Sustainable Cities and Society 44 (2019) 367–377

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Sustainable Cities and Society

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Water conservation through rainwater harvesting using different building T

forms in different climatic regions
N. İpek Şahina, , Gülten Manioğlub
⁎

a
İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi Bakırköy Ek Hizmet Binası, 34146, Bakırköy, İstanbul, Türkiye
b
Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul, Türkiye

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Rainwater harvesting on buildings is directly related with water collection surfaces and thus with the building
Water consumption in buildings form. In this study, the amount of rainwater obtained using different building forms in different climatic regions
Rainwater harvesting were analysed comparatively. Two scenarios were used in this study.
Greywater reuse In the first scenario, 2 different public housing developments with different building forms and roof styles but
Climate responsive design
with same occupant numbers and same site area in Bursa in the temperate-humid climate region and Diyarbakir
in the hot-dry climate region were evaluated in relation to rainwater collection and water conservation. In the
second scenario, a typical project developed by TOKİ for the temperate climate region was also applied to the
hot-dry climatic region and the amount of collected rainwater was evaluated taking into account also the
characteristics of climatic region.
The study found that in the first scenario 18% and 7%, and in the second scenario 13% and 5% of annual
water consumption only in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively (toilet flushing, sinks and bathtubs)
was met by collected rainwater in Development 1. These values were 34% and 13% respectively for
Development 2.

1. Introduction and domestic use in buildings) (Anonymous, 2018b). Domestic water is

As water demand increases by population growth, fast urbanization
and industrialization, the water resources are becoming scarcer due to
increased population, environmental pollution, unconscious water
consumption and climate changes.
Although the world's population has increased by three fold in the
20th century, the use of water resources has increased by six fold. It is
possible that the current water shortage can grow into a water crisis in
some parts of the world including the Middle East in the next 20–25
years (Anonymous, 2018a). Therefore water resources are considered to
be one of the most strategic natural resources in the 21 st century.
When countries are classified according to their water reserves:
countries with water availability less than 1000 m³ per person are
classified as "water poor", countries with water availability between
1,000–3,000 m³ per person are classified as "water scarce". Countries
with water availability between 3,000–10,000 m³ are classified as
"water rich" (Alpaslan, Tanık, & Dölgen, 2008). With water availability
of 1500 - 1600 m³/per capita per year Turkey has far lower water
supplies than the global average. 16% of the total water consumption in
Turkey as of 2016 (7 billion m³) is used for domestic purposes (drinking
used in buildings for daily household chores and daily water con-
sumption. Climate conditions, living standards and cultural habits sig-
nificantly affect domestic water consumption. Typical domestic water
use is consumed as follows 40% in sinks and bathtubs; 12% in kitchens,
13% for laundry, 25% for toilet flushing, 5% to water gardens and 5%
for cleaning (Karahan, 2009). Reducing water consumption for do-
mestic uses, which corresponds to a considerable amount in residential
buildings, has become a necessity for water conservation. Different
water conservation strategies are used in the world for this purpose and
Turkey needs to implement these strategies as quickly as possible. With
rainwater harvesting (collection and use of rainwater) methods, which
have become increasingly popular, it is possible to achieve water con-
servation in residential buildings.
In traditional architecture collecting rainwater in water wells or
cisterns in rainy seasons and using it as and when necessary was one of
the most common solutions. Rainwater harvesting which has been used
for almost a thousand years, combined with modern technology has
become a method widely used in many countries around the world
where fresh water resources are limited. However there are still pro-
blems for this process to become widespread. Vast amounts of empirical

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ipekyula@hotmail.com, yula@itu.edu.tr (N.İ. Şahin), manioglugu@itu.edu.tr (G. Manioğlu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.10.010
Received 20 April 2018; Received in revised form 10 August 2018; Accepted 6 October 2018
Available online 09 October 2018
2210-6707/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N.İ. Şahin, G. Manioğlu
data is needed for modelling in system selection, problems such as
longer payback periods found in financial evaluation represents an
obstacle for widespread use of rainwater harvesting systems. In order to
eliminate these problems governments should support research and
development policies for such systems. However water shortages ex-
perienced in Turkey and in many parts of the world make it a necessity
to update and promote the use of this traditional method.
Many sources in the literature emphasize that water needed for
domestic uses such as toilet flushing, house cleaning and garden wa-
tering does not need to be at drinking water standard (Domnech &
Saurí, 2010; Friedler & Hadari, 2006; Silva, Sousa, & Carvalho, 2015).
Use of rainwater in buildings has been discussed actively in many
countries for many years. Governments encourage and support the use
of rainwater harvesting techniques by providing tax rebate or reduc-
tions in water bills and subsidizing certain portions of initial investment
costs. At the same time, various laws and regulations are enacted to
make rainwater harvesting more appealing for a wider public
(GhaffarianHoseini, Tookey, Yusoff, & Hassan, 2016). Accordingly,
different percentages of water savings are possible in different countries
depending on the precipitation figures and areas of use (Fewkes, 1999;
Ghisi, Montibeller, & Schnidt, 2006; Herrmann & Schmida, 1999b;
Suarez, García, & Galarza, 2006; Villarreal & Dixon, 2005). To give
examples from Asian countries where harvested rainwater is widely
used; the use of rainwater in public organizations and office buildings
has been continuously increasing in Japan since 1980s (Campisano
et al., 2017). In 2009 the Water Resources Agency in Taiwan enacted
the Water Law, which made the use of rainwater for domestic purposes
mandatory. The new Law (MLIT, 2014) stipulates that new buildings
with an area bigger than 1000m² have rainwater harvesting systems to
cover a minimum 5% of the total water consumption in these buildings.
In the USA, use of harvested rainwater changes from state to state and
there are over 100,000 residential buildings that use rainwater. In the
UK, many people use traditional rainwater harvesting methods and
advanced rainwater harvesting systems, which were only introduced
recently in the country. Installation and use of such a system is regu-
lated by laws (Campisano et al., 2017). Additionally, rainwater use in
arid regions where water resources are limited can provide water safety
up to 80% (Musayeva, Burgessb, & Mellor, 2018).
Rainwater is a natural water resource that can be collected and used
in many areas where drinking water and water for general use is ne-
cessary. With rainwater harvesting, 12% - 100 % water savings is
possible depending on the amount of precipitation, water consumption
per person, economic self-sufficiency of a household, roof type, number
of occupants and the life cycle of the technology used (Ghisi, Bressan, &
Martini, 2007; Herrmann & Schmida, 1999a; Sanches Fernandes,
Terêncio, & Pacheco, 2015; Sazakli, Alexopoulos, & Leotsinidis, 2007;
Silva et al., 2015; Zhang, Chen, Chen, & Ashbolt, 2009). After a simple
treatment process, rainwater can be used for all domestic uses in a
house and thus water conservation can be achieved. Surface areas such
as roofs, terraces and courtyards from which rainwater is collected can
vary according to the building form. Building forms should be designed
to meet users' requirements for thermal comfort depending on the ex-
ternal climatic elements prevailing throughout the year. The amount of
rainwater collected with the help of the building form also varies de-
pending on the annual precipitation figures in each climate region.
Therefore the amount of rainwater collected in different climate regions
cannot be estimated without the knowledge of precipitation amounts
and the building forms used.
Since land costs and commercial requirements have long been
considered as priorities, vertical urbanization has been preferred more
to meet increasing needs for housing in parallel to the increased po-
pulation. Due to the above reasons, standard building forms are de-
signed in all climatic regions without taking into account climatic re-
quirements, multi-storey buildings and dense settlement design. When
building forms are not designed according to the conditions of each
climatic region, the amount of rainwater collected inevitably varies.
368
Sustainable Cities and Society 44 (2019) 367–377
There are studies which investigate collection of rainwater using dif-
ferent building forms and the relationship between building forms and
climatic regions (Lopes, Marques, Dornelles, & Medellin-Azuara, 2016;
Umapathi, Chong, & Sharma, 2012). In the study conducted in several
regions of Brazil with different precipitation amounts, water savings as
a result of rainwater use in single storey buildings was 33.6%–35.5%
(Ghisi & Oliveira, 2006) while water saving as a result of rainwater use
in multiple-storey buildings was 14.7%–17.7% (Ghisi & Ferreira, 2007).
Water savings by collecting and using rainwater in office buildings with
a bigger roof surface was found to be 62% (Ward, Memon, & Butler,
2012) Rainwater harvesting capacities of residential buildings in dif-
ferent roof areas in 5 different cities in South Brazil were evaluated
(Ghisi & Schondermark, 2013). Twelve single-family houses of diff
;erent construction standards were selected for hydrological perfor-
mance and economic feasibility of rainwater harvesting system in the
city of Belém, Pará, Brazil (Gómez & Teixeira, 2017).
The building form variable has a major influence on energy con-
servation in architectural design. This study investigates the effect of
the same variable (building form) on water conservation. Therefore the
amount of rainwater collected using different building forms, in dif-
ferent climatic regions were evaluated in the scenarios in this study.
The findings of this study can contribute to the climate responsive ar-
chitectural design process by integrating water conservation criteria in
the process.
2. Effects of building forms in rainwater harvesting
Building form consists of all of the geometric variables of a building
including shape factor (the ratio of building length to building depth in
the plan), building height, roof type (flat, saddle and pitched roof), roof
slope, facade slope and is the most important parameter that affects
climate responsive design to obtain optimum benefits from climate
elements (Berköz, 1995). Building form is a factor that varies depending
on local and climatic requirements. In climate responsive architecture,
climate responsive building forms are used in each different climate
region.
The need for solar radiation has a priority in temperate-humid cli-
mate regions, as the heating period is longer. Therefore primary living
areas in houses in these regions are designed to face east, south and
west. The building form in temperate-humid climate regions is more
flexible and various recesses and projections are prescribed for build-
ings in this region. For example bay windows with plenty of window
areas allow maximum solar radiation during winter and cools down the
facade and thus house interior with the shadow they provide during
summer. Large window surfaces are used to let abundant sunlight in. In
temperate-humid climate region it is necessary to be protected from
winter winds but also use summer winds to dissipate humidity.
Therefore opposing inlets and outlets are considered in planning re-
sidential buildings to achieve sufficient air movement in summer
months. Roofs are designed according to precipitation patterns and
have generally pitched and saddle roof designs. Eaves are very wide and
therefore provide protection for the building from rain in winter and
from sunlight during summer (Törkiye ve İrlanda’daki Binaların Enerji
Etkin Tasarım ve Yapımı için Sördörölebilirlik Stratejileri, 2006).
As the cooling period is longer in hot-dry climate regions, compact
building forms are preferred in planning as much as possible to reduce
the surface area that is exposed to sunlight. The house type, which is
used most frequently in the hot-dry climate region in Turkey are houses
with courtyards. Courtyards both reduce floor temperature by eva-
poration, by using water and plants to provide shady areas to allow the
use of outdoor areas during the daytime (Türkiye ve İrlanda’daki
Binaların Enerji Etkin Tasarım ve Yapımı için Sürdürülebilirlik
Stratejileri, 2006).
Dense settlements, low-rise buildings which provide protection from
sunlight and wind should be preferred (if wind brings humidity, then
the plan should allow winds in) in the hot-dry climatic region where
N.İ. Şahin, G. Manioğlu
cooling is required for the greater part of the year.
The most important aspect for a housing development is that the
streets surrounded by high house walls should be very narrow. In this
way streets have areas in shade throughout the day. As precipitation is
low in these regions, roofs are flat (Flat roofs also provide secondary
living areas for hot summer nights) (Koçlar & Manioğlu, 2005).
If developments consist of building forms designed according to the
climate region they are in, this will have a positive effect on the energy
conservation. However, in recent years standard type vertical devel-
opment projects designed by TOKI are increasingly preferred and built
in every city without taking into account characteristics of each climate
region. In these projects, variables including roof surface, roof type and
courtyard surface that come with the building form also play a sig-
nificant role in the amount of rainwater harvested. Therefore rainwater
harvesting on building forms designed irrespective of the climate,
should also be evaluated in terms of water conservation.
Based on this data the study first aims to perform an evaluation on
the amount of rainwater harvested when housing developments with
the same density and area have different building forms in different
climate regions. In the second stage of the study, the amount of rain-
water that could be harvested when housing developments designed
with different building forms for different climatic regions are applied
in the same climatic region is evaluated.
2.1. Use of rainwater in buildings
Due to the reason such as fast depletion and pollution of fresh water
resources today, water conservation is achieved by using rainwater as
an alternative resource to water gardens and for domestic uses and thus
domestic water consumption is significantly reduced.
Rainwater harvested from roofs undergoes some minor treatment
before use and becomes the cleanest alternative water resource with a
wide range of uses. Rainwater collected from airports, military zones,
stadiums, touristic facilities and buildings with sufficient roof areas and
undergone minor water treatment is one of the most important strate-
gies of water conservation in buildings (Dölgen, Baban, & Alpaslan,
2006). With a simple rainwater tank, rainwater harvested can be used
to wash cars, fill swimming pools or ornamental pools and to water
gardens with additional piping systems (underground or surface). After
being treated and checked carefully for water quality harvested rain-
water can be used in washing machines, in showers and in baths.
In this study, the amount of rainwater that can be harvested de-
pending on the climate region and the building forms used in public
housing projects is calculated. After which to what extent harvested
rainwater can contribute to water conservation is evaluated using
comparative methods.
2.2. Calculation of the amount of rainwater harvested on buildings
The amount of rainwater collected on roofs varies depending on
catchment area, precipitation per m² and yield coefficient, which is
based on rainwater collection capacity of roof and other surfaces on
which rainwater is collected (courtyard, terrace etc). Importantly dif-
ferent surface materials can affect both the quality of water and the
yield coefficient which determines rainwater collection capacity
(Farreny et al., 2011; Fayez, Abdulla, & Al-Shareef, 2009; Gikas &
Tsihrintzis, 2012).
According to DIN 1989 standard "Rainwater harvesting systems –
planning, installation, operation and maintenance" is described as
“Yield coefficient ratio of the rainwater annually flowing into the
rainwater harvesting system to the total amount of rainwater in the
accompanying precipitation area” (DIN 1989-1, 2002DIN 1989-1,
2002).
There are many studies on different roof materials with different
surfaces, which determine the yield coefficient. Yield coefficient figures
used in these studies range between 0.70-0.95 (ASCE, 1969; Farreny
369
Sustainable Cities and Society 44 (2019) 367–377
et al., 2011; Fewkes, 2000; Ghisi, Tavares, & Rocha, 2009; Lancaster,
2006; Liaw & Tsai, 2004; McCuen, 2004; Pacey & Cullis, 1989; Rahman,
Dbais, & Imteaz, 2010; Singh, 1992; TxDOT, 2009; Viessman & Lewis,
2003; Ward, Memon, & Butler, 2010). There are many reasons for the
use of such a wide range of yield coefficient including climatic (rain,
dominant wind and humidity rate) and architectural (slope, roof ma-
terials, surface roughness, leaks, unevenness) reasons.
In this study yield coefficients of different roof types with different
surfaces were calculated according to the standard DIN
1989″Rainwater harvesting systems - Planning, installation, operation
and maintenance".
The amount of rainwater collected on roofs is calculated by multi-
plying catchment area, precipitation per m², the rainwater collection
capacity of roof and other surfaces from which rainwater is collected
(courtyard, terrace etc), by variables such as yield coefficient and hy-
draulic filter efficiency which is a constant value in the following
equation (Eq (1)).
ER = AA. e. hN. n (1)
ER = Rainwater yield in litres per year (litre),
AA = The collection area square meters (m²),
e = The yield coefficient (%),
hN = The quantity of precipitation in litres per square meter (l/m²)
or millimetres (mm),
n = The hydraulic filter efficiency (accepted as 0.9).
Yield coefficients of different types of roof with different surface
areas are as follows: 0.8 for sloping roof (e.g. pitched roof), flat roof
without gravel (e.g. flat roof) and asphalt surfaces; 0.6 for flat roof with
gravel; 0.5 for wide green roof, sidewalk surface/composite sidewalk
surface (courtyard paved with cobblestone); and 0.3 for intensive green
roof (DIN 1989-1, 2002DIN 1989-1, 2002).
3. Materials and methods
Since annual precipitation amount differs in each climate region
depending on the season, the total volume of harvested water also
changes depending on the building form. This study investigates water
conservation through rainwater harvesting using different building
forms in different climate regions.
In this study, the amount of rainwater obtained using different
building forms in different climate regions were compared and eval-
uated. Two scenarios were used in this study.
In the first scenario, 2 different public housing developments with
different building forms and roof styles but with the same occupant
numbers and same site area in Bursa in the temperate-humid climate
region and Diyarbakir in the hot-dry climate region were evaluated in
relation to rainwater collection and water conservation. The amount of
rainwater collected on different roof catchment systems, in a vertically
developed public housing project with pitched roofs by the Housing
Development Administration (TOKI) in Bursa, and in a horizontally
developed public housing project with flat roofs in Diyarbakir was
calculated. Taking into account the characteristics of hot-dry climate
regions, these figures were compared with the amount of water con-
sumed to evaluate the contribution of rainwater harvesting in water
conservation.
In the second scenario, a typical project developed by TOKI for the
temperate climatic region was also applied in the hot-dry climate re-
gion, the volume of harvested rainwater was evaluated taking into ac-
count the characteristics of climatic region. Since annual precipitation
amount differs in each climatic region, the total volume of harvested
water also changes depending on the building form. This study in-
vestigates water conservation through rainwater harvesting using dif-
ferent building forms in different climate regions.
In order to achieve the objectives of the study, various data in-
cluding annual precipitation amount per m² in cities in different
N.İ. Şahin, G. Manioğlu
climatic regions included in the study, the number of occupants in
buildings with different forms in housing developments, different
rainwater catchment areas with different yield coefficients on buildings
and yield coefficients of surfaces were collected. Annual water con-
sumption of each housing development and the annual rainwater
amount that can be harvested on buildings with different forms in each
housing development was calculated. The percentage of harvested
rainwater that meets the need for annual water consumption in toilet
flushing and bathrooms (toilet flushing, sink and bathtub) is shown.
Since seasonal and monthly precipitation amounts differ in Bursa
(temperate-humid) and Diyarbakır (hot-dry), all comparative evalua-
tions were made using annual figures. For calculation of rainwater that
can be harvested; only the annual time span was used, daily and sea-
sonal precipitation amounts were not taken into consideration.
Therefore, variables such as the days with extreme precipitation, rain-
water tank volume and consequently potential water losses due to tank
overflow were not taken into account.
3.1. Study area
In this study, 2 different public housing developments with different
building forms and roof styles but with the same occupant numbers and
same areas in Bursa in the temperate-humid climate region and
Diyarbakir in the hot-dry climate region were evaluated. The buildings
evaluated have building forms that are designed according to climate
responsive design principles. In Bursa, a vertically developed public
housing project with pitched roof was planned and built by Housing
Development Administration (TOKİ) (Development 1). In Diyarbakir, a
horizontally developed public housing project that includes building
forms with flat roofs and courtyards in parallel to the climate re-
sponsive design principles of the hot-dry climate region (Development
2). In this study the amount of rainwater collected from different
catchment areas on roof and courtyards is calculated and to what extent
this volume of rainwater meets the daily water consumption per person
is determined.
In Nilüfer Hasanağa Mass Housing Development of the Housing
Development Administration (TOKİ) on Bursa-Balıkesir Highway, there
are 1584 apartments and some recreational facilities (Fig. 1). There are
3 different building plans, which consist of 9 buildings type B, 20
Buildings type C, and 6 Buildings type D in the project (Figs. 2–4).
On Diyarbakır-Şanlıurfa Highway, in Cumhuriyet Neighbourhood in
Diyarbakir, a new public housing project was developed which has
buildings with courtyards in parallel to characteristics of the hot-dry
climate region (Fig. 5). Accordingly, two traditional building plans with
courtyards (Building A and Building B) were drawn. The above men-
tioned public housing project was planned to have the same land area
(174533 m²) and number of occupants (6336 occupants) with the
public housing project in Bursa (Fig. 5). There are 50 Buildings type A
(4 storey) and 49 Buildings type B (4 storey) in the public housing
project in Diyarbakir (Figs. 6 and 7).
Fig. 1. Nilüfer Hasanağa TOKİ Buildings in Bursa.
370
Sustainable Cities and Society 44 (2019) 367–377
3.2. Data collection
Assumptions concerning calculations of rainwater amounts are as
follows.
• Daily water consumption per person in Diyarbakir and Bursa was
assumed to be 100 litres per person per day, according to the
principle of a minimum 100 litres of potable water requirement per
person in houses with bathtubs in the Turkish Standard TS 1258
Rules for Calculation for Installation Water Supply on Building (TS
1258, 1983).
• The core section of the building plans in Development 1 were as-
sumed to have flat roofs and other sections were assumed to have
pitched roofs in the calculations. Rainwater yield coefficient for
pitched roofs and flat roofs according to DIN standard 1989 1:2002-
04.01 "Rainwater harvesting systems - planning, installation, op-
eration and maintenance" is calculated as 0.8.
• The roof types in the buildings in Development 2 are flat roof
without gravel and the rainwater yield coefficient is 0.8, the rain-
water yield coefficient for courtyards is 0.5.
• Average annual precipitation for the year 2012 is 810 mm for Bursa
and 625.9 mm for Diyarbakir (Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanlığı
Meteoroloji Genel Mödörlöğö, 2018).
• It was assumed that rainwater could be harvested only from roofs in
Buildings type B, C and D in Bursa (Development 1) and from roofs
and courtyards using the advantages of the building form in
Buildings type A and B in Diyarbakir (Development 2).
• 4 people were assumed to live in each apartment in the public
housing projects in Development 1 and Development 2.
• The following percentages are normally used for different elements
in a house that consume water: 25% for toilet flushing, 40% sinks
and bathtubs (Karahan, 2009) but for the purpose of this study 25%
was accepted as water consumption percentage of toilet flushing,
65% was accepted as water consumption percentage of bathrooms
(toilet flushing, sink and bathtub).
• Information about the number of occupants, apartments, floors, roof
area, courtyard area, number of buildings and land area in Building
types B, C and D in Development 1 and Building types A and B in
Development 2 is shown in Table 1.
3.3. Results and discussion
Use of rainwater harvesting technologies in buildings is important
for sustainable use of water resources and water savings. In this study in
the first scenario, the rainwater amount collected from different
building forms with the same number of occupants and site area but
developed for different climate regions, namely Bursa in the temperate-
humid and Diyarbakir in hot-dry climate region were calculated and
comparatively evaluated. In the second scenario, building forms in a
typical project developed for the temperate climate region was also
applied in the hot-dry climate region and the amount of collected
rainwater was calculated. Different findings were obtained for the two
scenarios, which were evaluated, based on the calculations. The
N.İ. Şahin, G. Manioğlu
Fig. 2. Building B Plan and Roof Plan.
findings of the study were evaluated separately and the results were
shown as graphs.
3.3.1. Scenario 1
Annual rainwater amount collected from roof catchment areas in
Development 1 and in Development 2 calculated according to the
equation given in section 2.2 and annual water consumption in the
same buildings are shown in Figs. 8 and 9.
The annual rainwater collected per person in Development 1 is 1650
litres and in Development 2 is 3124 litres calculated according to the
data for the total annual rainwater collected from the catchment areas
in Fig. 10. The rainwater amount per person collected in Diyarbakir is
89% more than that collected in Bursa.
4.5% of the annual water supply requirement is met with the
rainwater amount collected from the roofs in Development 1 and 8.5%
of the annual water supply requirement is met with the rainwater
amount harvested from the roofs and courtyards in Development 2.
Considering daily household water consumption rates, the coverage
rate of annual rainwater harvested to total water consumption in toilet
flushing and in bathrooms in Buildings B, C and D in Development 1
(Fig. 11) and in Buildings A and B in Development 2 (Fig. 12) are
calculated.
13% and 5% of water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms
respectively in Building B, 18% and 7% of water consumption in toilet
flushing and bathrooms respectively in Building C and 31% and 12% of
water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively in
Building D can be met with the amount of rainwater harvested in 1 year
in Development 1. When the calculations were repeated for
Development 2; the amount of rainwater collected in one year was
found to be enough for 32% and 12% of water consumption in toilet
flushing and bathrooms respectively in Building A and 36% and 14% of
the water consumption in flush tanks and bathrooms respectively in
Fig. 3. Building C Plan and Roof Plan.
371
Sustainable Cities and Society 44 (2019) 367–377
Building B.
18% of the annual water supply required only for toilet flushing is
met with the rainwater harvested from the roofs in the Buildings B, C
and D in Development 1 and 34% of the annual water supply required
only for toilet flushing is met with the rainwater harvested from the
roofs and courtyards in Buildings A and B in Development 2.
7% of the annual water supply requirement for use in toilet flushing
and bathroom use is met with the rainwater amount harvested from the
roofs in Development 1. 13% of the annual water supply requirement
for use in toilet flushing and bathroom use is met with the rainwater
amount harvested from the roofs and courtyards in Development 2.
3.3.2. Scenario 2
In this stage of the study, the amount of rainwater collected in the
public housing development (Development 1), which has the building
forms designed for temperate-humid climate in Bursa, but applied for
Diyarbakır by neglecting the climatic region’s properties is evaluated in
relation to water conservation. A vertically developed public housing
project which includes building forms with pitched roofs irrespective of
the characteristics of hot-dry climate region and a horizontally devel-
oped public housing project, which includes building forms with flat
roofs and courtyards in parallel to the design principles of the hot-dry
climate region (Development 2) are compared in relation to the rain-
water harvest.
The annual rainwater amount collected from roof catchment areas
in Development 1 and Development 2 calculated according to the for-
mula given in Section 2.2, the annual water consumption in the same
buildings are shown in Figs. 13 and 9.
The annual rainwater collected per person is calculated according to
the data of total rainwater collected from roof catchment areas in
Fig. 14, is 1274 litres in Development 1 and 145% higher in Develop-
ment 2 reaching to 3124 litres in Diyarbakir.
N.İ. Şahin, G. Manioğlu Sustainable Cities and Society 44 (2019) 367–377

Fig. 4. Building D Plan and Roof Plan.

Fig. 5. The land for the public housing project in Diyarbakir and Layout Plan.

Fig. 6. Building A Plan and Roof Plan.

3.4% of annual water requirement in Development 1 and 8.5% of
annual water requirement in Development 2 in Diyarbakir is met.
Considering daily household water consumption rates, the coverage
rate of annual rainwater harvested to total water consumption in toilet
flushing and in bathrooms in Buildings B, C and D in Development 1
Diyarbakır (Fig. 15).
10% and 4% of water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms
respectively in Building B, 14% and 5% of water consumption in toilet
flushing and bathrooms respectively in Building C and 24% and 9% of
water consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively in
Building D can be met with the amount of rainwater harvested in 1 year
in Development 1 in Diyarbakır. When the calculations were repeated
for Development 2; the amount of rainwater collected in one year was
found to cover 32% and 12% of water consumption in toilet flushing
and bathrooms respectively in Building A and 36% and 14% of water
consumption in toilet flushing and bathrooms respectively in Building
B.
13% and 34% of the annual water requirement for toilet flushing,
5% and 13% of the annual water requirement for use in bathrooms is
met with the rainwater volume harvested on the roofs in Development

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Fig. 7. Building B Plan and Roof Plan.

Table 1
Number of occupants, apartments, floors, roof area, courtyard area, number of buildings and land area in Development 1 and in Development 2.
building number of number of number of total number number of roof core courtyard total total total
buildings occupants in apartments in of occupants floors area area area (m²) roof courtyard land area
one building one building (m²) (m²) area area (m²) (m²)
(m²)

Development 1 B 9 192 48 6336 12 385 330 _ 17925 – 174533

C 20 192 48 12 537 480 _ –
D 6 128 32 8 507 113 _ –
Development 2 A 50 64 16 6336 4 400 – 32 40874 4883 174533
B 49 64 16 4 426 – 67

Since the number of occupants in both housing developments is the same, the annual total water consumption is also the same but distribution among buildings is
different.

Fig. 8. Annual amount of mains water consumption and annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas in Buildings B-C-D in Development 1.

1 and Development 2 respectively in Diyarbakır.
Rainwater catchment areas on horizontally developed buildings
with flat roofs and courtyards, which are recommended for Diyarbakır
according to the climate responsive design criteria, are bigger than the
rainwater catchment areas in buildings in Bursa. Only a very small
percentage of annual water requirements of horizontally developed
public housing projects can be met with harvested rainwater. Therefore
in the first stage of the study, the volume of rainwater collected per
person is more in Diyarbakir than Bursa despite the fact Bursa's annual
precipitation is higher than that of Diyarbakir. Since the same condi-
tions apply also for the second stage of the study, it was found that the
amount of rainwater collected per person in this stage is also more in
the horizontally developed buildings with courtyards, which are in
accordance with the climate responsive design criteria.
The most effective use of rainwater in both scenario 1 and 2 was
found in the alternative in which collected rainwater is only used in
toilet flushing in Building B in the Housing Development with 2 types of
buildings and horizontally developed architecture in Diyarbakır.
4. Conclusion
This study investigated whether building form, which affects energy
consumption and building performance has any effect on water con-
servation. Regarding the relationship between the climatic region and
building form in public housing developments in this study, the amount
of rainwater that can be harvested which changes depending on several
variables including precipitation amount and yield coefficient was
discussed and compared. Based on the findings the following conclu-
sions are made in this study.
• The amount of rainwater collected on a building depends not only
on surface yield coefficient and the precipitation that occurs in the

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Fig. 9. Annual amount of mains water consumption and annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas and courtyards in Buildings A–B in Development 2.

Fig. 10. Annual amount of mains water consumption and annual amount of rainwater collected from Development 1 and Development 2.

Fig. 11. Annual amount of mains water consumption in bathrooms and toilet flushing and annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas of buildings B-C-D in
Development 1 in Bursa.

climatic region the building is in, but also depends on rainwater
catchment area which is a direct result of the building form.
• Since different rainwater catchment areas can be created depending
on the building form in housing developments that have the same
number of apartments, occupants and land area but different
building forms, the amount of rainwater harvest also differs.
• Depending on the roof catchment area, yield coefficient of the sur-
face and annual precipitation, the amount of rainwater harvested
can increase even more in horizontally developed projects than in
vertically developed projects.
• Therefore projects with building forms that are designed irrespec-
tive of climate should also be evaluated in relation to rainwater
harvest and water conservation before construction starts.
• Buildings forms that enable increased rainwater catchment areas
should be used especially in climates in which annual precipitation
volume is low.
• Depending on the number of occupants in public housing projects,
only a small percentage of annual water consumption can be met by

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Fig. 12. Annual amount of mains water consumption in bathrooms and toilet flushing and annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas and cortyards of
buildings A–B in Development 2 in Diyarbakır.

Fig. 13. Annual amount of mains water consumption and annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas of Buildings B-C-D in Development 1 in Diyarbakır.

Fig. 14. Annual amount of mains water consumption and annual amount of rainwater collected from Development 1 and Development 2 in Diyarbakır.

harvested rainwater. Therefore along with rainwater harvesting
which is one of the most important water conservation strategies,
other strategies should also be implemented.
• Because the building form variable, which has a direct effect on
rainwater harvest, also affects not only energy conservation but also
water conservation, correct decisions about this variable can con-
tribute to sustainable, climate responsive design.
Although certain water savings can be achieved by harvesting
rainwater in buildings, the effects of annual precipitation in regions
where housing developments are built, water consumption levels which
vary depending on the socio-economical status and culture of occu-
pants, all of which we cannot control during the design stage on the
water conservation of buildings should also be considered. For calcu-
lation of rainwater that can be harvested in future studies, variables

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N.İ. Şahin, G. Manioğlu
Fig. 15. Annual amount of mains water consumption in bathrooms and toilet flushing and annual amount of rainwater collected from roof areas of buildings B-C-D in
Development 1 in Diyarbakır.
such as seasonal precipitation amounts, effects of days with extreme
precipitation and rainwater tank volumes can also be used in calcula-
tions to find number of days in a year on which rainwater can be
harvested. By including these variables it can be possible to have more
detailed results and contribute to the discussions on water consump-
tion.
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