WHAT IS SEISMOLOGY

Seismology is the study of stress and changes in stress within the Earth, particularly
earthquakes caused by slip and rupture along faults and by volcanic activity. The field is
also concerned with earthquake risks and hazards, as well as the propagation of elastic
waves through the surface of the Earth.

The study of earthquakes and the structure of the earth, by both naturally and artificially
generated seismic waves. An earthquake is defined as the vibration of the Earth’s surface
by sound or shock waves usually generated by the energy released from rocks rupturing
under stress or by friction between moving rock materials at or mostly below Earth’s
surface. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves.

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 EARTHQUAKE AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES AFFECTING ITS CAUSE

An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of
the Earth, resulting from the sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that
creates seismic waves.
Earthquakes can range in size from those that are so weak that they cannot be felt to those
violent enough to toss people around and destroy whole cities. The seismicity, or seismic
activity, of an area is the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced over a period
of time.
Various human activities causing earthquake are:
1. Dams and Reservoirs Some dams are mega structures that hold large quantities
of water. This water is extremely heavy, powerful and contains a massive amount of
potential energy concentrated all in one area. Given the right conditions, the power of
water can induce an earthquake.
2. Hydraulic fracturing (fracking) or injection wells Hydraulic fracturing is a process used
to extract natural gas or other fossil fuels from within the earth. To extract the fossil fuel,
workers drill into the crust and inject chemicals in order to disturb and fracture the ground,
releasing the natural gas, which is then captured for future use. However, this can
cause earthquakes because the chemicals stay underground and make their way to
faults, adding lubrication that may lead to an earthquake
3. Groundwater extraction In many places around the world, water can be found
underground in soil, cracks and pockets below the surface. Groundwater extraction, such
as a well, is common and safe, however, it can be dangerous if extraction is done at a
quicker rate than the underground reservoir can be recharged. In fact, if the water table
drops too quickly near a fault, it could cause an earthquake.
4. Geothermal power plants It is also thought that earthquakes can be caused from
geothermal power plants. Geothermal power plants make electricity by powering a
generator from hot, pressurized water extracted from deep within the crust. When these
plants are near a fault, seismic activity has been seen to increase forming numerous small
earthquakes.
5. Explosions The explosions induce a large amount of vibration which may induce an
earthquake especially along a geologically weakened stratum

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 WRITE SHORT NOTE ON THE FOLLOWING

EARTH’S CRUST

A crust is the outermost layer of a planet. The crust of the Earth is composed of a great
variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks; the crust is underlain by the
mantle. The boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally placed at the
Mohorovicic discontinuity, a boundary defined by a contrast in seismic velocity. Earth’s crust
occupies less than 1% of Earth’s volume. The oceanic crust of the Earth is different from its
continental crust. The oceanic crust is 5 km to 10 km thick and is composed primarily of
basalt, diabase, and gabbro. The continental crust is typically from 30 km to 50 km thick, and
it is mostly composed of less dense rocks than is the oceanic crust. Some of these less dense
rocks, such as granite, are common in the continental crust but rare to absent in the oceanic
crust. The temperature of the crust increases with depth, reaching values typically in the
range from about 500 °C to 1,000 °C at the boundary with the underlying mantle.

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EARTH’S MANTLE

The Earth's mantle is a layer of silicate rock between the crust and the outer core. Its mass
of 4.01 × 1024 kg is 67% the mass of the Earth. It has a thickness of 2,900 kilometres (1,800
mi) making up about 84% of Earth's volume. It is predominantly solid but in geological time
it behaves as a viscous fluid. Partial melting of the mantle at mid-ocean ridges produces
oceanic crust, and partial melting of the mantle at subduction zones produces continental
crust.
Upper Mantle- The upper mantle extends from the crust to a depth of about 410
kilometres (255 miles). The upper mantle is mostly solid, but its more malleable regions
contribute to tectonic activity
Transition Zone- From about 410 kilometres to 660 kilometres beneath Earth’s surface,
rocks undergo radical transformations. This is the mantle’s transition zone. In the transition
zone, rocks do not melt or disintegrate. Instead, their crystalline structure changes in
important ways
Lower Mantle- The lower mantle extends from about 660 kilometres to about 2,700
kilometres beneath Earth’s surface. The lower mantle is hotter and denser than the upper
mantle and transition zone. The lower mantle is much less ductile than the upper
mantle and transition zone. Although heat usually corresponds to softening rocks,
intense pressure keeps the lower mantle solid.

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EARTHS’S CORE

Core is the densest central part of the earth. It is composed of the inner and outer cores.
The inner core, 1221 km in radius, is composed mainly of nickel and iron. Its density is
16,000 kg/m3 and it behaves like a solid mass. The outer core surrounding the inner core is
2259 km thick and is composed of an alloy of nickel, iron, and silica. The outer core exists
as a liquid of density 12,000 kg/m3. The temperature at the core is about 2500°C and the
pressure is about 4 x 106atm.

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VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES

Earthquakes produced by stress changes in solid rock due to the injection or withdrawal of
magma (molten rock) are called volcano-tectonic earthquakes (Cholet, 1993). These
earthquakes can cause land to subside and can produce large ground cracks. These
earthquakes can occur as rock is moving to fill in spaces where magma is no longer present.
Volcano-tectonic earthquakes don't indicate that the volcano will be erupting but can occur
at any time.
The second category of volcanic earthquakes are long period earthquakes which are
produced by the injection of
magma into surrounding
rock. These earthquakes are
a result of pressure changes
during the unsteady
transport of the magma.
When magma injection is
sustained a lot of
earthquakes are produced
(Cholet, 1993). This type of
activity indicates that a
volcano is about to erupt.
Scientists use seismographs
to record the signal from
these earthquakes. This signal is known as volcanic tremor.

People living near an erupting volcano are very aware of volcanic earthquakes. Their houses
will shake and windows rattle from the numerous earthquakes that occur each day before
and during a volcanic eruption. Residents in Pompeii felt earthquakes daily before Vesuvius
erupted in A.D. 79 but continued to go about their daily routines (Francis, 1993). When
Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines erupted in 1991, nerves were rattled as much as
windows by volcanic earthquakes.

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SEISMIC WAVES

Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the
earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded
on seismographs.

Types of Seismic Waves -There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they
all move in different ways. The two main types of waves are body waves- consisting
of P-waves (primary, longitudinal, or compressional waves) and S-waves (secondary,
transverse, or shear waves) and surface waves- consisting of L-waves (love waves) and
Rayleigh waves. Body waves can travel through the earth's inner layers, but surface
waves can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples on water.
Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves.

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SUBDUCTION ZONE

When one plate begins to slip underneath another one a trench is formed. The earthquakes
that result due to the plates grinding against each other often cause magma to spill out
through the trench in submarine volcanoes.
The new magma rises to the surface and erupts, forming a chain of volcanoes around
the edges of the plate boundary areas, known as subduction zones. Subduction zones
are the sites of the most widespread and intense earthquakes. Besides volcanism and
shallow-to-deep focus earthquakes, these boundaries also produce deep trenches, basins,
and folded mountain chains.

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 ELABORATE THE REID’S ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY

The elastic rebound theory, first proposed by M.F. Reid in 1906, attributes the occurrence
of tectonic earthquakes to the gradual accumulation of strain in a given zone and the
subsequent gradual increase in the amount of elastic forces stored. The new-formed
oceanic plates push against the continental plates resulting in continental drift. Where
the plates collide, they may be locked in place, that is, these may be prevented from
moving because of the frictional resistance along the plate boundaries.
This causes building up of stresses along the plate edges until sudden slippage due to elastic
rebound or fracture of the rock occurs, resulting in sudden release of strain energy that
may cause the upper crust of the earth to fracture along a certain direction and form a
fault. This is the origin of an earthquake. The gradual accumulation and subsequent release
of stress and strain is described as elastic rebound
The elastic rebound theory postulates that the source of an earthquake is the
sudden displacement of the ground on both sides of the fault, which is a result of the
rupturing of the crustal rock. The upper parts of the earth’s crust and lithosphere are very
strong and brittle. When this rock is subjected to deformation, it actually bends slightly.
However, it is able to withstand very light stress with only slight bending or strain. The
elastic rebound theory requires the strain to build up rapidly up to the elastic limit of the
rock. Beyond this point, the earth’s crust ruptures due to the formation of a fault and the
bent rock snaps back to regain its original shape, releasing the stored energy in the
form of rebounding and violent vibrations (elastic waves).

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The phenomenon of earthquakes caused by a sudden displacement along the sides of a
fault can be summarized as follows:

Strain that has accumulated in the fault for a long time reaches its maximum limit .

A slip occurs at the fault and causes a rebound .

A push and pull force initiates at the fault .

The situation is equivalent to two pairs of coupled forces acting suddenly.

This action causes radial wave propagation.

The moment of each couple is known as the earthquake moment or seismic moment. The
elastic rebound theory implies that an earthquake relieves the accumulated stresses
along the portion of the fault on which rupture occurs. Further, this segment will not
rupture again until the stresses build up again which, of course, will take its own time.
Therefore, earthquakes can reoccur only after some period of time and that, perhaps,
depends on the amount of energy released in the earthquake.

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 ENLIST MAJOR CONTINENTAL PLATES OF EARTH

There are 12 major tectonic plates, 20 smaller ones, and many filler plates. The major
tectonic plates are

 African

 Eurasian

 Indian

 Australian

 Arabian

 Philippine

 North
American

 South
American

 Pacific

 Nazca

 Coccus

 Antarctic

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 EXPLAIN THE PLATE TECTONIC THEORY AND ITS MECHANISM

Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates that glide
over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like a hard and rigid
shell compared to Earth's mantle. This strong outer layer is called the lithosphere, which is
100 km (60 miles) thick, according to Encyclopaedia Britannica. The lithosphere includes
the crust and outer part of the mantle. Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, which
is malleable or partially malleable, allowing the lithosphere to move around. How it moves
around is an evolving idea.

Note the continental craton (stable continent) in the middle of the drawing. Note the line
under the craton; that is the lower boundary of the plate. Everything above that line is the
plate. All similar lines in the cross section mark the bottom of the plates. Technically,
everything above that line is lithosphere, the rigid, brittle shell of the earth. Everything
below is asthenosphere, the hot, plastic interior of the earth.

Within the asthenosphere are convection cells, slowly turning over hot, plastic rock. The
convection cells bring heat from the earth's interior out to the surface, but slowly.
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Movement is about 10 centimetres a year. When the convection cells reach the base of the
lithosphere, they release heat to the surface at the divergent plate boundary to escape to
space. The cooled plastic rock then turns sideways and moves parallel to the earth's surface
before descending back into the earth at subduction zones to become reheated. It is this
turning over of the convection cells the drives the plate movements.

THE PLATES

Simplistically, the earth consists of the plates, and plate boundaries, those zones where the
plates contact and interact. Observe that 7 different plates are labeled in the cross section.
Plates are combinations of two units, continents and ocean basins. A plate may be an ocean
basin alone, or a continent alone, or a combination of ocean basin+continent (common).

It is possible a plate could be a continent alone, but for this to occur all edges of the
continent would have to be a plate boundary (very rare, perhaps not practically possible).
Note that in the cross section several different ocean basin/continent combinations are
present, but that it is difficult to get a continent with all plate boundaries.

PLATE BOUNDARIES

The three kinds of plate boundaries

are also illustrated in the cross
section, divergent, convergent, and
transform. Plate interact at these
boundaries.
Two divergent margins (plate
boundaries) are present in the cross
section, one labelled as such to the
right of the continental craton, and
the other on the left side. The left side
divergent margin is labelled Back Arc
(Marginal) Basin. Back arc basins are
formed by minor convection cells
above subduction zones. Divergent
plate boundaries always create new
ocean floor (that is, new oceanic
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lithosphere, called the ophiolite suite).
Three convergent boundaries are present, all of them one way or another involving
a subduction zone. In the continent-continent collision the subduction zone is now extinct
but can be seen below the surface. Subduction zones generate lots of igneous magma that
rises to the surface to form volcanic mountains (volcanic arcs; also island arcs). The igneous
batholiths that feed the volcanoes are the beginning of generation of new continental
crust. Continents are created above subduction zones as small proto- and microcontinents.
They enlarge by colliding and fusing together, or suturing onto a larger continent, at a
convergent plate boundary.

At convergent boundaries oceanic lithosphere is always destroyed by descending into a

subduction zone. This is because oceanic rock is heavy, compared to the continents, and
sinks easily. Because oceanic lithosphere is created and destroyed so easily ocean basins
are young; the oldest we have is only about 200 million years old. Continents, on the other
hand, composed of light weight rock never subducts. Thus, continental rock once formed is
more or less permanent; the oldest continental fragment is 3.9 billion years old, virtually as
old as the earth itself.

Only one transform boundary is present, on the left side of the drawing. At transform
boundaries two plates just slide past one another horizontally, and quietly compared to
convergent and divergent plate boundaries. Most of these are found in the ocean basins,
but the San Andreas fault in California and Mexico is an example coming on land.

PLATE COLLISIONS

The essence of plate tectonic theory is that the plates (ocean basins plus or minus
continents) slide around over the earth surface, interacting as they do at the plate
boundaries. Thus, any time there is a divergent plate boundary where two plates are
separating, there must be a convergent plate boundary (subduction zone) where the earth
comes together again. And convergent boundaries always, eventually, lead to collisions
between continents, or continents and terranes (island arcs plus or minus microcontinents).
Observe the subduction zones in the cross section. Next to each one is a remnant ocean
basin (ROB). An ROB is one that is disappearing down a subduction zone; it is a remnant of
its former self. But all subduction zones must eventually disappear completely and when
they do the floating blocks on either side will collide, and create a mountain range. The
continent-continent collision in the cross section is a case where the collision has already
occurred.

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EXPLAIN HOW A SUBDUCTION ZONE FORMS AND WHAT OCCURS
AT SUCH A PLATE BOUNDARY

Subduction is a kind of geological recycling. It occurs at convergent tectonic plate boundaries or

where two tectonic plates come crashing together, in slow motion of course. The denser plate is the one
that slips under the less dense plate; the younger plate is the less dense one. At a convergent
boundary, two plates can come together and rise up into mountains. This is how the impressive
Himalayan Mountain range formed when India crashed into the rest of Asia. Another possibility for a
convergent boundary is subduction. Instead of both plates crumpling upwards to form mountains, one
sinks under the other and is recycled back into the mantle.

In a region in which one of two convergent plates sinks under the other, we call it a subduction
zone. A tectonic plate is made of both crust, or the outer layer of the earth, and a thin upper layer of the
mantle. Together, these two
layers are called lithosphere.
The two tectonic plates and
the lithosphere involved in a
subduction zone may both be
oceanic, or one may be oceanic
and the other continental.When
an oceanic lithosphere meets
a continental lithosphere in a
subduction zone, the oceanic
plate always goes under the continental plate. This is the rule because the rock making up an oceanic
lithosphere is denser than in a continental lithosphere. When two oceanic plates come together, one may
sink under the other.The mantle underneath the lithosphere is hot, fluid rock. When one plate sinks into it
during subduction, it melts into the mantle. Continental plates also converge, but this is not
considered subduction because these plates do not have different densities and thicknesses to subduct.
When one plate begins to slip underneath another one a trench is formed. The earthquakes that result
due to the plates grinding against each other often cause magma to spill out through the trench in
submarine volcanoes. The new magma rises to the surface and erupts, forming a chain of volcanoes
around the edges of the plate boundary areas, known as subduction zones.

Subduction zones are the sites of the most widespread and intense earthquakes. Besides volcanism and
shallow-to-deep focus earthquakes, these boundaries also produce deep trenches, basins, and folded
mountain chains. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, it slides beneath the continental
plate forming a deep oceanic trench.

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 WHAT IS MEANT BY THE FOCUS, EPICENTER, EPICENTRAL
DISTANCE AND FOCAL DEPTH OF AN EARTHQUAKE

FOCUS
The focus of an earthquake is the point where the rocks start to fracture. It is the origin of the
earthquake. The focus is also called the hypocentre of an earthquake. The vibrating waves travel away from
the focus of the earthquake in all directions.

EPICENTER
The epicentre, in seismology is the point on the Earth's surface directly above a hypocentre or focus, the
point where an earthquake or an underground explosion originates. Earthquake waves do not originate at
the epicentre.

EPICENTRAL DISTANCE
The distance from the epicentre to any point of interest is known as the focal distance or epicentral
distance.

FOCAL DEPTH
In seismology, the depth of focus or focal depth refers to the depth at which an earthquake occurs. In other
words, it is the distance between epicentre and focus.

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 DISCUSS SEISMIC WAVES

Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the
earth or an explosion. They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on
seismographs.

There are several different kinds of seismic waves, and they all move in different ways. The
two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can travel through
the earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface of the planet
like ripples on water. Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and surface waves.

BODY WAVES
Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the surface waves
emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.

P WAVES

In P-waves, the material particles oscillate back and forth in the direction of propagation of
the wave and cause alternate compression (push) and tension (rarefaction of
material; pull) of the medium as shown in Fig. These waves cause a momentary volume
change in the material through which they pass without any concomitant momentary
shape change in the material. P-waves are similar to sound waves and obey all the
physical laws of science and acoustics. Since geological materials are stiffer in
volumetric compression, the P-waves are the fastest, followed in sequence by S-
waves, L-waves, and Rayleigh waves. P-waves can pass through solids and fluids.

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 S- WAVES

The material particles in S-waves oscillate at right angles to the direction of propagation of
the wave and cause shearing deformations as they travel through a material. The
direction of particle movement can be used to divide S-waves into two components, SV
(vertical plane movement) and SH (horizontal plane movement). S-waves do not change
the instantaneous volume of the material through which they pass. However, the
instantaneous shape of the material gets distorted. The velocity of S- waves is directly
proportional to the shear strength of the material through which they pass. S-waves do not
travel through liquids as fluids have no shearing stiffness. In association with the effects of
L-waves, S-waves cause maximum damage to structures by rocking the surface in both
horizontal and vertical directions.

SURFACE WAVES
Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower frequency than body waves,
and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result. Though they arrive after body
waves, it is surface waves that are almost enitrely responsible for the damage and
destruction associated with earthquakes. This damage and the strength of the surface
waves are reduced in deeper earthquakes.

LOVE WAVES

The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. It's
the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined to the surface
of the crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.Click here to see a Love wave in
action.

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RAYLEIGH WAVES

The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William Strutt, Lord
Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885. A
Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction
that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh
wave, which can be much larger than the other waves.

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DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN ASTHENOSPHERE AND LITHOSPHERE

The difference between asthenosphere and lithosphere is how the materials in these layers
can flow. Rocks in the lithosphere are "rigid", meaning that they can bend but they cannot
flow. Rocks in the asthenosphere are "plastic", meaning that they can flow in response to
deformation. Even though it can flow, the asthenosphere is still made of solid (not liquid)
rock; you can think of it kind of like Silly Putty. What determines whether rocks act in a rigid
manner (bending or breaking) or a plastic manner (flowing) is temperature. Deep in the
Earth, hot rocks (above about 1300°C) can flow, whereas cold rocks cannot. The lithosphere
is broken up into rigid plates that ride on top of the flowing asthenosphere. In terms of
chemical composition, there is no
difference between the upper part of the
asthenosphere and the lower part of the
lithosphere. In fact, if the upper part of
the asthenosphere cools down it
becomes part of the lithosphere.

In addition to layers with different mechanical properties (lithosphere vs. asthenosphere),

we can talk about layers with different chemical composition. The outer most layer of the
Earth is the crust, which varies in thickness from about 7-70 km. Below that is the mantle,
which of made up of denser rocks than the crust. At a depth of almost 3000 km, you reach
the core, which is made of iron and nickel and is even denser than the mantle. The
lithosphere is made up the crust plus the very upper part of the mantle, whereas the
asthenosphere is only upper mantle material.

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 DISCUSS BRIEFLY THE TWO MEASURES OF AN EARTHQUAKE

Structural engineers are concerned with the effect of earthquake ground motions on
structures, that is, the amount of damage inflicted on the structures. This damage (stress and
deformation) potential depends to a large extent on the size (severity) of the earthquake.

The severity of an earthquake can be assessed in the following two ways, i.e., quantifying its
magnitude in terms of the energy released—measuring the amplitude, frequency, and
location of the seismic waves and evaluating the intensity—considering the destructive effect
of shaking ground on people, structures, and natural features. It is easier to measure the
magnitude because, unlike the intensity, which can vary with location and has no
mathematical backing, the magnitude of a particular earthquake remains constant.

INTENSITY

The size of an earthquake can be described by its intensity, the oldest measure of
earthquake size. The intensity, or destructive power, of an earthquake is an evaluation of the
severity of the ground motion at a given location and is represented by a numerical
index. It is measured in relation to the effect of the earthquake on human life.
Generally, destruction is described in terms of the damage caused to buildings, dams,
bridges, and so on, as reported by witnesses. It is not a unique, precisely defined
characteristic of an earthquake. Intensity is a somewhat subjective (qualitative) measure in
that it is based on direct observation by individuals, rather than on instrumental
measurements. Different observers of the same earthquake may assign different intensity
values to it. Intensity is represented by roman capital numerals. Two intensity scales, the
Modified Mercalli (MM) intensity scale, 1931, and the Medvedev-Spoonheuer-Karnik (MSK-
64) intensity scale, 1964, are generally used.

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MAGNITUDE

The magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy released. It

is a quantitative measure of the actual size or strength of the earthquake and is a much more
precise measure than intensity. Earthquake magnitudes are based on direct
measurements of the size (amplitude) of seismic waves, made with recording
instruments, rather than on subjective observations of the destruction caused. Thetotal
energy released by an earthquake can be calculated from the amplitude of the waves and
the distance from the epicentre. The amount of ground shaking is related to the magnitude
of the earthquake.
Earthquake magnitude is most often reported using the Richter magnitude scale. The
Richter magnitude is based on the energy release of the earthquake, which is closely related
to the length of the fault on which the slippage occurs. A magnitude number is assigned to
an earthquake on the basis of the amount of ground displacement or vibration it produces,
as measured by a seismograph. The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale, meaning that an
earthquake of magnitude 4 (M4) causes 10 times as much ground movement as one of
magnitude 3, 100 times as much as one of magnitude 2, and so on.

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 MSK-64 INTENSITY SCALE HAS AN EDGE OVER MODIFIED
MM INTENSITY SCALE. COMMENT.

Before the development of ground motion recording instruments, earthquakes were

studied by recording the description of shaking intensity. This led to the development of
intensity scales which describe the effects of earthquake motion in qualitative terms. An
intensity scale usually provides ten or twelve grades of intensity starting with most feeble
vibrations and going upto most violent (i.e., total destruction). The most commonly used
intensity scales are: Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale and the Medvedev-
Sponhener-Karnik (MSK) Intensity Scale. Both these scales are quite similar except that the
MSK scale is more specific in its description of the earthquake effects. Medvedev-
Sponheuer-Karnik scale denoted by MSK or MSK-64, is a macro seismic intensity scale which
is used to evaluate the severity of ground shaking on the basis of observed effects in an
area of the earthquake occurrence.The MSK-64 intensity scale is prevalent in India, and
central and eastern Europe. The qualitative nature of MSK-64 scale is apparent from the
description of each intensity level which takes into account the type of structure, grade of
damage to the structure, and the description of characteristic effects . The scale is more
comprehensive than MM intensity scale and describes the intensity of earthquakes
more precisely.

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 ON WHAT IS THE ASSIGNMENT OF AN EARTHQUAKE’S MAGNITUDE
BASED? IS MAGNITUDE THE SAME AS INTENSITY? EXPLAIN.

The magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy released. It is a

quantitative measure of the actual size or strength of the earthquake and is a much more
precise measure than intensity. Earthquake magnitudes are based on direct
measurements of the size (amplitude) of seismic waves, made with recording
instruments, rather than on subjective observations of the destruction caused.

Magnitude is a measure of earthquake size and remains unchanged with distance from the
earthquake. Intensity, however, describes the degree of shaking caused by an earthquake
at a given place and decreases with distance from the earthquake epicentre.

When an earthquake occurs, its magnitude can be given a single numerical value on
the Richter Magnitude Scale. Magnitude scales, like the moment magnitude, measure
the size of the earthquake at its source. An earthquake has one magnitude. The
magnitude do not depend on where the measurement is made. However the intensity is
variable over the area affected by the earthquake, with high intensities near the epicentre
and lower values further away. These are allocated a value depending on the effects of the
shaking according to the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale.

In an example, Magnitude can be likened to the power of radio or television waves sent out
from a broadcasting station. Intensity is how well you receive the signal, which can
depend on your distance from the energy source, the local conditions, and the pathway
the signal has to take to reach you.

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 DEFINE SATURATION. HOW IS MOMENT MAGNITUDE A
BETTER MEASURE OF EARTHQUAKE SIZE THAN OTHER
MAGNITUDES

It is important to note that the ground shaking characteristics do not necessarily increase in
proportion to the amount of energy released during an earthquake. In fact, for strong
earthquakes the ground shaking characteristics become less sensitive to the earthquake
than for small earthquakes. This is referred to as saturation.

Seismic moment is proportional to the area of fault rupture, the average slip on the fault
plane and the rigidity of the crust. Thus it measures the physical size of the event.
The moment magnitude is derived from it empirically as a quantity without unit, and is just
a number to conform to MS scale. While the other magnitudes are derived from a
simple measurement of the amplitude of a specifically defined wave, a spectral
analysis is required to obtain seismic moment. The values for saturation for ML and
mb range between 6 to 7 and that for MS is about 8. All scales, except MW, saturateat a
certain size and are unable to distinguish the sizes of large earthquakes. This means that
they are based on the amplitudes of the waves which have wavelength shorter than
the rupture length of the earthquakes. Since the moment magnitude MW is
independent of saturation, it is the most suitable magnitude scale for describing the
size of very large earthquakes.

The moment magnitude scale was designed to produce a more accurate accounting of the
total energy released by an earthquake, and it calculates the earthquake’s magnitude
more accurately than other measures—such as the Richter scale (ML), the body-wave scale
(mb), and the surface-wave scale (MS). The moment magnitude scale considers the fault’s
geometry (the angle and other qualities of the plane that characterize the fault that
ruptures during an earthquake) and the earthquake’s seismic moment (that is, the
displacement of the fault across its entire surface multiplied by the force used to move
the fault). Seismographs are also used to provide the data used to calculate the
earthquake’s seismic moment. Instead of relying only on the peak amplitude of the largest
incoming seismic wave (as in the Richter scale), measurements taken from seismographs at
different locations are used to describe seismic waves emanating from the earthquake’s
focus (the point within Earth where an earthquake begins) in multiple directions, and the
data collected by these seismographs can be used to determine the fault’s geometry.

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 DESCRIBE BRIEFLY THE DIRECT AND INDIRECT EFFECTS
OF AN EARTHQUAKE.

Direct effects cause damages directly and include ground motion and faulting. Indirect
effects cause damages indirectly, as a result of the processes set in motion by an
earthquake.

DIRECT EFFECTS

Seismic waves, especially

surface waves, through
surface rock layers and
regolith result in ground
motion. Such motion can
damage and, sometimes,
completely destroy buildings.
If a structure, such as a building or a road, straddles a fault, then the ground displacement
that occurs during an earthquake will seriously damage or rip apart that structure.
In regions consisting of hills and steep slopes, earthquake vibration may cause
landslides and mudslides and cliffs to collapse, which can damage buildings and lead to loss
of life.
Soil vibration can either shake a building off its foundation, modify its supports, or
cause its foundation to disintegrate.
Ground shaking may compound the problem in areas with very wet ground—infilled land,
near the coast, or in locations that have a high water table. This problem is known
as liquefaction. When an earthquake shakes wet sandy soil, the soil particles may be
jarred apart, allowing water to seep in between them. This greatly reduces the
friction between soil particles, which is responsible for the strength of soil.

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Wet saturated soils lose their bearing capacity and become fluid due to the sudden
reduction in shear resistance caused by the temporary increase of pore fluid pressure. The
ground then behaves like quicksand. When this happens, buildings start to lean and can just
topple over or partially sink into the liquefied soil; the soil has no strength to support them.
Strong surface seismic waves make the ground heave and lurch and damage the structure.

INDIRECT EFFECTS

If the epicentre of an earthquake is under the sea, one side of the ocean floor drops
suddenly, sliding under the other plate and, in doing so, creates a vertical fault. The
violent movement of the sea floor results in series of sea waves with extremely long time
periods. These waves are called tsunamis
Since a tsunami occurs because of sudden displacement of a large body of water, this
displacement may be caused by
• Undersea landslides whereby large amount of sediment is dislodged from the sea
floor, displacing a water column and potentially generating a localized tsunami;

• Surface land sliding into the ocean due to earthquake, resulting in local tsunami; and

• Volcanic eruptions in or near the ocean which may cause tsunami, but are not usual.

Seiches, similar to small tsunamis, occur as a result of the sloshing of enclosed water in
reservoirs, lakes, and harbors shaken by earthquakes.
Earthquakes can cause fire by damaging gas lines and snapping electric wires.
Earthquakes can rupture dams and levees (raised river embankments), causing floods,
resulting in damage to structures and considerable loss of life.

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 WRITE SHORT NOTES ON THE FOLLOWING

SEISMOGRAPH

A seismograph is an instrument used to measure the vibration of the earth. Seismographs

are used to measure relatively weak ground motions. The records produced are
called seismograms. Strong ground motions are measured by accelerographs. The principle
of the seismograph is that ground motion is measured by the vibration record of a
simple pendulum hanging from a steady point. A schematic diagram of a typical
seismograph is shown in Fig. It has three components: the sensor— consisting of the
pendulum mass, string, magnet, and support; the recorder—consisting of the drum,
pen, and chart paper; and the timer—the motor that rotates the drum at constant
speed. When the supporting frame is shaken by earthquake waves, the intertia of the
mass causes it to lag behind the motion of the frame. This relative motion can be
recorded as a wiggly line by pen and ink on paper wrapped around a rotating drum.
The earthquake records so obtained are called seismograms. The records obtained
from seismographs can be directly read as displacement, velocity, or acceleration of the
ground and are classified as such.
Displacement seismograph A displacement seismograph is also known as a long-period
seismograph. If the natural period of the pendulum is long relative to the period of ground
motion and if an appropriate damping coefficient for the pendulum is chosen, the
displacement, x, of the pendulum is proportional to the ground motion, xg, that is, x ∝
xg. Thus the recorded displacement can be expressed in terms of
ground motion times a constant.

VELOCITY SEISMOGRAPH
If the natural period of the pendulum is set close to that of ground motion and if the
damping coefficient of the pendulum is large enough, then x is proportional to x˙g, and the
ground velocity, x˙g , can be determined.

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ACCELERATION SEISMOGRAPH
An acceleration seismograph is also known as a short-period seismograph. These are also
called accelerographs or accelerometers; the latter use electronic transducers. If the
period of the pendulum is set short enough relative to that of ground motion, by means of
an appropriate value of the pendulum’s damping coefficient, x = x”g is obtained. Thus the
ground acceleration x”g can also be recorded.

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MODIFIED MERCALLI SCALE
The Modified Mercalli intensity scale (MM or MMI) is a seismic intensity scale used
for measuring the intensity of shaking produced by an earthquake. It measures the
effects of an earthquake at a given location, distinguished from the earthquake's
inherent force or strength as measured by seismic magnitude scales (such as the "Mw"
magnitude usually reported for an earthquake).The lower degrees of the Modified
Mercalli Intensity scale generally deal with the manner in which the earthquake is felt by
people. The higher numbers of the scale are based on observed structural damage

Modified Mercalli scale intensities that are typically observed at locations near the
epicenter of the earthquake

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TSUNAMIS

If the epicentre of an earthquake is under the sea, one side of the ocean floor drops
suddenly, sliding under the other plate and, in doing so, creates a vertical fault. The violent
movement of the sea floor results in series of seawaves with extremely long time periods.
These waves are called tsunamis. These usually take place along the subduction zone. Like
all waves, tsunamis only develop into breakers as they approach the shore and the
undulating water touches the bottom. Near shores, the energy of a tsunami gets
concentrated in the vertical direction (due to reduction in water depth) as well as in
the horizontal direction (because of shortening of wavelength due to reduction in
velocity). The breakers associated with tsunamis can easily be over 15 m high in case of
larger earthquakes, and their effects correspondingly dramatic. Several such breakers
may crash over the coast in succession; between waves, the water may be pulled
swiftly seaward, emptying a harbour or bay and, perhaps, pulling unwary onlookers
along. Tsunamis can travel very quickly—speeds of 1,000 km/h are not uncommon.

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 DISCUSS BRIEFLY CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES

From the viewpoint of ground motion, earthquakes can be classified into the following
four groups:

 Practically a single shock. Motion of this type occurs only at short distances from the
epicentre, only on firm ground, and only for shallow earthquakes. When these
conditions are not fulfilled, multiple wave reflections change the nature of the
motion.

 A moderately long, extremely irregular motion. This is associated with moderate

distance from the focus and occurs only on firm ground. By analogy with light, it can
be said that these motions are nearly white noise. They are usually of almost equal
severity in all directions.

 A long-period ground motion exhibiting pronounced prevailing periodsof

vibration. Such motion results from the filtering of earthquakes of the preceding
types through layers of soft soil that exhibit linear or almost linear soil behaviour,
and from the successive wave reflections at the interfaces of these mantles.

 A ground motion involving large-scale, permanent deformations of the ground.

At the site of interest, there may be slides or soil liquefaction.

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 WHAT IS STRONG GROUND MOTION STATE AND DISCUSS THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS

The earth vibrates continuously at periods ranging from milliseconds to days and the
amplitudes may vary from nanometres to metres. It is pertinent to note that most
vibrations are quite weak to even be felt. Such microscopic activity is important for
seismologists only. The motion that affects living beings and their environment is of
interest for engineers and is termed as strong ground motion.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUND MOTION

The motion of the ground can be described in terms of displacement, velocity, or

acceleration. The variation of ground acceleration with time, recorded at a point on the
ground during an earthquake, is called an accelerogram . The ground velocity and
displacement can be obtained by direct integration of an accelerogram. Typical ground
motion records are called time histories—the acceleration, velocity and displacement time
histories. From an engineering viewpoint, the amplitude, the frequency, and the
duration of motion are the three important characteristics of the ground motion
parameters. Forstructural engineering purposes, acceleration gives the best measure of
an earthquake’s intensity. The ground velocity is directly related to the energy transmitted
to the structures and the intensity of damage caused. The ground displacement may be of
interest for the design of underground structures.

PEAK GROUND ACCELERATION:

The earthquake time history contains several engineering characteristics of ground

motion and maximum amplitude of motion is one of the important parameter
among them. The PGA is a measure of maximum amplitude of motion and is
defined as the largest absolute value of acceleration time history. The response of
very stiff structures (i.e., with high frequency) is related to PGA. Though PGA is not
a very good measure of damage potential of ground motion; due to its close relation
with response spectrum and usability in scaling of response spectrum, PGA is
33 | P a g e
extensively used in engineering applications. Generally, at distances several source
dimensions away, vertical PGAs are found to be less than horizontal PGA though at
near source distances it could be equal to higher than the corresponding
horizontal PGA.

PEAK VELOCITY:
Peak velocity is the largest absolute value of velocity time history. It is more
sensitive to the intermediate frequency components of motion and characterizes the
response to structures that are sensitive to intermediate range of ground motions, e.g.
tall buildings, bridges, etc.

PEAK DISPLACEMENT :

peak displacements reflect the amplitude of lower frequency components in ground

motion. Accurate estimation of these parameters is difficult as the errors in signal
processing and numerical integration greatly affect the estimation of amplitude of
displacement time history.

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 HOW IS THE EPICENTER OF AN EARTHQUAKE LOCATED

The preliminary location is based on the relative arrival times of P- and S-waves with the
help of three seismographs, which is then refined using sophisticated techniques. The
following step-by-step procedure is used.

1. The speed of the P-waves (3–8 km/s) is more than that of S-waves (2–5 km/s). The
epicentral distance is given by

where ∆tP–S is the difference between first P- and S-waves arrival to the
seismograph
VP , VS are the P- and S-wave velocities.
Thus the epicentral distances d1, d2, and d3, at the three seismographs, can
be determined.

2. With the epicentral distance d1 as radius, a circle can be drawn at the point
of seismograph location, say A (Fig.). A second circle with radius d2 when drawn with
the point of seismograph location B, the two circles will intersect at two points P and
Q. When a third circle is drawn with the point of seismograph location C, it must pass
through P or Q if the three epicentral distances were correct. Thus the common
point of intersection of the three circles will be the likely location of the
epicentre.

35 | P a g e
 3. In case there is some error and the three circles do not intersect at one point, a
refined estimate of the epicentre is made by using multiple seismographs and
numerical optimization techniques

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 DISCUSS BRIEFLY THE NEED OF SEISMIC ZONING

The problem of designing economical earthquake-resistant structures rests heavily on the

determination of reliable quantitative estimates of expected earthquake intensities in
particular regions. However, it is not possible to predict with any certainty when and
where earthquakes will occur, how strong they will be, and what characteristics the ground
motions will have.
Therefore, an engineer
must estimate the ground
shaking judiciously. A
simple method is to use
a seismic zone map,
wherein the area is
subdivided into regions,
each associated with a
known or assigned seismic
probability or risk, to serve
as a useful basis for the
implementation of code
provisions on earthquake-
resistant design.

Seismic zoning is
accomplished with the
help of isoseismal maps.
An isoseismal is a
contour bounding areas
of equal intensity and different isoseismal when plotted for a particular earthquake
constitute an isoseismal map. The present seismic zoning map used in India shows
the country divided into four zones (II, III, IV, and V) of approximately equal seismic
probability, depending upon the local hazard. Each of these zones is described in
terms of the value of its peak ground acceleration, also known as the design ground
acceleration.
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HOW IS THE LOCAL MAGNITUDE OF AN EARTHQUAKE RELATED
TO THE INTENSITY OF AN EARTHQUAKE

Often the question is posed whether a particular building can withstand an earthquake of
a certain magnitude, say, 6.5. Now, an M6.5 earthquake causes different shaking intensities
at different locations and the damage induced in buildings at these locations is also
different. Thus, it is a particular level of intensity of shaking that a structure is designed to
resist, and not so much the magnitude of an earthquake.

In 1956, Gutenberg and Richter gave an approximate correlation between

the local magnitude ML of an earthquake and the intensity I0 sustained in the epicenter
area as follows.

For using above Eqn the Roman numbers of intensity are replaced with
numerals, for example, VII with 7.

38 | P a g e
 WHAT IS THE BASIC DESIGN PHILOSOPHY OF SEISMIC DESIGN

Severity of ground shaking at a given location during an earthquake may be minor

(occurs frequently), moderate (occurs occasionally), or strong (occurs rarely). The
probability of a strong earthquake occurring within the expected life of a structure is
very low and that of small earthquakes is very high.If a building is designed to be
earthquake-proof for a rare but strong earthquake, it will be robust but too expensive.
The most logical approach to the seismic design problem is to accept the uncertainty of the
seismic phenomenon.

Consequently, the main elements of the structure are designed to have sufficient
ductility, allowing the structure to sway back and forth during a major earthquake, so that it
withstands the earthquake with some damage, but without collapse.

An earthquake-resistant structure resists the effects of ground shaking; although it may

get severely damaged, it does not collapse during a strong earthquake. This implies that
the damage should be controlled to acceptable levels, preserving the lives of the occupants
of the building at a reasonable cost.

Engineers thus tend to make the structures earthquake resistant. Engineers recognize that
damage is unavoidable, but should be allowed to occur at right places and in right
amounts. For example, important structures such as hospitals, schools, public places,
dams, bridges, and so on, must sustain very little damage and should be designed for a
higher level of earthquake protection. In the light of the above discussion, seismic design
theory must embody the following precepts:

(a) In order to deal effectively with the combination of extreme loading and low probability,
the design earthquake is taken as a moderate one; as a test for structural safety, the most
severe earthquake, which a structure may be expected to face in its lifetime, is applied. It
is reasonable to expect the structure to maintain elastic behavior.

39 | P a g e
(b) During a minor earthquake, the load-carrying members of the structure should
not be damaged; however, the non-structural parts may sustain repairable damage.
During moderate earthquakes, the load-carrying members may sustain repairable
damage, while the non-structural parts may even have to be replaced after the earthquake.

During a strong earthquake, the load-carrying members may sustain severe damage,
but the structure should not collapse. At such times, plastic behaviour of the building is
accepted on the premise that the peak forces produced are of short duration and,
therefore, can be more readily absorbed by the
movement of the structure than a sustained static load can.
(c) One of the concepts involved in seismic design of buildings is to make it ductile. Such a
building would ride out an earthquake, not to stand up rigidly but to absorb the
earthquake’s energy by yielding gently; rigid buildings would attract more earthquake
force. Moreover, ductility gives a warning to the occupants and provides sufficient time
to take preventive measures, reducing loss of life in case of strong earthquakes;
buildings can undergo large deformations, if ductile, before failureOF STRUCTURES

40 | P a g e
 AN EARTHQUAKE CAUSES AN AVERAGE OF 2.6 M STRIKE-SLIP
DISPLACEMENT OVER A 75 KM LONG, 22 KM DEEP
PORTION OF A TRANSFORMED FAULT. ASSUMING THE
AVERAGE RUPTURE STRENGTH ALONG THE FAULT AS 180
KPA, ESTIMATE THE SEISMIC MOMENT AND MOMENT
MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTHQUAKE

Given:

Length of fault (L) = 75km

Depth of fault (D) = 22km

Slip displacement (∆) = 2.6m

Rigidity (µ) =180kPa

(i) SEISMIC MOMENT OF

EARTHQUAKE

By concept of elastic rebound

theory,

Mo = µA∆

= 180 x 103 x 10 x 75 x 105 x 22 x 105 x 2.6 x 100 (1 Pa = 10 dyne/cm2)

=7.722 x 1021 dyne-cm Ans

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 (ii) MOMENT MAGNITUDE OF EARTHQUAKE (MW)

= 0.667 [ (log 7.722 x 1021) – 16 ]

= 3.925 dyne-cm

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 WHAT IS RESPONSE SPECTRUM? HOW IS IT DIFFERENT FROM
RESPONSE HISTORY? ELUCIDATE WITH RELEVANT
DIAGRAMS/GRAPHS

RESPONSE HISTORY

The response history is the ground motion that is, plot of the acceleration, velocity
and displacement, of a point on the ground surface as a function of time for the entire
duration of earthquake. The recordings of an accelerograph provide the values of
acceleration, velocity and displacements as a function of time at the location of the
seismic instrument. Such records are also known as the time histories.

The minimum amplitude of the recorded acceleration is termed as the peak

response acceleration and similarly the peak response velocity and the peak response
displacement are the maximum amplitude of the recorded velocity, displacement,
respectively.

It is to be noted that for a given ground motion, the deformation or acceleration response
of the single degree of freedom system (seismic instrument) of different natural periods are
different and hence the peak responses (acceleration, displacement) are also different.

RESPONSE SPECTRUM

The response spectrum is the standard method of representation of the response of

structures to ground acceleration. It is the summarization of response histories in terms of
the peak response of all
SDOF systems with different natural periods. This is a concept in earthquake engineering.

43 | P a g e
The response spectrum is a plot of peak value of a response quantity such as
acceleration, velocity or displacement of an SDOF system as a function of natural vibration
period Tn of the system with a particular damping ratio (My be 𝜁 = 2 or 5%). Several
such plots for different values of 𝜁 (damping ratio) can be included to cover the range of
damping values encountered in actual structures.

The maximum response parameter, generally the acceleration can be obtained by the
response history for the dynamic system having different natural periods. From the data so
obtained, a graph of maximum response versus natural period for a given damping,
called the response spectrum, can be drawn.

The response spectra are plotted for the response parameters such as the absolute
acceleration, the relative (pseudo) displacement and the relative (pseudo) velocity.
The maximum relative displacement is of importance as the strains in the structure
are related to displacement, while the maximum relative velocity provides a measure
of elastic energy imparted to the system, and the maximum relative acceleration
directly relates to the seismic forces.

44 | P a g e
 EXPLAIN THE D-V-A RESPONSE SPECTRUM AND THE
SIGNIFICANCE OF RESPONSE ACCELERATION, RESPONSE
VELOCITY AND RESPONSE DISPLACEMENT

Using the relations among the three response quantities- displacement, pseudo
velocity and pseudo acceleration, it is possible to combine the three response spectra
into a single plot shown in fig. Such a plot is known as tripartite plot on a four-way
logarithmic graph and from this, all the three spectral quantities, D, V and A can be
obtained for a given To.

The scales of the response parameters are non-dimensional and indicate the ratio of
spectral values of response parameters to the corresponding maximum values of
the ground motion parameters. Based on these ratios, the response spectrum is
divided into three spectral regions:

1. Acceleration- sensitive region, where the response acceleration exceeds the

ground acceleration

(A> Ag). This is the case for short period system.

2. Velocity- sensitive region, where the response velocity exceeds the ground
velocity (V > Vg). this is the case for medium period systems.

3. Displacement- sensitive region, where the response displacement exceeds

the ground displacement (D>Dg). This is the case for long period systems.

The amplification of the response quantities depends on the natural period T n and
damping ratio of the system. The response spectra presented in this format reveal
substantial information as compared to the plot of response acceleration to the natural

45 | P a g e
period format. Using the tripartite plot, the response of the structure can be evaluated
in all the three response quantities, namely, acceleration, velocity and displacement
and the relation between the three can easily be grasped.

The seismic force on the structure is directly proportional to the response acceleration. The
response velocity is related to the energy imparted to the structure, and the response
displacement provides the information about the lateral drift of the structure.
Therefore a careful study of the response spectrum especially the interrelation among
the three spectral quantities namely, the response acceleration, response velocity and
the response displacement and the relation of all the three spectral quantities with
the natural period of the structure, is very much essential for understanding the
behavior of the structure under the seismic action.

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