COURSE NAME: PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL

MANAGEMENT

COURSE CODE: BENV 1101

CONTACT HOURS: 60 HRS

PREPARED BY: SAMMY RATEMO KINARA

 Table of Contents
1.0 Basic Principles of Environmental Management .................................................................................... 4

1.1 Polluter Pays Principle (PPP): .............................................................................................................. 4

1.2. The User Pays Principle (UPP): ........................................................................................................... 8

1.3 The Precautionary Principle (PP): ................................................................................................. 8

1.4 Principle of Effectiveness and Efficiency:............................................................................................ 9

1.5. The Principle of Responsibility: .......................................................................................................... 9

1.6. The Principle of Participation: ............................................................................................................ 9

1.7. The Principle of Proportionality: ........................................................................................................ 9

1.8 Equity principle ................................................................................................................................... 9

2.0 Sustainable Management of the Natural Resource Base ..................................................................... 11

2.1 Natural resource ............................................................................................................................... 11

2.2 History ............................................................................................................................................... 11

2.3 Ownership regimes ........................................................................................................................... 11

State property regime ......................................................................................................................... 12

Private property regime ...................................................................................................................... 12

Common property regimes ................................................................................................................. 12

Non-property regimes (open access).................................................................................................. 12

Hybrid regimes .................................................................................................................................... 12

2.4 Management approaches ................................................................................................................. 12

Community-based natural resource management ............................................................................. 13

Adaptive management........................................................................................................................ 13

Integrated natural resource management ......................................................................................... 14

2.5 Selected Approaches to Specific Resources...................................................................................... 14

2.5.1 Integrated coastal area management........................................................................................ 14

2.5.2 Fisheries resources......................................................................................................................... 16

2.5.3 High seas fisheries ...................................................................................................................... 20

2.6. Land and biotic resources ................................................................................................................ 22

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 2.6.1 Land-use choices ........................................................................................................................ 22

2.6.2 Tropical Forests Action Programm............................................................................................. 25

3.0 Components of environment & Relationships...................................................................................... 26

3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................. 26

3.1.1 LITHOSPHERE ............................................................................................................................. 27

3.1.2 HYDROSPHERE ........................................................................................................................... 27

3.1.3 BIOSPHERE ................................................................................................................................. 27

3.1.4 ATMOSPHERE ............................................................................................................................. 28

3.2 INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE COMPONENTS AND SUBCOMPONENTS ................................ 30

3.3 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF THE ECO SYSTEM .............................................. 30

3.3.1 Ecology and Ecosystem .............................................................................................................. 30

3.3.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM ............................................... 31

3.4 DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION OF ECOSYSTEM ............................................................................... 34

3.5 ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS ............................................................................................................ 35

3.5.1 Food Chain and Food Web ......................................................................................................... 36

3.6 MATERIAL CYCLES IN ECOSYSTEMS ...................................................................................................... 37

3.6.1 Water Cycle or Hydrological Cycle ............................................................................................. 38

3.6.2 Carbon Cycle .............................................................................................................................. 38

3.6.3 Nitrogen Cycle ............................................................................................................................ 39

3.6.4 Oxygen Cycle .............................................................................................................................. 40

3.6.5 Sulphur Cycle.............................................................................................................................. 41

3.6.6 Phosphorous Cycle ..................................................................................................................... 41

3.7 NATURAL AND MAN-MADE IMPACTS ON WATER, AIR AND LAND .................................................. 42

3.7.1 Background ................................................................................................................................ 42

3.7.2 Natural Hazards.......................................................................................................................... 42

3.7.3 Manmade Impacts on Air, Water and Land ............................................................................... 47

3.8 Linkage between Natural Resource and Development: See Attached PDF Paper ........................... 59

3.9 Concrete things you can do to help our living planet ....................................................................... 59

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1.0 Basic Principles of Environmental Management
Environmental management refers to those activities which enhance beneficial links and minimise
adverse links among resources systems and their environments, and which seek to attain desirable
environmental system states, in response to community perceptions and desires, under prevailing
socio-economic and technological conditions.

In particular, the goals of resources management are often single purpose, whereas those of
environmental management are invariably multi-purpose’ this is because resources management
focuses only on its resource system while environmental management deals with both resource system
and their environments. Further, community needs and value are fundamental to environmental
management goal setting.

The Principles of Environmental Management:

These are some guiding principles of environmental management. These principles are helpful in
environmental decision making.

1.1 Polluter Pays Principle (PPP):

For the last two decades, many economists have suggested that firms discharging polluting effluents to
the environment should somehow be made to pay a price for such discharges related to the amount of
environmental damage caused.

OECD has suggested the Polluter Pays principles (PPP) as a general basis for the environmental policy. It
states that if measures are adopted to reduce pollution, the costs should be borne by the polluters.
According to the OECD Council, “The principle to be used for allocating costs of pollution prevention and
control measures to encourage rational use of scarce environmental resources and to avoid distortions
in international trade and investment is the so-called Polluter Pays Principle.” The essential concern of
this principle is that polluters should bear the costs of abatement without subsidy.

The Polluter Pays Principle, as interpreted by the Supreme Court of India, means that the absolute
liability for harm to the environment extends not only to compensate the victims of pollution but also
the cost of restoring the environmental degradation. Thus, it includes environmental costs as well as
direct costs to people or property. Remediation of the damaged environment is part of the process of
sustainable development and as such the polluter is liable to pay the cost to the individual sufferers as
well as the costs of reversing the damaged ecology.

The application of this principle depends upon the interpretations, particular cases and situations. This
principle has brought more controversial discussions during the Rio Earth Summit 1992. The South has
demanded more financial assistance from the North in combating the environmental degradation in the
South.

There are practical implications on the allocation of economic obligations in relation to environmentally
damaging activities, particularly in relation to liability and the use of economic instruments.

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The Polluter Pays Principle was first widely discussed in the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development held in Rio de Janeiro of Brazil in June 1992. This principle was endorsed by all the
attending representatives of the countries.

The PPP required that the polluter has to bear the cost of complying with environmental standards,
which are predetermined by public authorities. If the polluters have to pay for the cost of any pollution
they cause, market forces will then encourage them to change their activities either by introducing new
pollution control technologies or by switching to more efficient production process. For instance every
day, individual households, firms and industries turnover million tons of tap water into wastewater,
which requires proper treatment before disposal. Prior to the introduction of sewage charges (example
of polluter pay principle), the cost of sewage collection and treatment came entirely from the public
revenue. The disadvantages of such an arrangement are that the public is unaware of the cost of the
sewage services and therefore has no incentive to reduce water pollution.

There are two objectives with PPP towards encouraging to more efficient production process, they are:

i. To promote economic efficiency in the implementation of pollution control policies.

ii. To minimize potential trade distortions arising from environmental policies.

PPP was partly based on equity considerations (the polluter should pay the cost of any mitigation
measures), and partly ensure that countries do not provide competitive advantage for their producers
by subsidizing the pollution abatement measures.

One more important point is that PPP is not necessary to achieve an efficient solution to an
environmental problem and it does not require pollution to recede to zero levels, nor does it require
reduction to optimal level even though it is not excluded. PP required only that the environment is in an
acceptable state, which will evolve from a political process requiring inputs from local, national and
international level.

Source: http://www.dsd.gov.hk/sewage_charges/polluter_pays_principle/index.htm

There are two versions of PPP evolved. First one is equal to the price changes for the use of resources
with the cost of damage over society by using them. The changes linked directed on the process that
generates pollution. Difficulty with this procedure is the deciding right price to change, when the
damage to the society cannot be assed in monetary terms. Later the PPP asserts the full cost of
controlling pollution by an adequate measures shall be undertaken by the polluter, preferably without
public subsidy or tax concessions.

Polluter pays principle and property rights

The polluter pays principle requires either government intervention or the presence of clearly defined
property rights.

If someone has access to a river, they can sue a chemical firm if they create a cost of pollution. For other
goods, it is harder to define property rights. For example, the pollution from a car affects everyone in
society and also other countries. In this case it is impractical to extend property rights to try and deal
with the problem. The pollution faced by individuals is relatively low. In this case government regulation
is the only effective method.
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To ensure that the polluter pays, government intervention will involve:

1. Estimation of the external cost of the pollution.

2. Place a tax on good to make people pay the true social cost or they may require the firm to pay
to clean up the costs they create.

3. To make sure a firm pays, money may need to be deposited as insurance against the worst case
environmental scenario. Some environmental tragedies could cause the firm to go bankrupt
meaning it can’t cover the full environmental cost.

Difficulties of implementing polluter pays principle

 It can be difficult to measure how much pollution is produced, e.g. firms may try to hide the
extent of their pollution.

 It can be difficult to impose regulations or tax on firms from other countries. For example, when
we contribute to global warming, the problem effects everyone around the world, but it can be
difficult to create international agreements to impose penalties on those polluting.

 Pollution havens. These are countries which have weaker environmental legislation and firms
can escape taxes and regulations on pollution by shifting production to those countries.

 Some costs are unexpected and occur after the event. e.g. in building nuclear power plant.

 Administration costs of collecting information and implementing tax. For example, a few drunks
late at night may make a lot of noise and disturb the neighbourhood, but it would be impractical
to impose a tax on those who make noise after a hard-days night. Administration costs have
prevented the extension of congestion charge to smaller cities like Manchester – even though in
principle it would make economic sense to have a charge for those who cause the external cost
of congestion.

The difficulties of implementing the polluter pays principle doesn’t undermine its validity. It just means
in the real world it will be hard, if not impossible to get a perfect approximation of the external cost. As
long as we get closer to the social cost, there will be an increase in economic welfare.

However, some may argue that certain types of environmental pollution are so bad they should just be
banned rather than taxing them, e.g. it is immoral to pollute a river and therefore we shouldn’t allow it
to occur even if the polluter does pay some financial cost.

Welfare loss of external costs in a free market

If the polluter doesn’t pay, we get overconsumption and deadweight welfare loss (shown by red
triangle).

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The free market equilibrium is Q1. But at Q1, the social cost (SMC) is greater than social benefit (SMB)

Diagram showing the tax on a negative externality.

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In this example, the original market equilibrium is Q1, P1. People only pay the private marginal cost
(PMC). However, this good has an external cost so the social marginal cost (SMC) is greater than PMC. A
tax of P2-P0 makes people pay the true social cost and means the ‘polluter is paying’ the full cost. This
reduces quantity to Q2. This tax reduces the deadweight welfare loss and achieves social efficiency at
Q2.

Reverse of the Polluter Pays Principle

The reverse of the polluter pays principle is that those who experience the external costs, should be
compensated. If your environment gets polluted and your quality of life suffers, the polluter should be
taxed and the money given to those residents who had experienced the costs.

1.2. The User Pays Principle (UPP):

It is considered as a part of the PPP. The User Pays Principle is also abundantly referred to in the
literature about sustainable use and, as the Polluter Pays Principle, also aims at fuller internalization of
production costs. It states that "all resource users should pay for the full long-term marginal social cost
of the use of a resources and related services including any associated treatment cost" (Dommen, 1993,
p.151). In other terms, authorized users should pay for the exclusive privilege granted to them to use a
public resource. The principle can be implemented through payments for licences or quotas or though
taxes. The principle states that all resource users should pay for the full long-run marginal cost of the
use of a resource and related services, including any associated treatment costs. It is applied when
resources are being used and consumed.

1.3 The Precautionary Principle (PP):

The main objective of the precautionary principle is to ensure that a substance or activity posing a threat
to the environment is prevented from adversely affecting the environment, even if there is no
conclusive scientific proof of linking that particular substance or activity to environmental damage. The
words ‘substance’ and ‘activity’ are the result of human intervention.

The Rio Declaration in its Principle 15 emphasizes on this principle, wherein it is provided that where
there are threats of serious or irreversible damage. Lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a
reason for postponing cost effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. Therefore, the
principle is essential for the protection of environment and human health by implementing in the field
of production and distribution of energy resources.

The Precautionary Principle and the way to implement it (the precautionary approach) are embedded in
the UNCED Declaration (Principle 15) which provides that "the precautionary approach should be widely
applied and that, where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific
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certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation". The approach has been adopted for fisheries in the UN Fish Stock
Agreement and the FAO Code of Conduct, and guidelines are available for its practical implementation
(FAO, 1996a). Such implementation has already started in some areas, mainly in the developed world
(Garcia, 2000), but the available experience is too limited yet to allow for an appraisal of its outcome.

1.4 Principle of Effectiveness and Efficiency:

It is essential that efficiency of resources use may also be accomplished by the use of policy instruments
that create incentive to minimize wasteful use. It also applies to various issues of environmental
governance by streaming processes and procedures in order to minimize environmental costs.

1.5. The Principle of Responsibility:

It is the responsibility of all persons, corporations and states to maintain the ecological processes.
Further, access to environmental resources carries attendant responsibilities to use them in an
ecological sustainable economically efficient and socially fair manner.

1.6. The Principle of Participation:

It is the duty of all the persons to participate in collectively environmental decision making activities.
Some participation areas are related to the use of trees and other plants, minerals, soils, fish and wildlife
for purposes such as materials and food as well as for consumptive and non-consumptive recreation.
The second issue concerns solid waste i.e. garbage, construction and demolition materials and
chemically hazardous waste etc. The third issue of participation is related to pollution generating
activities.

1.7. The Principle of Proportionality:

The principle of proportionality is based on the concept of balance. A balance is to maintain between
the economic development on the one hand and environmental protection on the other hand. It cannot
be disputed that no development is possible without some adverse effects on ecology. Therefore, it is
essential to adjust the interest of the people as well as the necessity to maintain the environment.
Moreover, comparative hardships have to be balanced and benefits to a larger section of the people
have to be maintained.

1.8 Equity principle

The IEP is the central principle in the definition of sustainable development. According to the Brundtland
Report sustainability states that ‘meeting needs of present generations without compromising the
needs of future generations’. Generally this principle is considered with the trilogy of economic,
environmental and social objectives underlying sustainable development. This principle is the basis of
the environmental accounting measures of sustainable income.
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Governance should endeavour to establish and preserve equity in all its forms: intergenerational,
intragenerational, cross-sectoral, cross-boundary and cross-cultural, with special attention given to
rights of minorities. Equity implies that similar options are available to all parties, a principle of
stewardship by governments and the community. A number of sub-concepts have been referred to but
may not meet with consensus. Intergenerational equity, for instance, is widely referred to and requires
that future generations be given the same opportunity as the present ones to decide on how to use the
resources. It can be sought through avoidance of actions that are not potentially reversible on some
agreed time scale (e.g. a human generation), consideration of long-term consequences in decision-
making and rehabilitation of degraded physical and biological environments. Lack of intragenerational
equity (i.e equity among sections of the present generation) is recognized as one major source of
conflict and source of non-compliance. Intersectoral equity would seem very hard to define and
operationalize but would imply, for instance, that the fishery sector be fairly treated when its interests
conflict with those of other sectors. Cross-boundary equity may be a condition to successful shared
stocks agreements. Intercultural equity is relevant when allocating resources to different cultures or
defining rights of minorities (e.g. between indigenous and other populations).

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2.0 Sustainable Management of the Natural Resource Base

2.1 Natural resource

A natural resource is anything that people can use which comes from nature. People do not make
natural resources, but gather them from the earth. Examples of natural resources are air, water, wood,
oil, wind energy, iron, and coal.

Natural resource management refers to the management of natural resources such as land, water, soil,
plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of life for both
present and future generations (stewardship).

Natural resource management deals with managing the way in which people and natural landscapes
interact. It brings together land use planning, water management, biodiversity conservation, and the
future sustainability of industries like agriculture, mining, tourism, fisheries and forestry. It recognises
that people and their livelihoods rely on the health and productivity of our landscapes, and their actions
as stewards of the land play a critical role in maintaining this health and productivity.

Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical understanding of

resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those resources. Environmental management
is also similar to natural resource management. In academic contexts, the sociology of natural resources
is closely related to, but distinct from, natural resource management.

2.2 History
The emphasis on sustainability can be traced back to early attempts to understand the ecological nature
of North American rangelands in the late 19th century, and the resource conservation movement of the
same time. This type of analysis coalesced in the 20th century with recognition that preservationist
conservation strategies had not been effective in halting the decline of natural resources. A more
integrated approach was implemented recognising the intertwined social, cultural, economic and
political aspects of resource management. A more holistic, national and even global form evolved, from
the Brundtland Commission and the advocacy of sustainable development.

2.3 Ownership regimes

Natural resource management approaches can be categorised according to the kind and right of
stakeholders, natural resources:

 State property
 Private property
 Common property
 Non-property (open access)
 Hybrid

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State property regime
Ownership and control over the use of resources is in hands of the state. Individuals or groups may be
able to make use of the resources, but only at the permission of the state. National forest, National
parks and military reservations are some US examples.

Private property regime

Any property owned by a defined individual or corporate entity. Both the benefit and duties to the
resources fall to the owner(s). Private land is the most common example.

Common property regimes

It is a private property of a group. The group may vary in size, nature and internal structure e.g.
indigenous tribe, neighbours of village. Some examples of common property are community forests and
water resources.

Non-property regimes (open access)

There is no definite owner of these properties. Each potential user has equal ability to use it as they
wish. These areas are the most exploited. It is said that "Everybody's property is nobody’s property". An
example is a lake fishery. This ownership regime is often linked to the tragedy of the commons.

Hybrid regimes
Many ownership regimes governing natural resources will contain parts of more than one of the regimes
described above, so natural resource managers need to consider the impact of hybrid regimes. An
example of such a hybrid is native vegetation management in NSW, Australia, where legislation
recognises a public interest in the preservation of native vegetation, but where most native vegetation
exists on private land.

2.4 Management approaches

Natural resource management issues are inherently complex as they involve the ecological cycles,
hydrological cycles, climate, animals, plants and geography etc. All these are dynamic and inter-related.
A change in one of them may have far reaching and/or long term impacts which may even be
irreversible. In addition to the natural systems, natural resource management also has to manage
various stakeholders and their interests, policies, politics, geographical boundaries, economic
implications and the list goes on. It is very difficult to satisfy all aspects at the same time. This results in
conflicting situations.

After the United Nations Conference for the Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992, most nations subscribed to new principles for the integrated management of land,
water, and forests. Although program names vary from nation to nation, all express similar aims.

The various approaches applied to natural resource management include:

 Top-down (command and control)

 Community-based natural resource management

 Adaptive management
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  Precautionary approach

 Integrated natural resource management

Community-based natural resource management

The community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) approach combines conservation
objectives with the generation of economic benefits for rural communities. The three key assumptions
being that: locals are better placed to conserve natural resources, people will conserve a resource only if
benefits exceed the costs of conservation, and people will conserve a resource that is linked directly to
their quality of life.[5] When a local people’s quality of life is enhanced, their efforts and commitment to
ensure the future well-being of the resource are also enhanced. Regional and community based natural
resource management is also based on the principle of subsidiarity.

The United Nations advocates CBNRM in the Convention on Biodiversity and the Convention to Combat
Desertification. Unless clearly defined, decentralised NRM can result an ambiguous socio-legal
environment with local communities racing to exploit natural resources while they can e.g. forest
communities in central Kalimantan (Indonesia).

A problem of CBNRM is the difficulty of reconciling and harmonising the objectives of socioeconomic
development, biodiversity protection and sustainable resource utilization. The concept and conflicting
interests of CBNRM, show how the motives behind the participation are differentiated as either people-
centred (active or participatory results that are truly empowering) or planner-centred (nominal and
results in passive recipients). Understanding power relations is crucial to the success of community
based NRM. Locals may be reluctant to challenge government recommendations for fear of losing
promised benefits.

CBNRM is based particularly on advocacy by nongovernmental organizations working with local groups
and communities, on the one hand, and national and transnational organizations, on the other, to build
and extend new versions of environmental and social advocacy that link social justice and environmental
management agendas with both direct and indirect benefits observed including a share of revenues,
employment, diversification of livelihoods and increased pride and identity. CBNRM has raised new
challenges, as concepts of community, territory, conservation, and indigenous are worked into politically
varied plans and programs in disparate sites.

Adaptive management
The primary methodological approach adopted by catchment management authorities (CMAs) for
regional natural resource management in Australia is adaptive management.

This approach includes recognition that adaption occurs through a process of ‘plan-do-review-act’. It
also recognises seven key components that should be considered for quality natural resource
management practice:

 Determination of scale

 Collection and use of knowledge

 Information management

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  Monitoring and evaluation
 Risk management

 Community engagement
 Opportunities for collaboration.

Integrated natural resource management

Integrated natural resource management (INRM) is a process of managing natural resources in a
systematic way, which includes multiple aspects of natural resource use (biophysical, socio-political, and
economic) meet production goals of producers and other direct users (e.g., food security, profitability,
risk aversion) as well as goals of the wider community (e.g., poverty alleviation, welfare of future
generations, environmental conservation). It focuses on sustainability and at the same time tries to
incorporate all possible stakeholders from the planning level itself, reducing possible future conflicts.
The conceptual basis of INRM has evolved in recent years through the convergence of research in
diverse areas such as sustainable land use, participatory planning, integrated watershed management,
and adaptive management INRM is being used extensively and been successful in regional and
community based natural management.

2.5 Selected Approaches to Specific Resources

I. Integrated coastal area management

II. Fisheries resources

III. Land and biotic resources

IV. Rural energy resources

2.5.1 Integrated coastal area management

The continental shelves and coastal ecosystems of Small Island developing States are of major economic
significance for settlement, subsistence and commercial agriculture, fisheries and tourism. Demands on
coastal resources are endangering the long-term supply of these resources: large parts of coastal areas
are being polluted by local or upland resources, fisheries over-exploited and fish habitats degraded,
coastal belt mangroves cut, wetlands drained, coral reefs destroyed, fresh water aquifers are subject to
depletion and salinity, biodiversity conservation is threatened, and opportunities for aesthetic
enjoyment of scenery reduced. Of particular concern to low-lying small islands is damage to natural
systems such as coral reefs, dune lands, and coastal mangrove belts, which significantly reduces the
protection they provide against natural disasters of marine origin (i.e. tsunamis, tidal surges and wave
erosion).

The disruption of small islands societies' traditions sometimes by policy action or strong external factors
through accelerated development, demographic growth, high rates of urbanization and often strong
emigration fluxes are weakening traditional mechanisms of control, thus rendering coastal resources
increasingly vulnerable to over-exploitation. Added to these sources of disruption are new problems
such as more frequent natural disasters and rapid environmental changes which result in the
degradation of terrestrial and marine habitats in coastal areas.
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Increasingly in recent years, it is being understood that the search for solutions to conflicting demands
in coastal areas must involve the various users and administrations concerned. With respect to land
tenure, historically, small islands featured hierarchies of land ownership rights from which social status
was derived. Environmental regulations limiting land use and controlling access to natural resources
have been challenged by landowners who interpret any attempt to limit land rights as a challenge to
their social status. The involvement and support of traditional leaders in introducing sustainable
development practices is also necessary.

By the mid-1980s, the weakness of conventional sectoral planning in reaching sustainable solutions to
conflicting demands for coastal resources was apparent. In response, multi-sectoral, integrated
approaches to coastal area management began to be developed, in developed countries primarily, but
also in some developing ones. UNCED gave support to this process by stressing the importance for Small
Island developing States to develop national policies and management capabilities for multi-sectoral use
of coastal areas.

Conservation and sustainable management of resources of coastal areas is known as integrated coastal
area management (ICAM). This offers the means to balance the competing demands of different users
of the same resources and to manage the resources sustainably.

Most archipelagic developing States have not established systems for the evaluation of their resources,
nor the institutional and technical capacities to formulate and implement sound multiple-use strategies.
A characteristic common to all small island developing States is the small number of skilled and
experienced people available in most fields of activity. Finding people with the necessary experience to
staff a government institution responsible for coordinating multiple use of resources, and taking an
appropriate role in pro-active management will tax many island administrations.

Coordinating between sectors will be easier if line ministries and users of natural resources recognize
their respective roles in the ICAM process and the impact of their activities on resource users in the
sector itself and in other sectors. They must also have the capacity to monitor and assess the effect of
the activities of other sectors on them.

Though of limited extents, the ecologies of most small islands are complex and varied. Detailed analysis
of agro-ecological conditions is therefore required to provide an adequate form of integration and
define improved multiple use of the natural resources.

The agriculture, forestry and fisheries sub-sectors are the chief users of resources in the coastal areas of
Small Island developing States. To assist line ministries in their tasks of designing and implementing
ICAM, guidelines such as those being prepared by FAO on the integration of agriculture, forestry and
fisheries in integrated coastal area management will be most helpful- Guidelines can also be of
assistance for planners and resource users at sub-sectoral level. FAO has also prepared guidelines on
topics such as the environmental management of coastal aquaculture, the mapping and inventory of
mangroves, and coastal rice culture.

FAO considers it important that appropriate emphasis be placed on specific training in integrated
management for line agency staff. In this connection, it is collaborating with other UN agencies in the

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plan for human resources development and capacity-building for the planning and management of
coastal and marine areas.

FAO has pioneered the concept of integrated coastal fisheries management (ICFM) as part of ICAM. The
basis of this concept is twofold. First, the sea has long been seen as a bottomless sink into which flow
pollutants produced on land which degrade marine habitats. Second, due to the open access nature of
most fisheries, in many developing countries, small-scale fisheries become the employer of last resort
when there is a surplus of unskilled labour in land-based sectors. This results in decreasing yields from
already over-stressed fisheries. The open access nature of the resource also facilitates entry of industrial
vessels into artisanal fisheries, contributing to overfishing and often resulting in social conflict. In many
cases, it is in the interest of the fishery sector, far more than any other, to take a proactive role in
initiating integrated management of natural resource use.

"Integrated Coastal Fisheries Management in Trinidad and Tobago"

Within a broader framework of ICAM, the UNDP/FAO project (1993-94) addresses the inter-relationship
between fisheries management and other sectors in coastal areas of the Gulf of Paria including: urban
development and housing, reclamation of wetlands for agriculture, run-off of agricultural inputs,
depletion of natural forests in upland areas, hydrocarbon exploration and processing, and shipping. Data
gathering and research for a better scientific understanding of coastal resources, socio-economic and
cultural aspects of fishing communities and other users of the coastal and marine areas, greater
awareness about the management needs of the fisheries and the coastal area, and the joint action of a
number of government (local and national) agencies and users are the main components of this pilot
project.

2.5.2 Fisheries resources

Fisheries within the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs)

High seas fisheries

Fisheries within the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs)

All small island developing States heavily depend on renewable marine resources, degree of
dependence, however, is especially high in coralline atolls which have much smaller agriculture and
other economic activities than large islands. However, all small island developing States face the same
challenge of implementing sustainable development strategies for their renewable marine resources.

A large number of fish species are found in the EEZs of small islands; in some cases, more than 1000
species have been identified. In coastal, inshore areas (i.e. the area generally within national territorial
limits), most fish species are biologically fragile, and in unmanaged fisheries or damaged environments,
risk being over-exploited.

The use of living marine resources of these countries can be broadly classified into five types of activity:

* artisanal fishing for subsistence and supply of local markets;

* artisanal and semi-industrial fishing directed towards resources for export and/or the tourist trade;
16
 * industrial fishing for highly migratory species (mostly by foreign fleets);
* aquaculture; and
* recreational fishing and diving.
Fishing for subsistence and for the supply of local markets is the traditional fishing activity of Small
Island developing States. Though single species fisheries (e.g. mullet) are often targeted on a seasonal
basis, many of these are mixed-species fisheries. Inshore resources close to urban areas, or population
concentrations around semi-enclosed lagoons (e.g. in small island developing States composed of
clusters of atolls), tend to be heavily overfished and in dire need of sustainable management. There are
great differences in management requirements between countries, in part due to the large variety of
fishing communities and consumers. For instance, some South Pacific countries with large indigenous
populations maintain traditional community-based systems of user rights; elsewhere, such systems have
all but disappeared. Also, whereas for some small island developing States the ocean is the only source
of protein, for some larger volcanic highlands, land-based protein sources play a much larger role. The
main management issues for this type of activity concern resource allocation conflicts, unsustainable
fishing practices, and enforcement of harvest-control and conservation regulations. Often due to lack of
management, these fisheries are perceived as the last resort for those who cannot succeed or
participate in other fisheries or economic activities. Pressure on these fisheries can therefore vary
according to job opportunities in other fisheries, and to the performance of the general economy of the
country

Since economic returns from this activity are low, research into improved management practices has
tended to be neglected. However, such long-term research and technical cooperation programmes as
there are (Coastal Resources Programme of the South Pacific Commission, resource assessment and
management initiatives of FAO/WECAFC and CARICOM in the Caribbean) have been heralded as
essential to fill this gap and face the problem of overfishing.

Fisheries for the tourist sector and/or export are a relatively recent and rapid development in most
Small Island developing States. This has often resulted in significant biological overfishing due to the
desire to benefit from the potential by high value of the harvest. These fisheries are mainly carried out
by local fishermen and thus more of the benefits remain within the country. They suffer from the
instability of prices for the products on world markets. Indeed, the need to earn hard currency through
export, and the will to minimize social conflicts, has often led most governments to adopt resource
management policies based on minimal intervention. Many island governments, like most other coastal
countries, did not foresee the need for careful management of the resources when the fishery was
developing, and today the need has become urgent in the face of diminishing stocks. Active
management of this type of resource at national level (or at regional level where this is justified) will
greatly benefit Small Island developing States by allowing the stocks to rebuild.

Coastal fisheries in most Small Island developing States are small-scale in nature. However, there are
some industrial fisheries which target high-value resources such as shrimp. Though the catch taken by
industrial fleets tends to be small (often less than 1,500 tonnes per annum), revenue earned from
industrial fisheries exports contributes significantly to total export income.

17
Because of a shortage of expertise, and the difficulties of hard-pressed national fisheries administrations
to manage inshore fisheries effectively, many small island developing States have little information
concerning the dynamics or status of particular fish stocks and the socioeconomic aspects of fisheries
organization and exploitation. Yet such information is essential for improving fisheries management. In
order to address this lack of management information, by determining parameters and the status of
inshore fish stocks, scientific investigation with a clearly defined, applied focus is needed. This
investigation should be accompanied by appropriate socio-economic analysis of the activities of fishing
communities.

Where the capacity of national fisheries administrations of Small Island developing States to undertake
routine scientific and socio-economic assessments is limited, assistance can be obtained from regional
organizations and national/regional universities; affiliation with foreign fisheries laboratories and
research institutes can also be considered. Assistance, particularly of a shorter-term nature, might also
be obtained from international organizations.

"Review of Traditional Fisheries Management Systems in the South Pacific"

Conventional fisheries management systems have had only limited impact m many small island
developing States and the wisdom of promoting management systems based on traditional practice is
now internationally recognized. Prior to colonial contact, most coastal communities in the South Pacific
exercised strong and effective control over the exploitation of living marine resources within their
communal jurisdictions. Though the effectiveness of these traditional fisheries management systems has
been eroded, the foundations remain and could be used to rebuild more sustainable fisheries
management in the region. While no universal management system based on traditional practice can be
prescribed for the South Pacific, FAO is commissioning (1994) a series of applied studies of traditional
practices as a means of securing basic information for use in the formulation and promotion of more
effective fisheries management systems in the region.

It is being increasingly recognized that conventional approaches to fisheries management have failed to
promote sustainable resource use. Where islands are populated largely by indigenous peoples,
particularly in the South Pacific, efforts should be made to build on traditional methods of fisheries
management such as regulated access to resources and exploitation by user groups.

Beyond territorial limits but within their EEZs, many small island developing States have substantial
offshore oceanic resources, particularly tuna (Indian Ocean and the South Pacific) and other large-scale
pelagic species such as swordfish (Caribbean). Some States known as high islands, being extensions of
submerged mountain chains, do not have extensive coastal reef areas which characterize low islands
such as atolls. Therefore, high island developing States depend on the pelagic fisheries resources within
their EEZs for subsistence, industry development, and the generation of government revenue from the
licensing of foreign fishing fleets.

Due to their feeding habits, oceanic stocks are sometimes tied to coastal fish communities. Three
priority areas exist for the management of these resources:

* actively participating in the evaluation of the resource potential and in elaborating management
strategies through regional cooperation on research and management;

18
 * increasing the share of benefits to the island country derived from the extraction of resources by
foreign countries within the island States' EEZ; and

* developing effective control and surveillance systems to monitor the activities of industrial fleets.

The first and third points generally require initial external assistance, but they should be regarded as
costs of management by the coastal country to be passed on to the harvesting fleets in one form or
another. Notwithstanding the difficulties involved, management of these resources through regional
cooperation (e.g. by the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency) is one of the few examples of successful
management to be found within the group of small island developing States. Management of these
fisheries remains an issue for these States, as fishing licenses often represent a very large contribution
to their foreign earnings. Oceanic fisheries are considered by many States as a priority area with high
development potential.

"FAO-1ed Cooperative Research on Interactions in Pacific Tuna Fisheries"

Activities are undertaken under this project through a network of 10 working Groups (TUNET) composed
of 65 scientists from 23 countries, involving Pacific island countries. A comprehensive review of tuna in
the region has been undertaken and on-going work includes an assessment of the bio-economic
interactions in tuna fisheries, and an assessment of the impact of fisheries outside the EEZs on tuna
resources inside the area. These assessments will help small island countries to further improve their
resource management. Following the recommendations of the first FAO Expert Consultation in Noumea
in 1991 and subsequent discussions within TUNET, the activities of the project focus particularly on
skipjack and yellow fin tuna, emphasizing: improvement of existing methods and development of new
methods for studying tuna fisheries interactions, and examination, testing and application of methods
for addressing typical tuna fisheries interaction problems occurring in the Pacific- A second FAO Expert
Consultation is expected to be held at the end of 1994 to: review and integrate the results of the
research undertaken; summarize various approaches to studying tuna fisheries interactions; formulate
detailed guidelines regarding their applicability and reliability; and make recommendations on future
research.

The potential of coastal aquaculture, particularly for export markets, is limited and it is therefore not
well developed, except for a few species in a small number of countries. Although aquaculture has been
demonstrated to be technically viable in Small Island developing States (e.g. South Pacific), achieving the
economies of scale needed to face the competition from high-volume producers like Indonesia and the
Philippines, which are geographically better placed, is difficult. There are, however, a number of regional
and national small island aquaculture programmes focusing on the production of shrimp, seaweed, etc.
This is normally undertaken on a semi-intensive or extensive basis. Intensive culture is rare and, if
introduced, could easily threaten island ecosystems, as has happened in a number of Asian countries.

In some islands, pearl culture has been demonstrated to be a feasible option, appropriate to local
conditions and traditions, which poses few environmental threats. Pearl culture requires medium- to
high-technology inputs and for this reason is undertaken on a semi-industrial basis. Clam culture, which
is similarly well-suited and adaptable to island environments and small-scale culture, is practiced in
some islands. Clam culture can play an important future role in the re-seeding of reefs in island areas

19
where clam resources, and notably giant clam resources, have been stripped by foreign fishermen (e.g.
South Pacific islands).

2.5.3 High seas fisheries

High seas fishery resources are of special significance to Small Island developing States for food security
and especially as a means of promoting and financing national economic development. In the Caribbean,
the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific, straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks are
harvested extensively by small-scale fishermen, and in the latter two regions this is done by national and
foreign fishing fleets in the EEZs of Small Island developing States and on the adjacent high seas.

Based on several legal and policy references (see box) and the internationally accepted criteria they
contain, small island developing States on several counts qualify for special consideration with respect
to high seas fisheries:

* they are all economically underdeveloped, and eight of them (Cape Verde, Comoros, Haiti, Kiribati,
Maldives, Samoa, Tuvalu and Vanuatu) were classified by the United Nations in 1991 as having "least
developed status";

* all are environmentally vulnerable, especially those States consisting of atoll formations;

* by their nature and geographical location, most have a high rate of dependence on fisheries and the
oceans;

* many have a high potential to exploit straddling fish stocks and highly migratory species, and

* all have strong fish eating traditions and high demand for fish products which constitute their main
source of animal protein; some of them, for example Kiribati and the Maldives, have per capita
consumption rates that are among the highest in the world (90-100 kg per year).

Straddling or highly migratory fish species are the principal ones consumed in some islands (e.g. the
Maldives where consumption by nationals consists almost entirely of skipjack tuna).

These species are harvested by small-scale fishermen and nationally-owned industrial fleets. However,
when viewed globally, the exploitation of these resources, and in particular highly migratory species, by
Small Island developing States, is small relative to the harvestable resource available within their
respective regions.

As a consequence of the limited harvesting capacity available to Small Island developing States, and a
general lack of domestic infrastructure to support industrial fishing operations (e.g. fleets, water
availability, fuel dumps, dry-dock facilities, etc.), foreign fishing fleets targeting pelagic resources are
licensed to operate in the EEZs of small islands in the Indian Ocean and in the South Pacific. These fleets,
using pole-and-line, long line and purse-seine gears, are principally from France, Japan, the Republic of
Korea, the Philippines, Taiwan (Province of China), Spain and the United States. Revenue derived from
access-fee payments under these bilateral and multilateral licensing arrangements in some cases (e.g.
the Federated States of Micronesia) account for more than 50 percent of domestically-generated
revenue. Fees are usually related, on an historical basis, to the value (determined by species and
volume) of the fish harvested by a vessel in a specified time period. However, very limited means of

20
control over actual catches are available to the licensing States and their relations with foreign fleets,
often backed by their respective governments, are unequal.

Because of the migratory nature of many offshore species of fish of importance to Small Island
developing States, research on population dynamics and related issues is best conducted through
international programmes. Directly, or through affiliations with international or regional organizations,
small island developing States are in position to provide direction to, and benefit from, these
programmes.

Of primary concern is the adverse impact of unregulated and un-managed use of resources on the high
seas which adversely affect resources within their EEZs. Since most high seas resources are straddling
stocks, this concern is legitimate since poor management can place both small-scale and industrial
sustainable production in jeopardy. It was essentially these concerns that prompted South Pacific islands
in the late 1980s to strongly oppose high-seas fishing with large-scale pelagic driftnets by Asian fleets.

Agenda 21, adopted at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development, clearly showed that
developing countries can only fulfil agreed objectives for the conservation and sustainable use of living
marine resources of the high seas if they have the required financial, scientific and technological means
at their disposal. In this connection small island developing States and islands supporting small
communities constituted a "special case" for assistance to enable them to participate effectively in the
conservation and sustainable utilization of adjacent high seas living marine resources.

In view of the importance of high seas resources and fisheries, and in particular tuna resources, small
island developing States have been particularly active in the deliberations of the UN Conference on
Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks. By presenting consolidated regional positions on
matters before the Conference and consulting inter-regionally on them, they have sought to redress the
disadvantages they face in international fora because of their small size. By means of this approach,
these island States have been able to influence discussion and issues relating to straddling fish stocks
and highly migratory fish stocks.

The most impressive contributions to that Conference have been made by South Pacific Small Island
developing States. At each session, these States provided regional perspectives, based on more than a
decade of experience, on issues such as the regional management of fisheries, minimum data
requirements for conservation and management of fisheries, monitoring, control and surveillance, the
role of port States in fisheries management and the special requirements of developing States with
respect to fisheries management. The many contributions made by South Pacific island States vis-a-vis
contributions from other small island developing States in the Caribbean and Indian Ocean reflect the
importance of fisheries to the South Pacific region as a primary vehicle for socio-economic development
and the long experience of these States in promoting their own fleets and in dealing with distant-water
fishing nations under licensing arrangements.

"The International Legal and Policy References Underscoring the Importance of High Seas Fisheries"

* Article 119 (1) (a) of the 1982 Convention on the Law of the Sea (the 1982 Convention) in which the
"...special requirements of developing States" are recognized with respect: to determining allowable fish
catches and the establishment of other measures for the living resources of the high seas.

21
* The Strategy for Fisheries Management and Development, adopted by the 1984 FAO World
Conference on Fisheries Management and Development noted that "... due consideration should be
given to the special role of small-scale fisheries in the economies of island States where they are often
the major source of employment and foreign exchange earnings".

* The 1992, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development proclaimed that "... the special
situation and needs of developing countries, particularly the least developed and those most
environmentally, vulnerable, shall be given special priority".

* At the 1992 FAO Technical Consultation on High Seas Fishing the issue of developing countries and
high seas fisheries resources was considered. In its report the Consultation "stressed particularly the
situation of small island countries with a high economic dependency on fisheries and the oceans In
general, coastal States with a high potential to exploit highly migratory fishery resources, and countries,
with a high demand for fish and fishery products due to large populations and fish eating traditions. FAO
was requested to undertake a special programme of assistance to such developing countries as part of a
global effort to secure greater food supplies and food security as well as to promote responsible
fishing."

* The Chairman's Negotiating Text for the 1993-94 UN Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly
Migratory Fish Stocks makes specific reference to the special requirements of developing countries and
underlines the central position of Small Island developing States (Part X). The Text recognizes that: "para
53. In giving effect to the duty to cooperate in the establishment of conservation and management
measures for straddling fish stocks and highly migratory species, States shall take into account the
special requirements of developing countries, in particular: the vulnerability of developing countries
whose geographical situation makes them dependent upon the exploitation of living marine resources
for the nutritional requirements of their populations or parts thereof; the vulnerability of developing
countries, particularly small island developing States whose populations are culturally and economically
dependent on marine resources, especially in terms of the impact on subsistence fisheries".

2.6. Land and biotic resources

Land and biotic resources include but not limited to:

i. Land-use choices
ii. Watershed management
iii. Greening activities
iv. Protected areas and biological diversity
v. Plant genetic resources
vi. Managing risk due to natural hazards

2.6.1 Land-use choices

The small size of many island developing States makes competition for land more severe than in larger
countries. Large commercial plantations were frequently established under the colonial system, and
continue today in the more fertile plains of island countries, forcing many small farmers to resort to the

22
poorer soils in hilly regions. This, combined with poor land use practices, has resulted in deforestation
and soil erosion.

Due to the peculiar geological characteristics of many islands, water resources are scarce, often limited
to thin lenses of freshwater floating on sea water, recharged by rainfall. Poor management of watershed
catchment areas and of water flowing through agro-ecosystems, particularly irrigation supplies, can lead
to water scarcity and pollution of downstream supplies. Population pressure, expanding tourism, and
reduced precipitations of recent decades, have resulted in the over-exploitation of groundwater and
seawater intrusion, with subsequent further deterioration of water quality and quantity.

Land use planning is a prerequisite for long-term sustainability, since without it, the economic and social
fabric of society as a whole will be endangered. Advice on area-specific soil and water conservation, and
management practices will be needed for farmers, graziers and others. Such advice will only be adopted
if it is perceived as being capable of bringing rapid economic returns to the users without threatening
their fragile survival strategies. Success will also depend on guaranteeing long-term rights to land and
water resources.

"Land Use Planning, Management and Information System in Grenada"

Grenada is highly dependent on agriculture, deriving 90 percent of its export earnings from this source,
though the sector has stagnated over the past three years due to a combination of low export prices and
declining productivity of the traditional export crops. The agricultural development strategy of the
Government is to improve the productivity of traditional export crops, while diversifying into
nontraditional crops for export and for agro-industrial integration into the expanding tourist sector.
Emphasis will also be placed on increased domestic food production. The strategy involves bringing idle
private and public lands back into production, and strengthening private and public sector institutions.
Topography is a key factor in implementing the above strategy. On the islands of Grenada and Carriacou,
approximately 77 percent and 54 percent respectively of the land area has slopes exceeding 20 degrees.
Only 33 percent of the soils are deep, well drained, and free of cultivation constraints. The rest, apart
from excessive slopes, are shallow or rocky, or have seasonal drainage problems. A favourable feature of
Grenadine geography is a well-defined system of watersheds governed by the topographic position of
the rivers and streams. The system of watersheds offers the opportunity for the establishment of
rational land use consistent with the characteristics and conditions of each watershed, and with the
need for soil and water conservation. The main objectives of this newly launched project (1993-94) are
to create the technical basis to support rational development and conservation of the country's natural
resources, and to develop an effective forestry management policy, and forest area conservation and
development programme for the country. The project will provide specialized technical assistance and
practical hands-on training to local technical staff in the establishment and development of
computerized natural resources information systems. The project is designed to provide a rapid
response to an immediate need affecting the country's food production and the degradation of its
natural resources. It is expected to contribute to establishing a sound basis for natural resource planning
and policy formulation at both national and watershed levels.

More specifically, the following needs to be emphasized:

23
 * sound cropping practices and cropping systems which maintain soil fertility and productivity for
sustainable crop yields as well as practices such as soil testing and analysis to determine fertilizer
recommendations on a soil- and crop-specific basis. Land evaluation/land use planning are pre-
requisites for sound land use and crop diversification. Development of land information systems will
make a vital contribution to improved resource management;

* suitable water harvesting methods, both for domestic and agricultural use (supplementary
irrigation), aiming at significantly increasing the groundwater recharge as well as collection and storage
of rainwater from ground catchments;

* use of biomass residues (e.g. bagasse from the sugarcane industry), as a source of plant nutrients,
will reduce use of mineral fertilizers in favour of nutrient sources available within the farm. This would
contribute to environmental protection and decrease pollution of soils and groundwater.

Land conditions are similar in all coral island countries, and, apart from those affected by human action,
soils are homogeneous. The main restrictions on land use are urban encroachment, tourism, established
tree crops, especially coconut, or the existence of improved soils devoted to market gardening. Where
choices for land use are still available in these islands, integrated coastal area management should be
applied in a comprehensive programme of land use planning.

In small low-lying coastal areas, land well suited for agriculture is under severe pressure from expansion
of housing, industry, and tourism. Under the market system, with private land ownership, the
immediate economic returns from such uses of land always override the longer-term benefits to be
derived from sustainable but low-return agriculture.

Economic pressures thus make it difficult for the rural sector to opt for the sustainable use of the
resources entrusted to its care, such as:

* light use of coastal mangrove forests, while maintaining the additional functions of nursery areas for
marine species, and protection against major damage to adjacent land from cyclones or tidal waves;

* brackish-water fish ponds in humid climates or salt pans in and or semi-arid conditions;

* cultivation of wetland rice or appropriate dryland crops, irrigated or rainfed, with flood protection
and water control (mainly drainage facilities);

* cultivation of annual crops, adaptable to changing conditions, or perennial crops, entailing long-term
decisions and larger investment; and

* conservation of local germplasm offered by traditional farming systems.

Hilly or mountainous areas face a different, but no less difficult, set of choices. Depending on climate,
geology, landform and soils, the land may have high or low potential for nature conservation, forestry,
grazing, production of perennial or long-term crops or cultivation of annual crops. Conditions can vary
greatly over short distances, and the optimal response to a country's needs and objectives may well be a
mosaic of different land uses and protected areas.

In small island developing States, the relationship between forests and trees, and other types of land use
and economic activities, is critical. Forestry should be systematically represented in national and district
24
planning commissions, land use zoning activities, town planning, energy and infrastructure strategies, as
well as in planning for generation of income, employment, and food security. Forests and trees and the
products and services they provide must be validated and valorized in view of their role in the
protection of water resources and of the environment in general.

2.6.2 Tropical Forests Action Programm

Forest resources contribute to environmental protection and food security. Rural people exercise
important customary rights over forest products, which have traditionally been used sustainably.
Current forestry problems originate, among others, from official policies which are not supportive of
sustainable management and utilization of forest and tree resources, The importance of forest
resources has motivated many Caribbean island countries to develop appropriate inter-island forestry
and environmental networks to promote forestry research, as well as carrying out Tropical Forests
Action Programmes (TFAP) in order to implement the sustainable management of forest resources. The
TFAF planning phase in Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St. Kitts and
Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago is concluded and the
implementation started in November 1993. This multinational exercise defined regional issues and
produced key documents, including a survey of forest management and silvicultural systems in the
region. In the Pacific, Fiji is already implementing a TFAP-framed national forestry action plan, Vanuatu
and Solomon Islands are starting the planning phase, and others (Kiribati, Micronesia, Tonga, Tuvalu,
and Western Samoa) have expressed interest in launching a TFAP process. A TFAP Training Workshop for
this region is scheduled for May 1994. In Africa, Cape Verde Islands are in active preparation of their
National Forestry Action Plan, and a recently held national Forestry Congress has highlighted the overall
progress achieved and original aspects of forestry in the country. Legislation and planning exercises are
under way in the Comoros Islands.

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3.0 Components of environment & Relationships
The term environment has been derived from a French word “Environia” means to surround. It refers to
both abiotic (physical or non-living) and biotic (living) environment. The word environment means
surroundings, in which organisms live. Environment and the organisms are two dynamic and complex
component of nature. Environment regulates the life of the organisms including human beings. Human
beings interact with the environment more vigorously than other living beings. Ordinarily environment
refers to the materials and forces that surrounds the living organism.

Environment is the sum total of conditions that surrounds us at a given point of time and space. It is
comprised of the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural elements which are interlinked
both individually and collectively. Environment is the sum total of conditions in which an organism has
to survive or maintain its life process. It influences the growth and development of living forms.

In other words environment refers to those surroundings that surrounds living beings from all sides and
affect their lives in total. It consists of atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. Its chief
components are soil, water, air, organisms and solar energy. It has provided us all the resources for
leading a comfortable life.

1. According to P. Gisbert “Environment is anything immediately surrounding an object and exerting a

direct influence on it.”

2. According to E. J. Ross “Environment is an external force which influences us.”

Thus, environment refers to anything that is immediately surrounding an object and exerting a direct
influence on it. Our environment refers to those thing or agencies which though distinct from us, affect
our life or activity. The environment by which man is surrounded and affected by factors which may be
natural, artificial, social, biological and psychological.

3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT

The term Environment can be broadly defined as one’s surroundings. To be more specific we can say
that it is the physical and biological habitat that surrounds us, which can be felt by our physical faculties
(seen, heard, touched, smelled and tasted.)

The two major classifications of environment are :

(A) Physical Environment: External physical factors like Air, Water, and Land etc. This is also called the
Abiotic Environment.

(B) Living Environment: All living organisms around us viz. plants, animals, and microorganisms. This is
also called the Biotic Environment.

Earth’s environment can be further subdivided into the following four segments:

(1) Lithosphere

(2) Hydrosphere

26
(3) Atmosphere

(4) Biosphere.

3.1.1 LITHOSPHERE
The earth’s crust consisting of the soil and rocks is the lithosphere. The soil is made up of inorganic and
organic matter and water. The main mineral constituents are compounds or mixtures derived from the
elements of Si, Ca, K, Al, Fe, Mn, Ti, O etc. (Oxides, Silicates, and Carbonates).

The organic constituents are mainly polysaccharides, organo compounds of N, P and S. The organic
constituents even though form only around 4% – 6% of the lithosphere, they are responsible for the
fertility of the soil and hence its productivity.

3.1.2 HYDROSPHERE
This comprises all water resources both surface and ground water. The world’s water is found in oceans
and seas, lakes and reservoirs, rivers and streams, glaciers and snowcaps in the Polar Regions in addition
to ground water below the land areas. The distribution of water among these resources is as under
Table 1.1

Table 1.1: Hydrosphere composition

Oceans and Seas 96–97 %

Glaciers and polar icecaps 2–3 %

Fresh water < 1%

The water locked up in the Oceans and Seas are too salty and cannot be used directly for human
consumption, domestic, agriculture or Industrial purposes. Only less than 1% of water resources are
available for human exploitation. Water is considered to be a common compound with uncommon
properties. These uncommon properties (e.g. anomalous expansion of water) are mainly responsible for
supporting terrestrial and aquatic life on earth.

3.1.3 BIOSPHERE
The biosphere is a capsule encircling the earth’s surface wherein all the living things exist. This portion
extends from 10000 m below sea level to 6000 m above sea level. Life forms do not exist outside this
zone. The biosphere covers parts of other segments of the environment viz. Lithosphere, Hydrosphere
and Atmosphere. Life sustaining resources like food, water and oxygen present in the biosphere are
being withdrawn and waste products in increasing quantities are being dumped. The biosphere has
been absorbing this and assimilating them. However the rate of waste dumping has gone beyond the
assimilating capability of the biosphere and signals of this stress is becoming evident.

27
3.1.4 ATMOSPHERE
It is the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth and extends up to 500 kms above the earth’s surface.
The composition of the atmosphere is given in Table 1.2

Table 1.2: Atmosphere Composition

*The trace constituents include Helium, Neon, Krypton, xenon, SO2, NO2, Ammonia, Ozone, and Carbon
monoxide etc.

The atmosphere, which is a gaseous cover, protects the earth from cosmic radiations and provides life
sustaining Oxygen, the macronutrient Nitrogen and Carbon dioxide needed for photosynthesis. The
atmosphere screens the dangerous UV radiations from the sun and allows only radiations in the range of
300 nm – 2500 nm (near UV to near IR) and radio waves. The atmosphere plays a major role in
maintaining the heat balance of the earth by absorbing the re-emitted radiation from the earth. In
addition the atmosphere is the medium of carriage of water from the oceans to the land in the
hydrological cycle.

3.1.4.1 The Structure of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is broadly divided into four major zones viz. Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere
and Thermosphere. Characteristics of these zones are pictorially represented below in Fig. 1.1

Figure 1.1: Structure of the Atmosphere

28
 i. TROPOSPHERE
Troposphere is the layer of air nearest to the ground. Temperature decreases with height. The average
temperature drops from 15ºC at sea level to –56.5ºC at 11,000 m above sea level. Mixing of the air
molecules due to their constant movement (winds) keeps the composition of the gases more or less
same throughout the troposphere. An exception to this is water vapor. Most water vapor evaporates
from the surface of the Earth and is found in the lower troposphere. Most of the weather occurs in the
troposphere. Tropopause is the top of the troposphere, which is a transition layer between Troposphere
and Stratosphere

ii. STRATOSPHERE
Stratosphere is the layer of air above the troposphere where temperature increases with height. The
average temperature rises to –2.5ºC at 50,000 m above sea level. Ozone is found in higher
concentrations between 20 and 30 km above the surface. Hence sometimes this layer is referred to as
the “ozone layer”. Ozone absorbs radiant energy from the sun and hence warmer temperatures are
encountered in the stratosphere. Stratopause is the top of the stratosphere, which is a transition layer
between Stratosphere and Mesosphere.
29
 iii. MESOSPHERE
Mesosphere is the layer of air above the stratosphere where temperature decreases with height. The
average temperature decreases to –90°C at 90,000 m. This is the coldest layer of the atmosphere.
Mesopause is the top of the mesosphere, which is a transition layer between Mesosphere and
Thermosphere.

iv. THERMOSPHERE
Thermosphere is the layer of air above the mesosphere. The temperatures in the thermosphere increase
with increasing height, but there are not many molecules in this layer. The air becomes less and less
dense as we reach space.

3.2 INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE COMPONENTS AND SUBCOMPONENTS

Matter (chemicals) as well as living beings on earth are distributed among the four major Environmental
Components viz. Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere and Biosphere. While for the purpose of
studying and understanding the Global Environment this division may be convenient, constant
interaction by way of mass and energy transfer between these components and subcomponents is
constantly taking place. This is pictorially indicated in Fig. 1.2

Every sphere has a flow of matter and energy to every other sphere, which is a two way linkage as
shown in the figure. Such two-way interactions are also taking place within individual spheres. This
indicates movement of matter/energy from one location to another without exiting the sphere.
Environmental problems are hence not confined only to the component/system where they arise but
spread to other components as well. A clear example of this is the Acid Rain. Emissions of air pollutants
like oxides of Sulfur and Nitrogen are transported over long distances where they are brought down to
land and fresh water bodies by rain, creating damage to crops, lands, fresh water resources including
ground water, properties and aquatic life. Another classical example is the buildup of gases like Carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. The emissions may be localized but the impact is massive and global in
nature leading to global warming which has far reaching consequences in terms of both area and time.

3.3 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF THE ECO SYSTEM

3.3.1 Ecology and Ecosystem

The study and understanding of Ecology is an integral part of Environment Science learning. Every living
being however small or big depends on the environment for its existence and also competes with others
for essentials in life. For survival, living beings form groups and different groups compete with each
other for survival. The study of interrelationships between organisms and group of organisms is called
the science of Ecology. The word Ecology has its roots from two Greek words “ikos” meaning a house or
dwelling or place of living or habitat and “logos” meaning study. Ecology is hence the study of
interrelationship among plants and animals and their interactions with the physical environment.

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There are two important divisions of Ecology. They are:

(1) Autoecology or Species Ecology: This is the study of an individual species. i.e. behavior, adaptation
and interaction of a particular species in its environment.

(2) Synecology or Ecology of Communities: This is the study of Communities and their interaction with
the environment.

An Ecosystem is defined as a group of plants, animals or living organisms living together and interacting
with the physical environment in which they live. An Eco system has a more or less a closed boundary
and the flow of mass in and out of the system is very less as compared to the internal movement of
mass. Ecosystems can be large or small. Examples of large eco systems are rain forests, deserts, salt
marshes, coral reefs, lakes and ponds, Open Ocean, grass lands etc.

3.3.2 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

Any Ecosystem consists of both living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components, which are called
Environmental or ecological factors. A factor is hence an ecological status, which directly or indirectly
affects the life of an organism.

Abiotic Components

The physical factors of the environment (which are nonliving) have a major influence on the life of
organisms. The abiotic components are of two types. They are:
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(a) Climatic factors

(b) Edaphic factors

(a) Climatic factors consist of Temperature, rainfall and snow, wind, light, humidity etc. The climate of
an area is the result of several factors such as latitude, elevation, nearness to the sea, and monsoon
activities and ocean currents.

Temperature influences the rates of biochemical reactions in plants, with the reaction rates
approximately doubling with every 10°C increase. Plant species require a range of temperature to
survive. Below a minimum temperature they are inactive, and above a maximum temperature
biochemical reactions stop. Normally in many plants growth is possible above 6°C. In areas with
extremes of temperature, such as the tundra and tropical deserts the plants have mechanisms to adapt
to such conditions.

Light levels decide the magnitude of photosynthesis reactions. Different plants have their characteristic
light requirements in respect of light intensity, duration and wavelength. Some plants, termed
heliphytes, require high levels, whereas sciophytes can grow in shady, low light conditions.

Water is an essential factor for biochemical plant processes, including photosynthesis. Plants growing on
lands obtain their water requirements from the soil through their roots by the osmosis process. Plants
called Hydrophytes grow in fresh water and they cannot withstand drought.

Xerophytes survive long periods of drought, and halophytes are able to survive in saline water.
Mesophytes require moderate conditions (neither waterlogged nor drought) and are found mainly in
temperate areas.

(b) Edaphic factors or soil factors are pH, mineral and organic matter in soil and texture of soil.

Soil is the major source of nutrients and moisture in almost all the land ecosystems. Soil is formed when
a rock weathers .The rocks brake down into a collection of different inorganic or mineral particles. The
climate influences the type and rate of the weathering of the rocks as well as the nature of the
vegetation growing on it. Nutrients are recycled in the soil by the plants and animals in their life cycles of
growth, death and decomposition. Thus humus material essential to soil fertility is produced.

Soil mineral matter is derived from the weathering of rock material. These consist of two types viz.
stable primary materials like quartz and various secondary materials like clays and oxides of Al and Fe.

Soil texture is the different size range of mineral particles varying from fine clay to coarse gravel. The
varying percentages of each size range produce soils with different characteristics.

Soil organic matter is called humus that is formed by the decomposition of plant and animal matter. The
rate of decay depends upon the nature of the material and the climate. The humus produced and
incorporated into the soil, is known as clay-humus complexes, which are important soil nutrients.

Soil organisms carry out following three main groups of processes. Decomposition of organic material,
such as plant and animal parts by bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and earthworms. Bacteria and fungi
also breakdown soil mineral matter generating nutrients.

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Transformation and fixation of Nitrogen (which is an essential plant nutrient) obtained through
rainwater or from nitrogen gas in the air. Bacteria like Azobacter and Rhizobium in the root nodules of
leguminous plants, fix nitrogen from the air. Some types of bacteria have the ability to transform
pesticides and herbicides into less toxic compounds.

Structural processes are carried out by atinomycetes and fungi. Mineral particles are bound together
forming larger structures by these organisms. Earthworms, insects and burrowing mammals, such as
moles, assist in the improvement of soil porosity resulting in better aeration and water holding ability.

Soil Nutrients are obtained from the weathering of rock material, rainwater, fixing of gases by soil and
the decomposition of plant and animal matter. They are available to plants in solution and in clay humus
complexes.

Soil pH indicates the level acidity or alkalinity of the soil. pH is the concentration of hydrogen ions in the
soil. It is measured on a scale from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. A pH value of >7 indicates alkalinity
while a value <7 indicates acidity.

Soil profile is the vertical sectional view of the soil. Soil consists of a series of layers, or horizons,
produced by the vertical movement of soil materials. Generally soil profile consists of four horizons.

Biotic Components

The live component of an ecosystem comprises plants, animals, and microorganisms (Bacteria and
Fungi). They carry out different functions and based on their role they are classified into three main
groups. They are:

(1) Producers

(2) Consumers

(3) Decomposers

Producers are mainly green plants having chlorophyll. They produce carbohydrates by photosynthesis
process. In effect the plants convert solar energy into chemical energy using water and carbon di oxide.
These are called Autotrophs (self feeder) since they produce their own food.

Part of the food produced by the autotrophs are utilized for their own consumption for survival and
growth while the remaining is stored in the plant parts for future consumption. This becomes the food
for other biotic components in the environment.

Consumers are living things, which do not have chlorophyll, and hence they are unable to produce their
own food. They rely on the producers for their food requirements. Consumers are called Heterotrophs.
Consumers are classified into four categories. They are

Primary Consumers or Herbivores: They are also called first order consumers. They eat the producers or
plants. Examples are cattle like cow and goat, deer, rabbit etc.

Secondary Consumers or Primary Carnivores: They are also called second order consumers. They eat
herbivores Examples are snakes, cats foxes etc.

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Tertiary Consumers: They are also called third order consumers. They feed on secondary consumers.
They are large Carnivores. Example is Wolf.

Quaternary Consumers: They are also called fourth order consumers. They feed on secondary
consumers. They are very large Carnivores and feed on tertiary consumers and are not consumed by
other animals. Examples are lions and tigers.

Decomposers called, as Sapotrophs are mainly microorganisms like Bacteria and Fungi. The dead organic
materials of producers and consumers are their food. They break down the organic matter into simple
compounds during their metabolic process. These simple compounds are nutrients, which are absorbed
by the producers thus completing a cyclic exchange matter between the biotic and abiotic components
of the ecosystem.

3.4 DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION OF ECOSYSTEM

When the earth was formed around 4.6 billion years ago there were no life on it since the surroundings
were inhospitable to living organisms. Earth was formed from solidified cloud of dust and gases left over
from the creation of the Sun. For around 500 million years, the interior of Earth stayed solid and
relatively cool, at around 2000°F. The main ingredients were iron and silicates, with small amounts of
other elements, some of them radioactive. As millions of years passed, energy released by radioactive
decay-mostly of uranium, thorium, and potassium gradually heated Earth, melting some of its
constituents. The iron melted before the silicates, and, being heavier sank toward the center. This
forced up the silicates. After many years, the iron reached the center and began to accumulate.
Exploding volcanoes, and flowing lava covering almost everything. Finally, the iron in the center
accumulated as the core. Around it, a thin but fairly stable crust of solid rock formed as Earth cooled.
Depressions in the crust were natural basins in which water, rising from the interior of the planet
through volcanoes and fissures, collected to form the oceans. Slowly, Earth acquired its present
appearance.

One billion years later there were with prokaryotic life forms, which are considered to be ancestors to all
present living things. The last common ancestor of all presently living organisms must have
characteristics, which are now present in the organisms. The common characteristics of living species
can be enumerated as:

(1) All life is cellular in nature.

(2) All living things are made of 50 to 90% water, the source of protons, hydrogen and oxygen in
photosynthesis and the solvent of biomolecules.

(3) The major elements in all living beings are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and
sulfur.

(4) There is a set of molecules (i.e. sugars, amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acids, phospholipids, vitamins
and coenzymes. proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids) universally found in all living
organisms.

(5) There is a universal type of membrane structure (i.e. the lipid bilayer). The early earth is possibly
provided all the elements and chemicals needed for life to begin.

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The Miller-Urey experiments showed that inorganic processes under primitive earth conditions could
form organic molecules. By discharging electric sparks in a large flask containing boiling water, methane,
hydrogen and ammonia, conditions presumed to be similar to those of the early earth, they produced
amino acids and other organic molecules experimentally. Using variations of their technique, most of
the major building blocks of life have been produced: amino acids, sugars, nucleic acid bases and lipids.
Another source of amino acids and other organic molecule is meteorites

The first organisms presumably consumed these molecules both as building blocks and as sources of
energy. The first forms of photosynthesis were probably non-oxygenic using inorganic molecules as a
source of electrons to reduce carbon dioxide. However, when these sources were exhausted, oxygen-
generating photosynthesis was developed using water as the electron source. The generation of oxygen
had a most dramatic effect on future evolution.

Formation of closed, membrane vesicles was an early event in cellular evolution. Lipid molecules
spontaneously form membrane vesicles or liposomes.

An ecosystem is made up of organisms, which established themselves in the given area and have
continued to survive and has not become extinct. The species hence possess genes, which fit the
environment and are tolerant to disturbances like flood, fire, drought; and a reproductive rate that
balances the natural catastrophes. The birth rate of organisms will have to be optimum to avoid
overpopulation and hence starvation. The human population is a good example. As technological
evolution brings down our normal death rate, social evolution lowers the birth rate to strike a balance.
Biological evolution is however much slower than social or technological.

In ecosystems, organisms constantly adjust themselves to geologic or climatic changes and to each
other. As an example, the bats developed sonar to find the moths and the moths developed ears
sensitive to the bat’s frequency. The behavioral adaptations are also reflected in the anatomy or the
body structure of the organisms. This evolutionary pattern is very common and is called character
displacement. The process of life evolution started from lower plants and progressing to higher plants,
lower animals, higher animals and finally to man.

3.5 ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS

The sun is the source of all our energy. It is a continuously exploding hydrogen bomb where hydrogen is
converted to helium with the release of energy. This energy is mostly in the region of 0.2 to 4 m m
(Ultraviolet to Infra Red). Around 50% of the radiation is in the visible range. The energy reaches the
earth at a constant rate called the Solar Flux or Solar Constant, which is the amount of radiant energy
crossing unit area in unit time. This value is approximately 1.4 KJ per sq. meter per second.

Chlorophyll bearing plants convert this energy from the sun into carbohydrates and sugars using carbon
di oxide and water. This process is known as Photosynthesis. The generalized form of the photosynthetic
reaction is

6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen + water

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The carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis undergo further modifications such as production of
proteins and nucleic acids by combining with nitrogen, phosphorous and sulphur.

Starch polymerizes to cellulose.

The sun’s energy thus enters the living beings through photosynthetic reactions and is passed from one
organism to another in the form of food. The flow of energy is uni directional and is governed by the
thermodynamic law that states that Energy is neither created nor destroyed and can transform into
different forms.

When energy travels from producers to different levels of consumers in an ecosystem there is loss at
each level due to the energy dissipated as heat during the metabolic processes of the organisms. Hence
as we move step by step away from the primary producers the amount of available energy decreases
rapidly. Hence only 3 to 5 feeding levels are possible. These are referred to as Tropic levels. Figure 1.3
illustrates the energy travel in an ecosystem.

Figure 1.3: Energy Flow from Sun

3.5.1 Food Chain and Food Web

The food chain is an ideal model of flow of energy in the ecosystem. According to this scheme the plants
or producers are eaten by only the primary consumers, primary consumers are eaten by only the
secondary consumers and so on. The producers are called Autotrophs.

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A food chain has three main tropic levels viz. Producers, consumers and Decomposers. The energy
efficiency of each tropic level is very low. Hence shorter the food chain greater will be the availability of
food.

A typical food chain in a field ecosystem might be

Grass Grasshopper Mouse Snake Hawk

Food webs are more complex and are interlinked at different trophic levels. This means that organisms
have more than one alternative for food and hence survivability is better. Hawks don’t limit their food to
snakes, snakes eat things other than mice, mice eat grass as well as grasshoppers, and so on. A more
realistic depiction of eating habits in an eco system is called a food web. An example is shown in Fig. 1.4

Figure 1.4

3.6 MATERIAL CYCLES IN ECOSYSTEMS

As energy flows through the ecosystem there is also a constant flow of matter. Living beings take up
several nutrients from their abiotic environment and when they die they are returned to the
environment. This cyclic movement of nutrient material between the biotic and abiotic environment is
called Biogeochemical Cycle. These cycles depict the material movement and their conservation.

The most important and common biogeochemical cycles are:

(1) Water Cycle or Hydrological Cycle

(2) Carbon Cycle

(3) Nitrogen Cycle

(4) Oxygen Cycle

(5) Sulphur Cycle

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(6) Phosphorous Cycle.

3.6.1 Water Cycle or Hydrological Cycle

There is a constant and continuous exchange of water between air, land, sea and living beings.
Considerable part of the solar energy incident on the earth is used for the massive evaporation of water
from the oceans, seas and other exposed water bodies leading to cloud formation and precipitation in
the form of rainfall or snow. This is the major source of fresh water for the living beings. Surface water
run off results in part of fresh water returning to the sea through rivers and streams. Underground
water or simply Ground water is replenished by surface accumulated water from precipitation. Ground
water depletion takes place due to exploitation of the same by pumping. The plants also absorb ground
water. Thus hydrological cycle hence is the continuous and balanced process of evaporation,
precipitation, transpiration and runoff of water.

Figure 1.5 Water Cycle or Hydrological Cycle

3.6.2 Carbon Cycle

Carbon is an essential component of all plant, animal and organic matter. The atmosphere is an
important source of carbon which is present in the form of carbon dioxide which the plants or producers
absorb by photosynthesis and generate several organic compounds. These are passed to the consumers
(Herbivores and Carnivores) in the form of food. Part of this is returned to the atmosphere by
respiration. The dead organic matter from plants and animals are decomposed by microorganisms
releasing Carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Burning of fossil fuels releases large quantities of carbon di
oxide. There is a steady buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due the increased utilization of
fossil fuels as well as reduction of green plants (Deforestation). The seas and oceans also serve as sink
for carbon oxide by absorbing the same and converting it into bicarbonates and mineral deposits and
thus they play a vital role in regulation of carbon cycle.

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Figure 1.6: Carbon Cycle

3.6.3 Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen and its compounds form a vital ingredient in all forms of life in the biosphere. Availability of
Nitrogen is from the atmosphere as molecular Nitrogen in the gaseous form, which cannot be directly
absorbed by the plants or producers. In order to be absorbed by the plants it has to be converted into
water-soluble compounds with elements like Hydrogen, Carbon, and oxygen. This process is known as
Fixation of Nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation takes place by Bacteria, Algae and electrical storms. Synthetic
fixation of Nitrogen is done by the manufacture of nitrogenous fertilizers through ammonia conversion
route. The plants absorb the fixed Nitrogen from the soil and convert them into proteins and other
compounds during the metabolic process. Decomposers, ammonifying bacteria and Nitrate bacteria also
help in the fixing process by converting dead animal and plant parts into absorbable nitrates. The
denitrifying bacteria complete the cycle, which helps in releasing gaseous Nitrogen back to the
atmosphere from the soil.

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Figure 1.7: Nitrogen Cycle

3.6.4 Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen is essential for the existence of all flora and fauna. The source of Oxygen is atmosphere. Plants
and animals absorb oxygen during respiration either from air or water. Part of the Oxygen returns to the
atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide and water vapor in the respiration process itself. Gaseous
oxygen is released during photosynthesis process (Refer photo synthetic reaction) completing the
Oxygen cycle.

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Figure 1.8: Oxygen Cycle

3.6.5 Sulphur Cycle

Amino acids and proteins need sulphur compounds for their production. In the atmosphere it is present
as Sulphur di oxide and hydrogen sulfide and in the soil as sulfates or sulfides. Volcanic emissions and
burning of fossil fuels are the supply of Sulphur dioxide to the atmosphere while hydrogen sulfide is
from bacterial emissions. Atmospheric Sulphur dioxide is also oxidized to Sulphur trioxide, which
eventually reaches the earth along with rainfall. Anaerobic and aerobic Sulphur bacteria also play a vital
role in the interchange and movement of Sulphur compounds in the ecosystem. The Sulphur compounds
in the plant and animal parts are absorbed by the soil after their death and decay and converted into
sulfides and sulfates by Sulphur bacteria, which are subsequently used up by the plants. As in the case of
carbon dioxide the atmosphere is receiving excess quantities of Sulphur dioxide, which is leading to
adverse environmental effects.

3.6.6 Phosphorous Cycle

The bones and teeth of animals including human beings contain Phosphates, which is necessary for their
development and growth. In addition phosphates are essential for cells in the production of DNA and
RNA. Phosphates are available in the lithosphere in rocks and soil in inorganic form. Plants absorb them
and convert them into organo phosphates. Phosphates are also added to the soil through phosphatic
fertilizers. Soluble phosphates reaching rivers and streams from agricultural lands made rich in
phosphates causes excess algal growth leading to eutrification. Return of phosphates to the earth is by
the decay of plant and animal matter and subsequent absorption.

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Figure 1.9: Phosphorous Cycle

3.7 NATURAL AND MAN-MADE IMPACTS ON WATER, AIR AND LAND

3.7.1 Background
The damage to the environment is caused both by natural (Non Anthropogenic) and manmade
(Anthropogenic) reasons. The natural impacts are non-preventable and on many occasions
unpredictable. However knowledge of natural hazards is essential in order to take mitigative actions so
that loss of life and property can be minimized. On the other hand Anthropogenic detrimental impacts
on environment are eminently preventable but only with a focused global effort.

3.7.2 Natural Hazards

For a systematic understanding the natural hazards can be structured as in Table 1.3

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Table 1.3: Hazards

3.7.2.1 Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur as the result of the release of pressure along a fault in the tectonic plate boundaries
but can occur anywhere. Earthquakes last only few seconds but they cause extensive damage to
buildings, gas and water pipes, power and communication lines, and roadways. They can also serve as
triggers for several other natural hazards. In fact, the primary cause of damage in recent earthquakes is
fire from damaged gas pipes and power lines. Slope failures are triggered by the energy release
associated with earthquakes. When earthquakes occur in an ocean or large lake, a tsunami may form
and flood surrounding coastlines. Earthquakes often occur along with volcanic activity, which results in a
variety of additional threats.

3.7.2.2 Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanoes are vents in the earth’s surface through which magma, gases, and other materials are
discharged from the core. They are found primarily at tectonic plate boundaries. They also exist at hot
spots, which are places in the earth’s crust where hot mantle plumes have broken through. Some
volcanoes erupt explosively, while others erupt slowly. Explosive volcanoes present many potential
threats including the release of toxic gases, flows containing fragments of hot rock and ash, fast moving
clouds of extremely hot gases and fine ash and large volumes of ash. It is common for volcanoes to
trigger other natural hazards like debris flows, earthquakes, floods, landslides and fires. Volcano and
earthquake risk maps overlap considerably.

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3.7.2.3 Floods
Floods are high water levels above the banks of a stream channel, lakeshore, or ocean coast that
submerge areas of land usually not submerged. They are natural, reoccurring events in every stream,
lake, and coastal environment. A flood can be caused by unusually intense or prolonged precipitation,
storms, dam collapses, etc. Since most of the world’s population lives on or near coasts and plains,
floods are a threat to hundreds of millions of people. Floods can cause loss of life, extensive damage to
property, contamination of drinking water, and destruction of crops and fields. They can also help
produce rich soils for agriculture, which encourages people to live in floodplains. Floods occur in arid
and wet environments, highlands and lowlands, and in both populated and unpopulated regions. They
are less common in dry environments and highlands. Floods occur in many temperate regions around
the world. However, floods can occur at any time of the year, depending on location. The timing of
floods is largely dependent on climate and seasonal weather patterns. In India, floods are a common
feature during monsoons.

3.7.2.4 Cyclones, Hurricanes and Tornadoes

Tropical cyclones are greatly intensified low-pressure areas that spend most of their lives over the
oceans. In the Atlantic Ocean, they are called hurricanes. In the Pacific Ocean, they are usually referred
to as typhoons. Warm temperatures and moisture drive them. When a hurricane moves over land or
cool water, it loses strength. Tropical storms become hurricanes once their winds exceed 74 mph (119
kph). In a hurricane, building doors and windows are frequently broken by debris picked up in the
hurricane’s strong and sustained winds. These winds can rip roofs from buildings, topple trees, and
damage power and communication lines. In some cases, hurricanes can produce tornado-like vortices
(called “mini-swirls”), which can completely destroy buildings. Coastal flooding is a major threat in
hurricanes, due to the combination of storm surges and torrential rain.

Storm surges are rises in ocean levels produced by the effects of high wind and low atmospheric
pressure. Storm surges also increases coastal erosion, potentially resulting in slope failures. Hurricanes
can even start fires by damaging power lines. Contamination of drinking water and disruption of utility
services (such as electricity, communications, and sewer) are common occurrences during a hurricane.

Hurricanes are greatly intensified low-pressure cells born over the tropical oceans. They require vast
amounts of warm, moist air to survive. Hurricanes lose strength over land or Cool Ocean water.

Tornadoes are fast rotating columns of air associated with severe thunderstorms. A thunderstorm can
produce many tornadoes, and a tornado can have more than one vortex. Wind speeds as much as 450
kph are possible. These high winds can quickly destroy entire buildings and in some cases, entire
communities. The debris carried by such high winds causes severe injury or death to people and other
life. Hail is commonly associated with thunderstorms and is also capable of causing extensive damage in
a very short time. Tornadoes move along the surface at up to 70 mph (113 kph) and remain on the
ground for several minutes. Most tornadoes occur between the 4:00 P.M. and 6:00 P.M., when the
lower atmosphere is most unstable. Many tornadoes also occur after sunset—these tornadoes can be
very dangerous because they are difficult to see and people are less easily alerted.

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3.7.2.5 Tsunamis
Seismic ocean waves are now commonly referred to as tsunamis (Japanese for “harbor waves”). A
tsunami is traditionally defined as a series of ocean waves with very long wavelengths that can travel
great distances. Tsunamis can also occur in large lakes. In deep oceans, tsunamis can reach speeds over
800 kph. Tsunami wave heights near a shore average 9 meters, but have been recorded over 30 meters.
They can carry large ocean vessels inland, inundate coasts, and drag entire communities out to sea as
they recede. Tsunamis can be generated by any event that displaces a large volume of ocean water,
such as an earthquake, volcanic eruption or landslide. Tsunamis threaten coasts throughout the Pacific
Ocean, which has frequent earthquakes. Although they are rare, Tsunamis do occur in the Atlantic
Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and large lakes.

3.7.2.6 Snow and Ice

Snow and ice are well known hazards to those living in mountainous areas or regions north of about 35
degrees N latitude. Prolonged power failures, automobile accidents, transportation delays, damage to
buildings, and dangerous walkways are often attributed to snow and ice during the winter months.
Slippery surfaces and reduced visibility are responsible for many accidents. Snow can be warm, causing
wet and slushy conditions, or cold, creating dry and powdery conditions. The latter leads to blizzards and
drifting when mixed with high winds. Blizzards can quickly reduce visibility to zero. Drifting can block
roadways, airport runways, and even bury buildings. Both are often associated with low windchills,
which are dangerous to exposed skin, especially when wet from snow. In many mountainous regions,
avalanches are a common hazard. When large masses of mountain snow begin to melt in the spring,
floods often become an imminent hazard to people living in valleys. The total amount of snow received
at any location is dependent on temperature, atmospheric pressure, topography and proximity to
moisture sources.

3.7.2.7 Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are relatively small, organized parcels of warm and moist air that rise and produce
lightning and thunder. They are one of nature’s ways of balancing the amount of energy in the
atmosphere—it is estimated that over 40,000 thunderstorms occur each day around the world.
Although most last only 30 minutes, thunderstorms can create several dangerous phenomena:

• Torrential rain produced by thunderstorms is usually intense, but short in duration— flash flooding is
often associated with this type of precipitation. In fact, flooding is the greatest threat from
thunderstorms; also, slope failures can be triggered by the intense precipitation from thunderstorms in
areas with steep, unstable hillsides.

• High wind: Inside a thunderstorm, air rises and descends rapidly, transferring vast amounts of energy.
Such movement is dangerous for airplanes. Winds at the surface beneath a thunderstorm can reach well
over 80 kph.

• Hail falling at speeds of several meters per second can result in extensive damage to crops and
property in just a few minutes and can injure or kill people and other organisms

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• Lightning frequently starts fires, which threaten homes, businesses, and lives. Power and
communication failures caused by lightning (as well as wind) can result in large scale disruption of
everyday activities.

3.7.2.8 Droughts
A drought is an extended period of depleted soil water. Drought occurs when more water is taken out of
an area than is added to it. This is often the result of a combination of persisting high pressure over a
region, which produces clear skies with little or no precipitation, and excessive use of water for human
activities. Droughts can result in decreased crop yields, decreased drinking water quality and availability
and food shortages. Thus, as population increases and the demand for food and water increases the
probability of drought increases and the implications of drought become more and more serious. Also,
when vegetation becomes dry during a drought, fire risk increases, threatening homes, crops, and lives.
The greatest threat from drought occurs when agricultural regions receive very low rainfall, leading to
plant desiccation. When this happens, crop yields decrease resulting in increased food prices, food
shortages, and even famine. Most agricultural crops are grown in the semi-arid and humid regions of the
world. Water shortages in either of these regions can pose an immediate threat to agricultural
productivity. With global climate change, droughts are expected to become a major problem for several
agricultural regions. In semi-arid and arid regions, droughts commonly result in deteriorating drinking
water quality and availability. Besides the immediate impacts associated with water shortages and poor
water quality, delayed impacts (such as susceptibility to disease) are major problems in several less-
developed regions of the world.

3.7.2.9 El Nino and La Nina

El Nino and La Nina are triggers for many natural hazards because they produce unusual weather
throughout the world. The Earth’s oceans and atmosphere are closely connected and hence a change in
one produces an immediate or delayed change in the other. El Nino involves the warming of sea surface
temperatures in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. This temperature change at the ocean’s surface causes the
usual positions of the jet streams and pressure cells to shift.

This causes changes in the global weather patterns produces floods, droughts and other hazards, leading
to thousands of deaths and property damages. A La Nina event usually occurs the year after the end of
an El Nino event and involves abnormal cooling of the same ocean waters. This can also cause changes
in atmospheric circulation, thereby altering weather patterns for many locations around the world.

Because El Nino and La Nina produce considerable changes in atmospheric circulation, the effects are
noticeable globally. However, certain locations feel the effects of El Nino and La Nina more than others
due to a variety of factors. El Nino events usually begin between January and March and peak during the
month of December. Not every El Nino event is followed by a La Nina event. When it happens, the
effects of La Nina are usually most noticeable between the months of December and January.

3.7.2.10 Fog
Fog is a cloud near the ground. A cloud is an area of condensed water droplets (or ice crystals in the
upper atmosphere). The processes that produce clouds high above the ground also produce clouds near
the surface. Fog forms when air is unable to hold all of the moisture it contains. This happens when air is
cooled to its dew point, or the amount of moisture in the air increases. Once air reaches its dew point,
46
water vapor condenses onto very small particles forming tiny water droplets that comprise fog. Fog is a
hazard because of reduction in visibility.

Airport delays, automobile accidents, shipwrecks, plane crashes, and many other transportation
problems are frequently caused by fog. When air pollution (such as smoke) combines with fog, visibility
decreases even more. Acid fog, resulting from the combination of air pollutants (such as nitrogen and
sulfur oxides) with water droplets can create health problems, for people with respiratory problems. Fog
can also be beneficial. Several species of plants depend on fog for moisture.

Fog can occur during any season and almost anywhere in the world. The following are common types of
fog:

• Advection Fog: When warm, moist air is blown over a cold surface, the surface can lower the
temperature of the air to its dew point.

• Evaporation Fog: Water evaporates from the surface of streams, lakes, and oceans and accumulates
near the earth surface.

• Radiation (or Ground) Fog: Common on clear nights with little or no wind, this type of fog is formed
from the rapid cooling of the Earth’s surface in the absence of clouds.

• Upslope Fog: Whenever air rises, it cools. If air is blown over high hills or mountains, it may cool
enough to reach its dew point.

3.7.2.11 Forest/Wild Fires

Wild land fires most commonly occur in semi-arid and temperate regions having abundant vegetation
and extensive dry periods. Fire is a potential hazard whenever vegetation desiccates. This often occurs
as the result of drought. Fires occur less frequently in colder and wetter climates, Winds can increase a
fire’s intensity while providing few escape routes. Lightning is a most common cause of wildfire during
the growing season. Dry weather prior to thunderstorms during spring, summer, or fall increases the risk
of a fire from lightning.

3.7.3 Manmade Impacts on Air, Water and Land

Increasing human population coupled with unprecedented technological growth has led to severe
environmental stress. This has led to several problems on a global scale. The biotic as well as abiotic
components of the environment has come to be seriously affected by the large scale human activities
like agriculture, industrial production, energy production and consumption, transport, lumbering,
harmful emissions, disposal of toxic chemicals etc. Some of the well documented anthropogenic
environmental impacts are;

1. Global Warming

2. Acid Rain

3. Ozone layer depletion

4. Air, Water and land pollution

5. Eutrophication
47
6. Loss of Biodiversity

A brief analysis of the nature, causes, impacts and remedial measures of these global environmental
issues is presented here.

Global Warming
During the 20th century, the average temperature of the earth has increased by about 0.6°C. The
average temperatures in 1998 and 2002 were the highest ever recorded since reliable measurements
began in the mid-19th century. This is attributed mainly to the emissions of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases in increasing quantities into the atmosphere. Some of the gases in the earth’s
atmosphere (in particular, water vapor and carbon dioxide) have an ability to absorb infrared radiation
(heat). They do not prevent sunlight reaching the earth’s surface and warming it, but they trap some of
the infrared radiation emitted back into space by the earth. In other words, they function the same way
as the glass in a greenhouse. Without the natural greenhouse effect of the atmosphere, life on earth
would be impossible—the surface of our planet would be almost 35°C colder than it is now.

Figure 1.10: Global Temperature Changes (1880–2000)

Greenhouse gases (i.e. gases which contribute to the greenhouse effect) have always been present in
the atmosphere, but now concentrations of several of them are rising as a result of human activities.
This is intensifying the greenhouse effect.

Carbon Dioxide from Fossil Fuels

Carbon dioxide is produced and released into the atmosphere whenever organic material (which
contains carbon) is burnt. As long as wood was the main fuel (Bio Fuel) there was no impact on the
amount of this gas in the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide that is released into the air was absorbed by
new vegetation. However, when usage of fossil fuels was started on a large scale by humanity natural
cycling of carbon between plants and the atmosphere was disturbed. Over the last 100 years we have
extracted and burnt a significant proportion of the oil, coal and gas from beneath the earth’s surface.
These fuels are the remains of plants and animals that inhabited the earth long ago. In a short space of
time we have released into the atmosphere a large quantity the carbon taken up over millions of years

48
by the organisms of past ages. The plants living today are unable to remove the surplus of carbon
dioxide in the air. The problem is further aggravated by the widespread deforestation. This has led to a
buildup of Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which is illustrated in Fig. 1.11.

The carbon dioxide concentration is about 30% higher than that of pre-industrial times (around 200
years ago), and every year the level rises by another roughly 0.4%. Unfortunately carbon dioxide is very
stable. It can probably continue to circulate between the atmosphere and the oceans for many
thousands of years. This means that carbon dioxide from fossil fuels could still contribute to the
greenhouse effect several millennia hence, even if emissions were to cease completely in the near
future. If emissions were instead held at their present levels, the concentration of carbon dioxide would
go on rising in both the atmosphere and the sea, gradually strengthening the greenhouse effect

Figure 1.11

Apart from carbon dioxide, the other greenhouse gases being emitted in large quantities now are
nitrous oxide, methane and compounds containing fluorine, among them HFCs (compounds of
hydrogen, fluorine and carbon). These substances are much more effective as greenhouse gases than
carbon dioxide even though their concentrations are far less. Some of the fluorine compounds have a
very long atmospheric life that they will contribute to the greenhouse effect for tens of thousands of
years to come.

Impacts Global Warming

• Rapid change in climate will be too great that many ecosystems will not be able to adapt, and
hence the rate of species extinction will most likely increase.

• In addition impacts on wildlife and species, biodiversity, agriculture, forestry, dry lands, water
resources and health will be adverse.

• Melting of polar ice caps and glaciers will result in increased sea levels
49
 • leading to flooding of coastal lines causing damage to life and property.

• Massive soil erosion, contamination of fresh water and water borne diseases.

• In temperate areas summers will be longer and hotter and winters shorter and warmer.

• Sub-tropical regions will become drier and tropical regions wetter.

• Desertification, droughts and famine.

• Altered weather patters will have altered crop patterns and adverse effects on plant and animal
life.

Remedial Measures

• Reduce/avoid use of fossil fuels by encouraging use of renewable energy sources like solar
energy, biofuels, wind and hydroelectric power etc. Per capita, the developing countries emit
only a fraction of the carbon dioxide released by the industrialized nations, and the latter
therefore have the main responsibility for reducing emissions.

• Reduce deforestation and increase vegetation to serve as sink for carbon dioxide.

Acid Rain
Gaseous atmospheric pollutants, particularly oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, can cause precipitation to
become more acidic when converted to sulphuric and nitric acids, hence the term acid rain. This is also
referred to as acid precipitation. Precipitation (rain or snow) is naturally acidic because of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere. The burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) produces sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides. These gases interact with water vapor and sunlight resulting in the production of Sulphuric acid
and Nitric acid.

S + O2 SO2 (Combustion of fossil fuels)

SO2 + 1/2O2 SO3 (Photo chemical oxidation in the atmosphere)

SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (Sulphuric Acid–Acid Rain)

When these acids are carried down to the earth by precipitation (rain, snow, dew or hail) acid rain or
acid precipitation occurs. Sources of sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen may be natural such as
volcanoes, oceans, and biological decay and forest fires. The increasing demand for electricity and the
rise in the number of motor vehicles in recent decades has increased emissions of acidifying pollutants
Emissions of such pollutants are heavily concentrated in the northern hemisphere, especially in Europe
and North America. Acid rain became an international concern since the air borne pollutants are
transported over large distances i.e. thousands of kilometers.

The average pH of acid rain is below 5.5. (The pH scale ranges from 0, which is strongly acid, to 14, which
is strongly alkaline, the scale point 7 being neutral.).

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Impacts of Acid Rain

• Destruction of aquatic flora and fauna due to excessive acidification.

• Contamination of drinking water.

• Increase in the acidity of soil leading to loss of nutrients.

• Destruction of certain plants and trees due to loss of chlorophyll.

• Accumulation of toxic elements in the soil leading to the destruction of beneficial earthworms.

• Corrosive damage to buildings and structures.

• Damage to historic monuments like Taj Mahal.

Remedial Measures

• Reduce/avoid use of fossil fuels by encouraging use of renewable energy sources like solar
energy, biofuels, Wind and hydroelectric power etc.

• Adopt sulphur recovery techniques for fuels to minimize SO2 emission.

• Use of catalytic converters in automobiles to ensure lower acidic emissions.

• Treatment of stack gases to eliminate SO2 and Oxides of Nitrogen emissions.

Ozone Depletion
Ozone (O3) gas present in the stratosphere filters out incoming radiation from the sun the cell-damaging
ultraviolet (UV) part of the spectrum. Concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere fluctuate naturally in
response to variations in weather conditions and amounts of energy being released from the sun and
due to major volcanic eruptions. During the 1970s it was realized that man-made emissions of
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chemicals used in refrigeration, aerosols and cleansing agents
may cause a significant destruction of ozone in the stratosphere, thereby letting through more of the
harmful ultraviolet radiation. Then in 1985 evidence of a large ozone hole was discovered above the
continent of Antarctica during the springtime. This reappeared annually, generally growing larger and
deeper each year. More recently significant ozone depletion over the Arctic, closer to the more
populous regions of the Northern Hemisphere is noticed. In response to this ozone depletion, the
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was implemented in 1987. This legally
binding international treaty called for the participating developed nations to reduce the use of CFCs and
other ozone depleting substances. In 1990 and again in 1992, subsequent amendments to the protocol
brought forward the phase out date for CFCs for developed countries to 1995. Near the ground,
however ozone is considered to be a pollutant since it causes a number of respiratory problems,
particularly for young children.

Impacts of Ozone Depletion

Protecting the ozone layer is essential. Ultraviolet radiation from the sun can cause a variety of health
problems in humans, including skin cancers, eye cataracts and a reduction in the body’s immunity to
diseases. In addition ultraviolet radiation can be damaging to microscopic life in the surface of oceans
51
which forms the basis of the world’s marine food chain, certain varieties of crops including rice and soya,
and polymers used in paints and clothing. A loss of ozone in the stratosphere may even affect the global
climate.

Causes of Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and destruction of
stratospheric ozone is disturbed in favor of removal. Halogens like chlorine and bromine released from
man-made chemical compounds such as CFCs are the main cause of this depletion. Chlorofluorocarbons
are not scrubbed back to earth by rain or destroyed in reactions with other chemicals. They simply do
not break down in the lower atmosphere and they can remain in the atmosphere from 20 to 120 years
or more. Due to their high chemical stability CFCs move into the stratosphere where they are eventually
broken down by ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun, releasing free chlorine. The chlorine is actively
involved in the process of destruction of ozone. Two molecules of ozone give rise to three of molecules
of oxygen. The chemical reactions involved are as under.

Cl + O3 ClO + O2

2ClO + O Cl2 + O2

The chlorine atom is released back and continues the process repeatedly leading to a reduced level of
ozone. Bromine compounds can also destroy stratospheric ozone. Emissions of CFCs are responsible for
around 80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion.

Remedial Measures

As has been earlier indicated the best way out is to avoid/minimize use of CFCs. These include proper
disposal of old refrigerators, use of aerosols and refrigerants, which do not contain CFCs, use of halon-
free fire extinguishers and the recycling of foam and other non-disposable packaging. While emissions of
ozone depleting compounds are now being controlled, the ozone layer is not likely to fully heal for
several decades due to the stable nature of these compounds. Hence we should take precautions when
exposing ourselves to minimize the effect of UV radiation.

Air, Water and Land Pollution

Air pollution is a major problem since very long. In the middle Ages, the burning of coal released large
amounts of smoke and sulphur dioxide to the atmosphere. In the late 18th century, the Industrial
Revolution led to escalation in pollutant emissions by the industry. After the disastrous London Smog of
1952, pollution from industries and homes was sought to be reduced to prevent recurrence of these
events. Recently pollution from motor vehicles has become a very important air quality issue. The
number of vehicles in most countries around the world is steadily increasing.

Impacts of Air Pollution

Air pollution can be either natural or man-made, and occur both indoor and outside. Although natural
emissions of air pollution may affect the environment from time to time, man-made air pollution leads
to poor air quality on a more regular basis.

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Common outdoor air pollutants, which affect ambient air quality, include sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxide, particulate matter and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted through
the burning of fossil fuels for energy and transportation. Ozone, a secondary pollutant, is formed in the
atmosphere near ground level when primary pollutants are oxidized in the presence of sunlight. The
resulting pollution can have detrimental effects on human health, wildlife and vegetation. Asthma is an
increasingly common respiratory disease, which may be triggered by air pollution. In addition, sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides cause acid rain.

Indoors, poor ventilation can lead to a build-up of air pollutants, including carbon monoxide and
nitrogen dioxide from faulty gas heaters and cookers, carbon monoxide and benzene from cigarette
smoke, and volatile organic compounds from synthetic furnishings, vinyl flooring and paints. Since most
of us spend up to 90% of the time indoors, indoor air quality could have a real bearing on our health.

Water Pollution is yet another major manmade environmental problem. Water is essential for survival
of all forms of life and it is also an important requirement in most of the industrial activities.
Deterioration of water quality is a major environmental issue especially in developing countries like
India. Increase in industrial activity and human population has adverse impact on the quality of not only
surface water but also on ground water. The pollutants encountered in water are

• Oxygen Demanding Wastes (BOD)

• Pathogenic Micro Organisms

• Synthetic Organic and Inorganic Chemicals

• Heavy Metals

• Sewerage and Agricultural Runoffs

• Suspended Solids and Sediments

• Radioactive Materials

• Thermal Discharges.

Impacts of Water Pollution

Waterborne infectious diseases like typhoid, dysentry, cholera etc. are caused by consuming
contaminated water. Fluoride in drinking water causes fluorosis a disease of the teeth and bones.
Effluents from industries like paper mills, tanneries, diaries, breweries, slaughterhouses and municipal
sewerage are contaminated with organic pollutants, which reduce the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) levels in
the water killing aquatic organisms. Agricultural runoffs pollute water with plant nutrients like
Phosphates and Nitrates and Pesticides. The plant nutrients promote wild growth of oxygen consuming
Algae leading to the destruction of aquatic life. Pesticides are toxic to humans, and animal life. Industrial
pollutants from certain factories contain heavy metals like Mercury, Lead, Cadmium, Nickel, and
Chromium, which are absorbed by plants and animals including human beings. Oil pollutants from
petroleum industry have resulted in the death of several birds and animals. Thermal discharges reduce
DO levels of water bodies leading to destruction of aquatic life.

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Remedial Measures

Adopting cleaner production technologies (Prevent Pollution rather than treat pollution) is the correct
strategy. This should be coupled with water conservation measures and end of the pipe treatment
techniques.

Land pollution is an area requiring urgent attention. Land pollution is also closely related to ground
water contamination. Disposal of industrial and municipal solid wastes and hazardous chemicals on land
has resulted in not only polluting land but also has resulted in increase of toxic chemicals in the
underground water. In India around 90 million tones of solid waste and 6 million tones of hazardous
waste are being generated annually. These wastes are mostly dumped in an uncontrolled fashion on
public land .In addition to the municipalities and corporations (human dwellings) the major industrial
sources of solid wastes are Thermal power plants, Ferrous and nonferrous metals manufacturing and
processing units, Sugar, Paper, Textile, Petroleum Refining, Petrochemicals and fertilizers, Cements and
Polymer Industries. Mining and quarrying industry uses up fertile land areas.

Biomedical wastes from hospitals like body parts, used and discarded syringes, needles and surgical
instruments, dressing and hospital linen are mixed with municipal wastes, which pose a major health
hazard in developing countries like India. Loss of soil fertility results from excess application of fertilizers
and pesticides.

Developmental projects for housing, industry, road, rail, and air transport are using up agricultural or
forestlands increasing pressure on the available land resource. Deforestation is a global issue, which is
considered to be one of the major reasons of global warming.

Impacts of Land Pollution

Disruption of hydrological cycle, Ground water and surface water pollution, Air pollutants emission,
destruction of the habitats of many plants and animals leading to loss of biodiversity, reduction in food
production, negative effects on human, plant and animal health are some of the adverse impacts of land
pollution.

Remedial Measures

Proper land development policies and their implementation, adopting correct solid waste disposal
techniques like composting, sanitary land filling, incineration, pyrolysis will to some extent mitigate the
adverse impacts on land or soil pollution. Waste minimization, recycle and reuse will pay rich dividends
in this regard.

Eutrophication
When aquatic plant growth is stimulated to produce excessive choking growth eutrophication occurs.
The process involves a complex series of inter-related changes in the chemical and biological status of a
water body mostly due to a depletion of the oxygen content caused by decay of organic matter resulting
from a high level of primary productivity and typically caused by enhanced nutrient input. Sewage is an
important source of organic materials in water bodies. Fertilizers and detergents containing Nitrogen
and Phosphorous are also the major sources of nutrients. These nutrients greatly increase the
productivity in aquatic environments and contribute to eutrophication. Algal blooms are an indication of

54
eutrophication of a water body. A small part of the algal blooms are consumed by zooplanktons and
other aquatic organisms like fishes and most of them stay and decay in the water depleting dissolved
oxygen. Toxic gases like Hydrogen sulphide is generated. An unpleasant greenish slimy layer is formed
on the surface of the water body. This results in the suffocation and eventually death of aquatic
organisms. The water body emits bad odor. The anaerobic conditions (Lack of Oxygen) generate toxins
in the algae, which can kill surface organisms like birds and animals. The water body cannot be used as a
source of water supply nor used for any other activity like recreational use.

Remedial Measures

Treated effluents devoid of nutrients only should be discharged into water bodies. Sludge removal and
routine dredging is a must. Algaecides like copper sulphate, chlorine can be added in controlled
quantities.

Biodiversity
Biodiversity in the broad sense means the different forms of life and life sustaining systems and
processes available on the earth. Even though it is impossible to access the number of species of living
things on earth an approximate estimate puts it at 10 to 80 million species. The different types of
biodiversity are:

1) Genetic Diversity: This is the difference in the genetic makeup in one individual species. (I.e.)
Variability within the species

2) Species Diversity: This is the variety or variance of distinct types of living organisms in different
habitats.

3) Ecological Diversity: This includes the different types of forests, grass lands, wet lands, water
bodies like streams, lakes and oceans, coral reefs, rocky mountains etc.

4) Functional Diversity: This includes the different types of biological and chemical processes such
as mass and energy flow essential for the survival of living organisms.

Importance of Biodiversity

 Biological diversity is very important for the existence of the human race. In addition to the
practical importance, Biodiversity lends aesthetic beauty to nature. The benefits arising from
biological diversity are:

 Ecosystem Services

• Protection of water resources like maintenance of hydrological cycles, regulating and

stabilising water runoff, and buffer against extreme events such as flood and drought.

• Soils formation and protection: Formation and maintenance of soil structure and the
retention of moisture and nutrient levels.

• Nutrient storage and cycling: Plants take up nutrients from the soil as well as from the
air, and these nutrients can then form the basis of food chains, to be used by a wide
range of other life forms. Pollution breakdown and absorption
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 • Breakdown and absorpion of pollutants: Ecosystems and components of ecosystems
from bacteria to higher life forms are involved in breakdown and assimilative processes
of pollutants. Natural and artificial wetlands are being used to filter effluents to remove
nutrients, heavy metals and suspended solids, reduce the biochemical oxygen demand
and destroy potentially harmful microorganisms.

• Contribution to climate stability: Vegetation influences climate at the macro and micro
levels. Undisturbed forest helps to maintain the rainfall in its immediate vicinity by
recycling water vapour at a steady rate back into the atmosphere.

• Recovery from unpredictable events: Healthy ecosystems improve the chances of

recovery of plant and animal populations from unpredictable natural catastophic events
such as fire, flood and cyclones and from disasters caused by humans.

 Biological Resources

• Food : Existence of human beings and that of most other organisms is heavily
dependent on primary producers, mainly plants.

• Medicinal resources: Plant and animal products have long since been used as medicines
due to their curative properties. Indian and Chinese medical systems make elaborate
use of herbs and herbal products.

• Wood products: Wood is a basic commodity used worldwide. It is a primary source of

fuel, is used in construction, and forms the basis for paper production.

• Ornamental plants: Ornamental and horticultural purposes, for providing aesthetic

beauty

• Breeding stocks, population reservoirs: Natural areas provide support systems for
commercially valuable resources .

• Future resources: The wild and unknown population of plants and animals offer
enormous scope for research and development in areas of agriculture, industry and
medicine.

 Social Benefits

• Research, education and monitoring: Natural areas provide excellent living laboratories
for research in ecology and evolution.

• Recreation: Diverse biological assemblies like animal habitats, forests, mountains, parks
and gardens, costal areas and beaches, provide aesthetic beauty to our environment.

• Cultural values: The aesthetic values of our natural ecosystems and landscapes
contribute to the emotional and spiritual well-being of human beings.

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Major Factors Responsible for Loss/Reduction in Biodiversity

• Overexploitation of natural resources and destruction of ecosystems for meeting the human
requirements of food, shelter and comfort.

• Environmental pollutants like pesticides, heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, acid rain,
global warming etc.

• Eutrophication leading to promotion of growth of some specific species suppressing others.

• Natural causes like earthquakes, floods, droughts, forest fires, epidemics.

• Excessive importance of specific species for cultivation (15 types of species provides 90% of the
worlds food supply).

• Hunting for pleasure and poaching for commercial purposes of certain animal species like
elephants, rhinos, whales, crocodile, snakes etc.

Restoration and Conservation of Biodiversity

The following remedial measures will be useful for the repair and revamping of the biotic resources in
the globe.

 Assesment of the biodiversity inventory and prepare detailed mapping

 Wildlife conservation measures focussing on protecting animal and plant life in zoos,
sanctuaries, parks and gardens, Biosphere reserves. Two basic approaches viz “ Exsitu
conservation” and “In-situ conservation”

• Ex-situ Conservation: In this approach, wild life conservation is done in capitivity under
human care. Endangered plants and animals are collected and are cared for and
reproduced in controlled conditions like zoos, sanctuaries and national parks. This
approach ensures assured supply of basic requirements like food, water, shelter and
mates. Due to the security provided hunting and poaching is avoided. In addition genetic
research is possible. However the organisms keptmunder captivity are unable to adopt
for changing environmental conditions leading to stagnation of the gene pool. It is also
expensive.

• In-situ Conservation: In this approach large areas of the earth surface are kept reserve
for wild life.

 Modification of agricultural practices encouraging mixed cropping and poly culture and there by
reducing excessive importance on specific species of plants.

 Setting up of seed banks and gene banks.

 Restoration of habitats and eco-systems which are important for biological communities.
Reforestation, prevention of soil erosion, fencing, fertilisation , reintroduction of expired species
etc.

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  Imparting Environmental Education and awareness and motivate communities to conserve
resources.

 Introduction of stringent legislations and implementation of the same.

 Population control and check on indiscriminate urbanisation.

Other Man Made Impacts on the Environment

Some of the other man made impacts on the environment, which has acute adverse effects, are briefly
described.

Photochemical smogs are generated by the interaction of air pollutants (from automobiles and
industries) like Hydrocarbons, Oxides of nitrogen and Sulphur, Particulate Matter in the presence of
sunlight. The smog (Smoke + Fog) is the product of these interactions and contains toxic components
like Ozone, Peroxyacylnitrate (PAN), Carbon monoxide, ketones and aldehydes. In stagnant air and in
cold conditions the smog assumes lethal proportions and creates acute respiratory problems. The great
London Smog killed around 4000 persons in December 1952 mainly due to suffocation. The incident
repeated in 1956 and in 1962 in London and in 1966 in Los Angeles in US resulting in more deaths and
respiratory disorders. Photochemical smogs also trigger eye irritation, degradation of natural and
synthetic polymers and harms plant and animal life. Reduced visibility due to smogs has led to road and
aviation accidents.

Nuclear disasters are yet another man made Environmental Tragedy. The Chernobyl Nuclear Disaster
took place in 1986 in the former Soviet Union. A nuclear explosion in the atomic reactor used for power
generation threw up radioactive material exposing over 400 million people t0 radiation. The death toll
was more than 2000 and radioactive fallout was felt in regions as far away as 2000 kilometers in
Scandinavian Countries. The radioactive pollution damages plant and animal life and produces chronic
health effects in humans such as cancer, blood abnormalities, thyroid damages and mutagenic and
somatic changes.

Two atom bombs were dropped on Japan in 1945 during World War II killing and injuring instantly lakhs
of people .The radioactive fallout will cause generations to suffer from several physical, mental and
genetic disorders in addition to the permanent damages to the flora, fauna and soil. The threat of a full
blown nuclear war is a reality with several nations acquiring the technology for making the nuclear
bombs.

The Bhopal Gas Tragedy is one of the deadliest environmental disasters that the human kind has ever
encountered. Methyl Isocyanate gas used for the manufacturing of pesticides leaked into the
atmosphere from a factory in the city of Bhopal in central India .The toxic gas killed thousands of people
and the suffering continues for many more even today. The survivors are affected and disabled for not
only a lifetime but even beyond due the severe genetic effects. The problem is more acute and painful
since many of the victims are poor.

Mianamita disease occurred in a place called Minamita in Japan. A chemical plant dumped mercury-
containing wastes in the sea in the Minamita Bay. It was assumed that the heavy elemental Mercury
would sink to the sea floor and remain there inert and harmless. But the bacteria in the sediments of the
sea floor converted the Mercury into water soluble methyl mercury and was absorbed by fishes and
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eventually by humans. This led to an epidemic affecting nervous systems, numbness, blurred vision,
speech deficiencies loss of control of muscles etc. Many countries where mercury compounds are used
as fungicides and algaecides are prone to Minamata disease.

3.8 Linkage between Natural Resource and Development: See Attached PDF Paper

3.9 Concrete things you can do to help our living planet

We all need to make better choices in what we consume and how we produce and use energy.

To reduce our ecological footprint our actions must address the sources of the biggest impacts we
humans have on our planet: energy use and eating.

You might be surprised to discover that while we all need to make lifestyle changes, saving the planet
doesn't have to mean giving up the things you love.

Measure your impact

The first thing is to get an idea of your own personal Footprint.

Everything we do makes a demand on nature. The food we eat, the clothes we buy, the way we travel,
everything.

Added together, the demands made by each and every one of us – humanity's Ecological Footprint – are
far too much for our planet. 50% too much, in fact.

A good start for lightening your load on our planet is to first understand where your own impacts come
from.

Energy efficiency in the home and office

Better energy efficiency may well be the most rapid way to reduce CO2 emissions – and will also save
you money!

Energy efficiency simply means using the least possible energy to get a job done. Be that heating your
home or office, powering electrical items, or driving your car.

Pull the plug

One very easy thing you can do is to turn off TVs, computers, and other electronics when they're not in
use.

TVs, DVD players, stereos and computers still use 10-60% of power even when on ‘stand by’. And some
some appliances, like digital set top boxes, cost nearly as much to run in stand-by mode as when they
are switched on!

Use a power strip for your home cinema and office equipment to easily turn multiple devices on and off
at the wall, all at once.

Turn off your computer at night – at home and at work.

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Unplug chargers for mobile phones and other mobile devices when you’re not using them.

Stand-by power consumption accounts for up to 13% of residential electricity use in the OECD.

Up to 50% of the energy used by a mobile phone comes from chargers left plugged in when not in use.

Switch your lighting

Did you know lighting accounts for up to 15% of your electricity bill?

 You can reduce the amount of energy to light your home and office by:

 Install energy-efficient light bulbs. A variety of options is available, including compact

fluorescent lamps and LED lamps.

 Make light work for you. Clever use of reflectors and directional lamps to get the light where
you need it can save another 50% in energy costs and improve the overall lighting of your home
or office.

 Switch lights off! Like all electrical items, switch off the lights when they're not in use.

 Compact fluorescent lamps use only around 25% of the electricity as traditional light bulbs to
provide the same light. And, they can save up to 80% on your next electric bill and last up to 8
times longer.

 Only use what you really need

Most of us, especially in the developed world, take energy for granted – so we don't tend to take much
notice of what we might be using unnecessarily.

In addition to switching off lights and electrical appliances when they're not in use, you can also save
energy by:

Use water wisely. Public water systems require a lot of energy to purify and distribute water to
households – so saving water can lower greenhouse gas emissions. Also make sure the water
thermostat isn’t set above 60°C (140°F), and take a short shower instead of a bath to minimize the
amount of energy you use to heat water.

Love laptops. Get a laptop instead of a desktop – it consumes five times less electricity. If you must have
a desktop, make sure you get an LCD screen instead of an outdated CRT screen. And enable the power
management function on your computer: contrary to popular belief, screen savers do not save energy.

Wash economically. Use your washing machine or dishwasher only when you have a full load, and select
economy programmes and/or the lowest possible temperature.

Hang it out to dry. Traditional clothes dryers are energy intensive – and so-called “condensation” models
(dryers without an exhaust tube) use even more energy. Drying your clothes on a clothes line, either
inside or outside, uses no energy at all! If this is not an option, make sure your washing machine is
spinning your clothes properly, reducing drying time.

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Keep your fridge cool. Keep your fridge at the right temperature and defrost regularly to keep it working
efficiently. Don’t leave the doors open for longer than necessary, and make sure too that the door seals
are airtight. You can test this by closing the door over a piece of paper so it is half in and half out: if you
can pull the paper out easily, the hinge may need adjustment or the seal may need replacing.

Bring just enough to boil. When using a kettle, only boil as much water as you need. It will save
electricity and boil the water more quickly.

Turning down the thermostat by just 1°C in winter can save up to 10% per year on heating bills.

Washing clothes at 30°C (86°F) rather than 40°C (104°F) reduces electricity consumption by around 40%
on average.

Drying clothes by spinning is 20 times less energy intensive than drying them with heat in a clothes
dryer.

Weatherize your home or office

Buildings can leak enormous amounts of energy, through heated air escaping in the winter and cooled
air escaping in the summer.

Get your home or office audited. Ask your local electric or gas supplier to perform an energy audit of
your house, apartment, or office building – and then put the recommendations into practice! If they
don’t currently offer such a service, ask them to introduce it.

Insulate doorways, windows, walls and ceilings. Up to a third of household heat will escape through an
uninsulated loft. Draughts also get in through gaps in floorboards and skirting boards, allowing both
warm and cool air to escape. Stop this energy loss by filling these gaps with newspaper, beading or
sealant. Double glazing will halve heat loss through windows – and remember to close the curtains at
night.

Turn off bathroom ventilating fans when leaving the room. These fans can blow out a house full of
heated air if left on.

Insulate your hot water tank. An insulated jacket cover costs a only small amount of money and, with all
the heat it traps in, it pays for itself within months.

Keep up the maintenance. Keeping heating and air conditioning systems well maintained helps them be
more efficient while reducing fuel costs. Clean or replace dirty air conditioner filters as recommended.

Buy renewable energy

To reduce carbon emissions, we urgently need to replace fossil fuels – like coal, oil and natural gas –
with renewable energy sources – like water, wind, solar, biomass and geothermal power.

The more demand there is for such renewable energy, the faster they will replace fossil fuels.

Switch to "green" electricity

Power companies in many countries now offer electricity generated from renewable energy sources.

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Windmade: A wind power solution for our energy needs:

Travel light

Whether it's getting to work, going on vacation, or just doing the grocery shopping, how you move
about – and what you do at your destination – can have a big impact on the planet.

Do you really need to go?

Travelling by any form of transport that uses fossil fuels for energy contributes to climate change. So the
best best solution is to avoid such travel where ever possible.

Instead of popping out every day in the car to run an errand, could you wait and do several errands all at
once?

Could your business meeting could be replaced by talking over the phone or using video conferencing?

Could you take your vacation closer to home?

Aviation accounts for 4-9% of the climate change impact of human activity.

Choose the best transport option

Of course, travel can't always be avoided. Consider your options and choose the most environmentally
friendly form of transport you can.

Try to drive less. Could you walk or cycle instead of driving, or use public transport? If you do have to
drive, what about car pooling or joining a car-share scheme?

Try to avoid plane trips, especially short haul (< 500 km) flights. Taking the train may even be less of a
hassle! If air travel is unavoidable, choose airlines with higher occupancy rates and more efficient
aircraft.

Offset your CO2 emissions

You can compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions from your travels by buying "carbon offsets".

Choose a Gold Standard carbon credit to be sure you invest in renewable energy projects that truly
offset the greenhouse gas emissions from your trip. Climate Friendly, for example, allows you to offset
all your carbon emissions and also supports WWF's climate change program.

The WWF Travel Helper helps you make an informed choice about the best way to travel as well as
offset the environmental cost of the journey (Europe only).

Take the Travel Smart pledge

Drive smoothly

Be a responsible tourist.

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Be a good guest

The money you spend while away helps determine the development and direction of tourism,
accommodation and facilities.

Choose "green" hotels, tour operators and suppliers that support sustainable development, do not
impact negatively on the environment, and provide financial support to local communities.

Avoid damaging recreational activities. Avoid sports which have a significant harmful impact on the
environment, or choose more progressive establishments (e.g. golf courses which recycle water).

Watch what you buy for a souvenir! Think twice before you buy any products made from any
endangered species, including animal hides and body parts, tortoise-shell, ivory, or coral - they could be
illegal.

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