- drop per unit length will have a larger flow area with
ing.5 a lower mean velocity than the round duct. As the
Conversion equations also appear in the ASHRAE aspect ratio of the rectangular duct increases, the
Handbook of Fundamentals for the determination of mean velocity must be reduced even further to pro-
equivalent rectangular and flat oval ducts from the vide an equal pressure drop per unit length, making
round ductwork described in Equation 22. This in- high aspect ratio ducts more expensive to construct
formation is fairly straightforward and will not be and more prone to temperature losses or gains due to
discussed here. However, the basis of this conversion their higher perimeter.
can reveal insight into the efficiency of various duct The second type of duct system loss, dynamic loss,
shapes at conveying air. It has been determined that results from flow disturbances and turbulence
ductwork flowing air at the same mean velocity will caused by changes in flow direction, flow area, or ob-
have the same frictional pressure crop per unit structions to the path of the air flow. These losses,
length if the ducts have the same ratio of cross-sec- which are now considered the predominant losses in
tional area to wetted perimeter. This function is most air duct systems, occur due to the effects of the
called the hydraulic radius and is designated as Rh. law of conservation of momentum and a related pro-
Fig. 7 shows a comparison of round ductwork versus cess termed flow separation. Fig. 8A shows an elbow
square ductwork on the basis of this parameter. No- in a typical rectangular duct system. As indicated in
tice that with equal flow areas, the round duct diam- the figure, as the air flow passes the heel of the el-
eter D is larger than the square duct side X. There- bow, the air has no intention of making the 90 deg
Branch duct
Separation Entry
point Separation duct
point
Co = 1.0
Co = 1.2
14 to 24 deg
angle of spread
Elbow A Elbow B C
8 View A—loss coefficient, Co, relates to the number of velocity heads in a given fitting configuration or flow geometry.
Note how the momentum effect bunches the air flow pattern toward the bottom of the duct in the elbow. The slight de-
crease in pressure at the top of the bend causes turbulence, resulting in a total pressure loss downstream. View B—flow
pattern shown in View A has a serious effect on performance when a branch duct is placed too close to the elbow. Uni-
form duct flow has not yet recovered, and flow streamlines oppose entry into the branch duct. View C—lack of properly
designed transition from a duct supplying a filter section causes uneven flow through filters (heavy in the center and
lighter at the outer filters), resulting in uneven filter loading.
The local loss coefficient, Co, is cataloged in the ∆ht = constant × (cfm) 2 (26)
ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals3 and relates or
to the number of velocity heads lost in a given fitting
configuration or flow geometry. The interesting ∆ht ~ (cfm) 2 (27)
thing about dynamic losses is that the momentum This equation is the basis of the system curve. It
effects that contribute to these losses can cause far represents a plot of the pressures required to move
more damage than the simple pressure drop they air through the duct system analyzed at various flow
create. Note how the air flow pattern is bunched to- rates. This parabolic relationship, shown as System
ward the bottom of the duct in Fig. 8A. This situation
is not a problem unless the branch duct of Fig. 8B is 9 System curves
added. Now the situation becomes very serious since are the basis for
the flow streamlines oppose entry into the branch air system analy-
System curve B
duct shown. Such configurations can be found in nu- sis. Curve A
merous existing duct systems, and the poor perfor- illustrates flow
mance of these branch ducts in terms of inadequate through a duct
air flow is always the result. A similar situation can ∆P alone. Curve B
be seen in Fig. 8C. Here, the pressure loss sustained System curve A shows the effects
from the free exit into the plenum is only part of the ∆ht ~ (cfm)2 of overall system
pressure drop,
concern. The inability of the air stream to fill the including ducts,
plenum due to the momentum effects described ear- cfm coils, and filters.
lier causes the succeeding filter section to load un-
evenly. Little air will flow across the outer filters,
and the increased flow across the center filters will Curve A in Fig. 9, has become the basis of system
increase their expected pressure drop if the entire analysis for air systems.
plenum was provided with a uniform entering air Deviations from Equation 27 occur only where ele-
flow velocity. Failure to recognize such momentum ments of the duct system, such as coils or filters, may
effects increases dynamic losses and contributes to exhibit near laminar flow characteristics, as dis-
the types of problems shown here. By visualizing cussed earlier. In this case, the pressure drop char-
momentum effects during the design of a duct sys- acteristics for these components should be sepa-
tem, a designer can improve air separation geome- rately evaluated using the following equation:
tries, thus reducing the local loss coefficient (Co) for
the fittings used, reducing pressure drops, and ∆hc, f = constant × (cfm) N (28)
avoiding the types of problems shown in Figs. 8B where
and 8C. ∆hc, f = total pressure drop through coil or filter,
Based on these discussions, the total pressure
in. WG
drop in a duct system would then be equal to the sum
of the frictional and dynamic losses. The following N = flow exponent (based on the mix of
equation can be derived by combining Equations 22 turbulent and laminar flow characteristics
and 23: unique to that component)
To determine the flow exponent N for a given coil
∆ht = ∆hf + ∆hd or filter, obtain two pressure drops, ∆h 1 and ∆h 1,
= f ( L / D)(V / 4005) 2 + Co (V / 4005) 2 (24) from the manufacturer’s rating information at two
different flow rates, Q1 and Q2. The following equa-
tion can then be used to evaluate the exponent: ics of conveying air. The other aspects of the basics of
air systems related to heat transfer, psychrometrics,
N = Log(∆h1 / ∆h2 ) / Log(Q1 / Q2 ) (29)
fans, and air distribution effects on human physiol-
Flow exponents for typical coils range from 1.46 to ogy are equally rich in theoretical background and
1.81 and for typical filters from 1.01 to 1.79.6 System deserve separate treatment. V
Curve B in Fig. 9 shows the effects of such compo-
nents on the overall system pressure drop character-
istics, including ductwork, coils, and filters. This References
type of curve would be derived by adding the system 1) Williams, Gerald J., “Fan Heat: Its Source and Signif-
curve characteristics of the ductwork and fittings as icance,” Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning, January 1989.
given by Equation 26 to the component system curve 2) Graham, J. Barrie, “The Importance of Fan Total
characteristics of the coils and filters as given by Pressure,” Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning, September
Equation 28. This combined curve would represent 1994.
the true pressure required to move air through an 3) 1993 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, Chapter
actual system composed not only of ductwork and fit- 32, “Duct Design.”
tings but also of heating coils, cooling coils, and fil-
4) Wright, D. K., “A New Friction Chart for Round
ters. Air volume and system pressure drop are the
Ducts,” ASHVE Transactions, Volume 51, 1945.
same for both Curve A and B. The deviations created
by the latter components may become important 5) Griggs, E. I., W. B. Swim, and G. H. Henderson, “Re-
when performance changes are required in existing sistance to Flow of Round Galvanized Ducts,” ASHRAE
systems.6 Transactions, 1987.
6) Coad, W. J., J. B. Graham, and G. J. Williams, Air
Conclusion Systems Design and Retrofit for Energy/Cost Effective-
This article has discussed only a few highlights of ness, Chapter 3, ASHRAE Professional Development Sem-
the basics of air systems related to the fluid mechan- inar textbook, 1982.