SOIL AND AGGREGATES

SOIL
The term Soil are used by engineers, refers to the unconsolidated mineral materials at or near
the earth’s surface, including the air , moisture, organic matter, and other substance which may
incorporate therein, which have may resulted from natural processes, such as weathering, decay and
chemical reaction.
Soil are group in three major divisions: granular soils which include sand and gravel; fine grained
soil which include silts and clay and organic soils which include muck peat or organic silts. The most
widely used grouping of soils according to particle size is the following.

Gravel - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2mm to 75 mm
Sand - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.05 to 2 mm
Silt - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.005 mm to 0.05 mm
Clay - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.001 mm to 0.005 mm
Colloids - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - less than 0.001

Soil Major Divisions:

1. Granular soils:
a. Good load bearing qualities.
b. Premeable, hence they drain readily.
c. Comparatively imcomprissable when subjected to static loads.
d. Not subject to changes in strength or volume due to variation in water content. However ,
loose granular materials will undergo considerable reduction in volume if subjected to
vibratory loads.

2. Fine-Grained Soils:
a. Poor load – sustaining qualities
b. Highly impermeable
c. Compressible under sustained load
d. Subject to change in volume and strength due to variation in water content.
 3. Organic soils :
Inferior than fine-grained soils with respect to the properties stated under the latter group.

Soil Group Classifications:

1. Gravel - Rounded or water-worn pebbles. No cohesion or plasticity.

2. Sand – Gritty and loose grains. Individual grains readily seen and felt. No plasticity or coheshion.
If dry, a cast formed in the hand will fall apart; if moist, a cast will crumble when touched.

3. Silt - Fine and barely visible grains. When in a dry pulverized condition, it feels soft and floury.
Can hardly be made plastic. Exhibites little or no strength when air-dried. A dried cast is easily
crushed in the hands.

4. Clay - Can be made plastic by adjusting its water content. Cohesive. Exhibits considerable
strength when air-dried; difficult or impossible to crush in hands. Clay can be molded and rolled
into thin threads without breaking or crumbling within a moderate to a wide range in water
content, and threads of considerable length will support their own weight when held by one
hand.

5. Organic soils - Gray to black color. Fibrous structure due to presence of undecomposed plant
matter. Unhealthy sewage sludge odor. Found as deposits in swamps and peat bogs.

AGGREGATES
Aggregate is a broad encompassing boulders, cobbles, crushed stone, gravel, aircooled blast
furnace slag, native and manufactured sands, and manufactured and natural lightweight aggregates.
Aggregates may be further described by their respective sizes.

1. NORMAL-WEIGHT AGGREGATES
These typically have specific gravities between 2.0 and 3.0. They are usually distinguished by size
as follows:
 A. Boulders - Larger than 6 in
B. Cobbles - 6 to 3 in
C. Coarse aggregate - 3 in to No. 4 sieve
D. Fine aggregate - No. 4 sieve to No. 200 sieve
E. Mineral filler - Material passing No. 200 sieve

Used in most concrete construction, normal-weight aggregates are obtained by draining

riverbeds or mining and crunching formational material. Concrete made with normal-weight fine and
coarse aggregates generally weights about 144 lb / ft3. Boulders and cobbles are generally not used in
their as-mined size but are crushed to make various sizes of coarse aggregate and manufactured sand
and
mineral filler.
Aggregates comprise the greatest volume percentage in portland-cement concrete, mortar, or
asphaltic concrete. In a portland-cement concrete mix, the coarse and fine aggregates occupy about 60
to 75% of the total mix volume. For asphaltic concrete, the aggregates represent 75 to 85% of the mix
volume.

Gradation of Aggregates
The distribution of aggregate sizes in a concrete mix is important because it directly influences
the amount of cement required for a given strength, workability of the mix (and amount of effort to
place the mix in the forms), in-place durability, and overall economy. ASTM C33 provides ranges of fine-
and coarse-aggregate grading limits.

a. Hardness
Coarse-aggregate hardness is measured by the Los Angeles Abrasion Test, ASTM C131 or
C595. These tests break the aggregate down by impacting it with steel balls in a steel tumbler.
The resulting breakdown is not directly related to the abrasion an aggregate receives in service,
but the results can be empirically related to concretes exhibiting service lives.

b. Soundness
Aggregate soundness is measured by ASTM C88, ‘‘Test Method for Soundness of
Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magneisum Sulfate.’’ This test measures the amount of
aggregate degradation when exposed to alternating cycles of wetting and drying in a sulfate
solution.

c. Particle Shape
Natural sand and gravel have a round, smooth particle shape. Crushed aggregate
(coarse and fine) may have shapes that are flat and elongated, angular, cubical, disk, or rodlike.
These shapes result from the crushing equipment employed and the aggregate mineralogy.
Extreme angularity and elongation increase the amount of cement required to give strength,
difficulty in finishing, and effort required to pump the concrete. Flat and elongated particles also
increase the amount of required mixing water. The bond between angular particles is greater
than that between smooth particles.

d. Potential Alkali Reactivity

Aggregates that contain certain forms of silicas or carbonates may react with the alkalies
present in portland cement (sodium oxide and potassium oxide). The reaction product cracks
the concrete or may create pop-outs at the concrete surface.

e. Resistance to Freezing and Thawing

The pore structure, absorption, porosity, and permeability of aggregates are especially
important if they are used to make concrete exposed to repeated cycles of freezing and
thawing. Aggregates that become critically saturated and then freeze cannot accommodate the
expansion of the frozen water.

f. Impurities in Aggregates
Erratic setting times and rates of hardening may be caused by organic impurities in the
aggregates, primarily the sand. Pop-outs and reduced durability can be caused by soft particles,
chert, clay lumps and other friable particles, coal, lignite, or other lightweight materials in the
aggregates.

g. Volume Stability
 Volume stability refers to susceptibility of aggregate to expansion when heated or to
cyclic expansions and contractions when saturated and dried. Aggregates that are susceptible to
volume change due to moisture should be avoided.

2. HEAVYWEIGHT AND LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES

Heavyweight aggregates include magnetite, with a specific gravity of 4.3; barite 4.2; limonite 3.8;
ferrophosphorus 6.3; and steel shot or punchings 7.6. Such heavyweight aggregates may be used
instead of gravel or crushed stone to produce a dense concrete; for example, for shielding of nuclear
reactors.

Classification of Aggregate Based on Unit Weight

Aggregate Sp. Gr. Unit Weight ( KN/m3 ) Bulk Density ( kg / m3 ) Examples
Sand, gravel,
Normal - Weight 2.5 - 2.7 23 - 26 1520 - 1680 granite, sandstone,
limestone
Magnetite, baryte,
Heavy - Weight 2.8 - 2.9 25 - 29 > 2080
scrap - iron
Dolomite, pumice,
Light - Weight 12 < 1120
cinder, clay
 CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

Cementitious materials include the many products that are mixed with either water or some
other liquid or both to form a cementing paste that may be formed or moulded while plastic but will
set into a rigid shape. When sand is added to the paste, mortar is formed. A combination of coarse
and fine aggregate (sand) added to the paste forms concrete.

TYPES OF CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS

There are many varieties of cements and numerous ways of classification. One of the simplest
classifications is by the chemical constituent that is responsible for the setting or hardening of the
cement. On this basis, the silicate and aluminate cements, wherein the setting agents are calcium
silicates and aluminates, constitute the most important group of modern cements. Included in this
group are the portland, aluminous, and natural cements.

1. PORTLAND CEMENTS
Portland cement, the most common of the modern cements, is made by carefully
blending selected raw materials to produce a finished material meeting the requirements of ASTM
C150 for one of eight specific cement types. The basic raw materials used in the manufacture of
Portland cements are calcium carbonate, found in calcareous rocks such as limestone or chalk, and
silica, alumina and iron oxide found in argillaceous rocks such as clay or shale. The basic raw
materials used in the manufacture of Portland cements are calcium carbonate, found in calcareous
rocks such as limestone or chalk, and silica, alumina and iron oxide found in argillaceous rocks such
as clay or shale. Concrete, the most common use for portland cement, is a complex material
consisting of portland cement, aggregates, water, and possibly chemical and mineral admixtures.

The basic types of portland cement covered by ASTM C150 are as follows:
A. Type I, general-purpose cement, is the one commonly used for many structural purposes.
B. Type II is a modified cement for use in general concrete where a moderate exposure to
sulfate attack may be anticipated or where a moderate heat of hydration is required.
C. Type III cement attains high early strength. In 7 days, strength of concrete made with it is
practically equal to that made with Type I or Type II cement at 28 days.
D. Type IV is a low-heat cement that has been developed for mass concrete construction.
 E. Type V is a portland cement intended for use when high sulfate resistance is required.

Physical Tests:
a. Soundness
Soundness in cement implies the absence of those qualities tend to destroy its strength
and durability. The test is out by placing 24 hour old neat cement pats of normal in an
atmosphere of saturated steam above boiling for 5 hours. Unsoundness is manifested by a
change volume which causes distortion, cracking, checking or integration.
b. Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of cement is not of particular because for most purposes a specific
gravity of 3.15 assumed.
c. Setting
The time of setting tests determines the time which elapses the paste ceases to be fluid
and plastic (initial set) also the time required for it to harden to a certain degree.

2. ALUMINOUS CEMENTS
These are prepared by fusing a mixture of aluminous and calcareous materials (usually bauxite
and limestone) and grinding the resultant product to a fine powder.
These cements are characterized by their rapid-hardening properties and the high strength developed at
early ages.

3. NATURAL CEMENTS
Natural cements are formed by calcining a naturally occurring mixture of calcareous and
argillaceous substances at a temperature below that at which sintering takes place.

4. LIMES
These are made principally of calcium oxide (CaO), occurring naturally in limestone, marble,
chalk, coral, and shell. For building purposes, they are used chiefly in mortars.
A. Hydraulic Limes
These are made by calcining a limestone containing silica and alumina to a temperature
short of incipient fusion so as to form sufficient free lime to permit hydration and at the same
time leave unhydrated sufficient calcium silicates to give the dry powder its hydraulic
properties.

B. Quicklimes
When limestone is heated to a temperature in excess of 1700_F, the carbon dioxide
content is driven off and the remaining solid product is quicklime. It consists essentially of
calcium and magnesium oxides plus impurities such as silica, iron, and aluminum oxides. The
impurities are usually limited to less than 5%. If they exceed 10%, the product may be a
hydraulic lime.

C. Mason’s Hydrated Lime

Hydrated limes are prepared from quicklimes by addition of a limited amount of water.
Mason’s hydrated limes are those hydrates suitable for use in mortars, base-coat plasters, and
concrete.

D. Finishing Hydrated Limes

Finishing hydrated limes are particularly suitable for use in the finishing coat of plaster.
They are characterized by a high degree of whiteness and plasticity

E. OXYCHLORIDE CEMENTS
Lightly calcined magnesium oxide mixed with a solution of magnesium chloride forms a
cement known as magnesium oxychloride cement, or Sorel cement. It is particularly useful in
making flooring compositions in which it is mixed with colored aggregates.

F. MASONRY CEMENTS
Masonry cements, or as they are sometimes called—mortar cements, are intended to
be mixed with sand and used for setting unit masonry, such as brick, tile, and stone.

G. FLY ASHES
 Fly ash meeting the requirements of ASTM C618, ‘‘Specification for Fly Ash and raw or
Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete,’’ is
generally used as a cementitious material as well as an admixture.

H. SILICA FUME (MICROSILICA)

Silica fume, or microsilica, is a condensed gas, the by-product of metallic silicon or
ferrosilicon alloys produced by electric arc furnaces.
 ADMIXTURES FOR CONCRETE

A material, other than water, aggregates and hydraulic cement (including blended cement) that
is used as an ingredient of concrete and is added to the batch in controlled amounts immediately
before or during mixing to produce some desired modification to the properties of the concrete.

Types of Chemical Admixtures for Concrete

The concrete chemical admixture are classified as follows and shall conform to the requirements
of AASHTO M 194.

1. Type A – Accelerating Admixtures

An admixture that accelerates the time of setting and early strength development of
concrete.

2. Type B – Retarding Admixtures

An admixture that delays the time of setting of concrete.

3. Type C – Water-reducing Admixtures

An admixture that reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of
a given consistency.

4. Type D – Water-reducing High Range, Admixtures

An admixture that decreases the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete
of a given consistency by 12 percent or greater. Superplasticizers are high-range water-reducing
admixtures that meet the requirements of ASTM C494 Type F or G. They are often used to
achieve high strength concrete by use of a low water-cement ratio with good workability and
low segregation.
5. Type E – Water-Reducing and Accelerating Admixtures
An admixture that decreases the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete
of a given consistency and hastens the time of setting and early strength development of
concrete.
 MORTAR AND CONCRETE

MORTAR
The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a
mixture of binding material like cement or lime and fine aggregates like sand. The two components of
mortar namely the binding material and fine aggregates are sometimes referred to as matrix the
durability, quality and strength of mortar will mainly depends on quantity and quality of the matrix. The
combined effect of the two components of mortar is that the mass is able to bind the bricks or stones
firmly.

Properties of Mortars:
a. Workability - is an important property of mortars, particularly of those used in conjunction
with unit masonry of high absorption. Workability is controlled by the character of the cement
and amount of sand.
b. Water retention - the ratio of the flow after 1-min standard suction to the flow before
suction is used as an index of the workability of mortars. A high value of water retention is
considered desirable for most purposes.
c. Strength - of mortar is frequently used as a specification requirement, even though it has
little relation to the strength of masonry.
d. Volume change - of mortars constitutes another important property. Normal volume
change (as distinguished from unsoundness) may be considered as the shrinkage during early
hardening, shrinkage on drying, expansion on wetting, and changes due to temperature. After
drying, mortars expand again when wetted. Alternate wetting and drying produces alternate
expansion and contraction, which apparently continues indefinitely with portland-cement
mortars.

Uses of Mortars:
a. To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
b. To carry out painting and plaster works on exposed surfaces of masonry
c. To form an even bedding layer for building units.
d. To form joints of pipes.
 e. To improve the appearance of structure.

CONCRETE
Concrete is the finished product of mixing aggregates with cement and water together with the
necessary manipulations of placing same and observing curing requirements. The quality of concrete is
largely dependent upon the quality of the paste which is water and cement that binds the aggregate
particles into a solid mass. For successful results then, a proper proportion of the water to cement is
essential.
Ordinarily, the absolute volume of cement constitutes between 7 to 14 percent and that of
water from about 15-20 percent. Thus, something like 66 to 78 percent of the concrete is made up of
the aggregates. Since these aggregates constitute such a large part of the concrete, utmost care in their
selection concerning qualities such as good grading, strength, durability and freedom from injurious
materials is important.
The proper methods of handling and placing the fresh concrete contributes to the production of
quality concrete. Segregation of the coarse aggregate and improper tamping in placing the concrete into
final position are factors contributing to weak concrete.
Equally important to be considered in the production of quality concrete is proper curing. Neglect on the
part of concrete inspectors in the matter of proper curing especially within the first 72 hours after
concrete is placed, will impair the increase in strength, and the loss of strength suffered within this
period can in no way be recovered. Cement concrete is important building material because of the
following reasons.
a. It can be moulded into any size and shape of durable structural member.
b. It is possible to control the properties of cement concrete.
c. It is possible to mechanise completely its preparation and placing processes.
d. It possesses adequate plasticity for mechanical working.

The cement concrete has the following properties

a. It has high compressive strength.
b. It is free from corrosion.
c. It hardens with age and continues for a long time after concrete has attained sufficient
strength.
 d. It is proved to be economical than steel.
e. It binds rapidly with steel and it is weak in tension, steel reinforcement is placed in cement
concrete at suitable places to take up tensile concrete or simply R.C.C.
f. It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion stresses.
g. It has tendency to be porous to avoid this proper grading & consolidation of the aggregates,
minimum water-cement ratio should be adopted.

Physical Properties
a. Workability
Workability is defined as the ease with which a uniform mass of freshly mixed concrete
can be moved without segregation into final position in which it is allowed to harden. There is
no accurate method or instrument to measure workability. The method commonly used is the
slump test. A new method is by use of the ball penetration apparatus. These tests are readily
made in the field and are good measures of consistency.

Recommended Values of Concrete Slump Tests for Various Purposes:

Types of concrete Slump
Concrete for road construction. 20 to 40 mm
Concrete for tops of curbs, parapets, piers, slabs and wall. 40 to 50 mm
Concrete for canal lining. 70 to 80 mm
Normal RCC work. 80 to 150 mm
Mass concrete. 20 to 50 mm
Concrete to be vibrated. 10 to 25 mm

b. Strength
Concrete, in order to be a useful construction product must fulfill or meet a minimum
strength requirement for compression. Flexure, shear and bond on the basis of intended use.
Strength of concrete is principally dependent on the water-cement ratio
Rate of increase in strength is higher at high temperature than at low temperature. Concrete
continues to increase in strength as long as it is protected from drying.
 The compressive strength of concrete as well as its tensile, flexural and bond strengths,
increases with age as long as moisture and temperature conditions are favorable for continued
hydration of the cement.

Compressive strength of concrete at various ages:

The strength of concrete increases with age. Table shows the strength of concrete at different
ages in comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting.
Age Strength per cent
1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%

Formwork Removal Time

Special attention is required for formwork removal of flexural members such as beams and
slabs. As these members are subjected to self-load as well as live load even during construction, they
may deflect if the strength gained is not sufficient to handle to loads.
MIN. % OF DESIGN
TYPES OF STRUCTURES MIN. TIME
STRENGTH
Centering under girders, frames, or arches 14 days 80%
Floor Slabs 14 days 70%
Columns 2 days 70%
Walls 1 day 70%
Sides of beams and all other vertical surfaces 1 day 70%

c. Durability
Durability of the concrete is important in order to be able to withstand deterioration
 due to exposure to weathering action. Durability within the limitations of workability is a
function of the water-cement ratio most specifications for concrete exposed to weathering
requires that water-cement ratio be 0.53 by weight. Designed by volume is no longer allowed.

d. Impermeability
Imperviousness is an essential requirement of concrete exposed to the weather.
Concrete that does not leak is made by causing a small amount of water and curing it well for a
long period. With less water in the mixing, the concrete product can be made dense to water
tightness. The properties generally desired in concrete are workability while it is still fresh, and
strength and durability of the hardened concrete while in service.

CLASSES AND USES OF CONCRETE

Concrete can be made with wide variations in quality. Our standard specifications include
several classes of concrete which are selected on the basis of intended use. See table I.

Strength
Mixture Cement in bag sand gravel
of Proportion
class
Mixture 40kg 50kg cu.m cu.m
1 : 1 1/2 :
class AA 4000 PSI 12 9.5 0.5 1
3
class A 3500 PSI 1:2:4 9 7 0.5 1
1 : 2 1/2 :
class B 2500 PSI 7.5 6 0.5 1
5
class C 2000 PSI 1:3:6 6 5 0.5 1

Class A – Shall be used for beams, slabs, columns, and for all members subjected to bending stress.
Class B – Shall be used for all members not reinforced for bending stress.
Class C – Used for footing not under water.

Concrete Defects:
a. Cracks - Cracks in concrete may originate from one or more of the following causes:
. - Excess Water - Water in excess of the requirement causes coarse aggregate to settle more
and the water bleeds to top and evaporate leaving voids. This porous, weak concrete
 will be unable to bear shrinkage stresses without cracking. Concrete may also shrink
down in the forms in the cases of beams and walls.
- Early Loss of Water - results in shrinkage cracks during or soon after the finishing
because of moisture absorption by dry subgrade, dry forms, dry aggregates or hot sunny
weather.
- Alkali Aggregate Reaction - arising out of incorrect selection of coarse aggregate may
lead to cracks.
- Steel - corrosion of steel bars may cause cracks and rust stains to appear in the
concrete.
- Freeze and Thaw - cracks because of freeze and thaw are normally observed in concrete
with high w/c ratio, producing tiny crevices and voids around the aggregates, allowing the
rain water to penetrate into concrete. On freezing, the ice produces tremendous force
causing spalls and cracks.

b. Crazing - results from differences in shrinkage between the surface and the interior. The
cracks rarely exceed 12 mm or so in depth, and are therefore not serious, apart from the
unsightliness. The best method to overcome crazing is to be either to use an earth – moist
mix, or if a plastic mix is necessary use as low a w/c ratio as is practicable and remove the
cement skin to expose the aggregate. Trowelling should be avoided, as the surfaces are
prone to crazing.

c. Sulphate Deterioration - Sulphate attack is mainly caused by the soil containing sulphates
or by sulphate water.

d. Efflorescence - is the appearance of fluffy white patches on the surface of concrete

members. It is caused by poorly washed aggregate, salty water used in making concrete the
salts being leaching out to the surface by rain water afterwards. As the water evaporates
white patches appear on the surface. This defect can be controlled to some extent by
coating the surface by a water repellent.

e. Segregation - usually implies separation of: (a) coarse aggregate from fine aggregate, (b)
paste from coarse aggregate, or water from the mix and the ingredients of the fresh
 concrete no longer remain uniformly distributed. It can be reduced by increasing small size
coarse aggregate, air entrainment, using dispersing agents and pozzolana. The causes of
segregation are dropping concrete from heights, badly designed mixes, concrete carried
over long distances - pumping, belt conveyor system etc. over vibrations, and during
concrete finishing extra floating and tamping. Segregation mainly occurs in dry non-sticky
concrete mixes.

f. Bleeding - defined as an autogeneous flow of mixing water within or emergence to the

surface from freshly placed concrete is usually due to excessive vibrations imparted to
concrete to achieve full compaction.

a. Laitance - defined as cement and water slurry coming on top and setting on the surface is
very dangerous since the top surface will weather out fast with larger shrinkage cracks. If
laitance is formed in a lift, it should be removed before next lift is placed.
 WOOD AND TIMBER

WOOD
Wood, because of its availability, relatively low cost, ease of use, and durability (if properly
designed), continues to be an important civil engineering material. A vast industry has developed to
harvest and process wood. Wood is harvested from forests as logs. They are transported to saw mills,
where they are cut into dimensional shapes to produce a variety of products for engineering
applications:

1. Dimension lumber - is wood from 2 in. to 5 in. thick, sawn on all four sides. Common shapes
include 2 x 4, 2 x 6, 2 x 8, 2 x 10, 2 x 12, 4 x 4 and 4 x 6. These sizes refer to the rough-sawn
dimensions of the lumber in inches. The rough-sawn lumber is surfaced to produce smooth
surfaces; this removes 1/4 in. per side. For dimensions 8 in. and larger, 3/8 in. is removed per
side. For example, the actual dimensions of a 2 x 4 are 1 ½ in. by 3 ½ in. Dimension lumber is
produced in lengths of 8 ft. to 24 ft. in 2 ft. increments.

2. Heavy timber - is wood sawn on all four sides; common shapes include 6 x 6 and 8 x 8 and
larger. Heavy timber includes Beams and Stringers (subjected to bending) and Posts and Timbers
(used as posts or columns). As with the case of dimension lumber, these sizes specify rough-
sawn dimensions in inches. Heavy timbers are used for heavy frame construction, landscaping,
railroad ties, and marine construction.

3. Round stock - consists of posts and poles used for building poles, marine piling, and utility
poles.

4. Engineered wood consists of products manufactured by bonding together wood strands,

veneers, lumber, and other forms of wood fiber to produce a larger and integral composite unit.
These products are engineered and tested to have specific mechanical responses to loads.
Structural engineered wood products include the following:
- structural panels including plywood, oriented strand board, and composite panels,
- structural glued laminated timber (glulam),
- structural composite lumber, and
 - composite structural members.

TIMBER
Wood suitable for building or other engineering works is called timber

Methods of sawing timber:

a. ORDINARY SAWN OR FLAT SAWN
- Parallel cuts made throughout the length of the log.
- Cutting parallel slices of planks.
- Easiest and economical method.
- Shrinkage of sapwood more than the heartwood.
- Causing warp and twisting of planks.

b. QUARTER SAWING
- Tendency to cup i.e. to curve in a transverse direction.
- When applied to wood, not having distinct medullar rays, this method produces very fine
wood.

c. RIFT OR RADIAL SAWING

- Timber cut parallel to medullar rays and perpendicular to annual rings.
- Least shrinkage but most wasted.
- limited rift is adopted.
- Greater decorative effect.

d. TANGENTIAL SAWING
- Boards or planks sawn tangentially to annual rings.
- Not suitable for flooring.
- Planks cut by this method warp too much.
Properties of Wood & Timber
Wood is the oldest material used by humans for construction after stone. Despite its complex chemical
nature, wood has excellent properties which lend themselves to human use.
- It is readily and economically available; easily machinable; amenable to fabrication into an
infinite variety of sizes and shapes using simple on-site building techniques;
- Exceptionally strong relative to its weight.
- A good heat and electrical insulator;
- Of increasing importance;
- It is a renewable and biodegradable resource.
However, it also has some drawbacks of which the user must be aware. It is a “natural” material and is
available in limited amount.

Drying and Seasoning of wood

The process of removal of moisture content from wood so as to make it useful for construction
and other uses is called drying of wood or seasoning of wood. This reduces the chances of decay,
improves load bearing properties, reduces weight, and exhibits more favourable properties like thermal
& electrical insulation, glue adhesive capacity & easy preservative treatment etc .

a. Natural or air seasoning

The traditional method of seasoning timber was to stack it in air and let the heat of the atmosphere
and the natural air movement around the stacked timber remove the moisture. The basic principle is to
stack the timber so that plenty of air can circulate around each piece. The timber is stacked with wide
spaces between each piece horizontally, and with strips of wood between each layer ensuring that there
is a vertical separation too.
Air can then circulate around and through the stack, to slowly remove moisture. In some cases,
weights can be placed on top of the stacks to prevent warping of the timber as it dries. Air-drying is
necessarily a slow process, particularly for hardwoods, typically taking 6 to 9 months to reach moisture
content in the range 20% to 25%.
 b. Artificial (kiln) seasoning
Artificial methods of seasoning timber. Kiln drying of lumber is perhaps the most effective and
economical method available. Drying rates in a kiln can be carefully controlled and defect losses reduced
to a minimum. Length of drying time is also greatly reduced and is predictable so that dry lumber
inventories can often be reduced.

Wood defects:
The major problems that arise in wood use may be attributed either to the effects of grain
distortions (cell orientation or alignment), to the effects of excess moisture, or to defects that occur as a
result of the drying process. The specific defects taken into account in the grading of lumber products
include:
a. Knots - are branch bases that have become incorporated into the wood of the tree trunk or
another limb. Knots degrade the mechanical properties of lumber, affecting the tensile and
flexural strengths.
b. Shakes - are lengthwise separations in the wood occurring between annual rings. They develop
prior to cutting the lumber and could be due to heavy winds.
c. Wane is bark or other soft material left on the edge of the board or absence of material.
d. Bark Pockets are small patches of bark embedded in the wood. These pockets form as a result
of an injury to the tree, causing death to a small area of the cambium. The surrounding tree
continues to grow, eventually covering the dead area with a new cambium layer.
e. Checks are ruptures in wood along the grain that develop during seasoning. They can occur on
the surface or end of a board. Surface checking results from the differential shrinkage between
radial and tangential directions and is confined mostly to planer surfaces. Cracks due to end
checking normally follow the grain and result in end splitting.
f. Splits are lengthwise separations of the wood caused by either mishandling or seasoning.
g. Warp is a distortion of wood from the desired true plane. The four major types of warp are bow,
crook, cup, and twist.
- Bow is a longitudinal curvature from end to end.
- Crook is the longitudinal curvature side to side. Both bow and crook defects result from
differential longitudinal shrinkage.
- Cup is the rolling of both edges up or down.
 - Twist is the lifting of one corner out of the plane of the other three. Warp results from
differential shrinkage, differential drying due to the production environment, or from the
release of internal tree stress.

Common defects in lumber: (a) knots, (b) shakes, (c) wanes, (d) checks and splits, (e) bowing,
(f) crooking, (g) cupping, and (h) twisting.
 FERROUS METALS

Iron and its alloys are generally referred to as ferrous metals. Even small amounts of alloy
change the properties of ferrous metals significantly. Also, the properties can be changed considerably
by changing the atomic structure of these metals by heating and cooling.

TYPES OF IRONS AND STEELS

Steel is a solution of carbon in iron. Various types of steel are produced by varying the
percentage of carbon added to molten iron and controlling the cooling, which affects the atomic
structure of the product, and hence its properties.

Types of Iron:
1. Pure Iron - Pure iron is a term used to describe new iron produced in an electric arc furnace
where temperatures sufficient to melt the iron can be achieved. Pure iron is silvery white
colored metal and is extremely lustrous. Its most important property is that it is very soft. It is
easy to work and shape and is just soft enough to cut through (with quite a bit of difficulty)
using a knife. Pure iron can be hammered into sheets and drawn into wires. It conducts heat and
electricity and is very easy to magnetize. Its other properties include easy corrosion in the
presence of moist air and high temperatures.

Uses :
Pure Iron is largely used in the production of relatively small volumes of special alloy
steels, in the aviation, automotive, construction, petrochemical industries, and in the
manufacture of magnets, gaskets, fuse wire, welding rods, lighting conductors and MRI
(magnetic resonance imaging) scanners.

2. Pig Iron - The iron ore is dressed by crushing it to about 50 mm cubes. The impurities are
knocked off and the ore is then calcined to drive off moisture. The calcined ore is smelted in
blast furnance. The iron is deoxidised and a part of sulphur is also removed. Then limestone,
which acts as flux, is added to finally remove the sulphur. The molten metal is tapped from the
furnance and is cast in the form of pigs. Pig iron is hard and brittle with fusion temperature of
1200°C and melts easily. It can be hardened but cannot be tempered and magnetized. Its
 compressive strength is high but is weak in tension and shear. Pig iron does not rust and cannot
be riveted or welded.

Uses:
Pig iron is most suitable for making columns, base plates, door brackets, etc.

3. Cast Iron - Pig iron is remelted with limestone (flux) and coke and refined in Cupola furnace. It is
then poured into moulds of desired size and shape. The product is known as cast iron. Cast iron
is hard and brittle. It can neither be riveted nor welded. It is strong in compression (600 N/mm2)
but weak in tension (150 N/mm2) and shear. Its specific gravity is 7.50. It has low melting point
(1200°C) and is affected by sea water. It cannot be magnetized and is not suitable for forging.
Iron containing large amounts of manganese and chromium are likely to be permanently white,
while those having a high silicon content are grey. With proper adjustment in composition, cast
iron may be rendered white by cooling rapidly or grey by cooling slowly from the molten state.

Uses:
On account of cheapness, strength, ease with which it may be melted and cast into
more or less intricate shapes, ease of machining, high damping capacity, and ease with which its
hardness may be varied, cast iron is the most used of the cast metals employed in engineering
constructions and machines. Some of the more common uses of cost iron are making
ornamental castings such as wall brackets, lamp posts; bathroom fittings such as cisterns, water
pipes, sewers, manhole covers, sanitary fittings and; rail chairs, carriage wheels and machine
parts subjected to shocks. It is used as basic material for manufacturing wrought iron and mild
steel.

4. Wrought Iron - Wrought iron considered to be pure iron, is produced by removing the
impurities of cast iron. The total impurities are limited to 0.5 per cent with a maximum
percentage of carbon as 0. 15, silicon 0.15 – 0.2%, Phosphorus 0.12 – 0.16%, sulphur 0.02 –
0.03% and manganese 0.03 – 0.1% Wrought iron is ductile, malleable, tough and moderately
elastic. Its ultimate crushing strength is 200 N/mm2 and ultimate tensile strength is 40 N/mm2.
 Uses:
Roof coverings, rivets, chains, ornamental iron works such as gates, etc. are made of
wrought iron.

Types of Carbon Steels:

Most of the steel used for construction is low- to medium-carbon, relatively mild, tough, and
strong, fairly easy to work by cutting, punching, riveting, and welding.

Steel Alloys
Plain carbon steels can be given a great range of properties by heat treatment and by working;
but addition of alloying elements greatly extends those properties or makes the heat-treating
operations easier and simpler. For example, combined high tensile strength and toughness, corrosion
resistance, high-speed cutting, and many other specialized purposes require alloy steels. However, the
most important effect of alloying is the influence on hardenability.

Effects of Alloying Elements

Important alloying elements from the standpoint of building, and their principal effects, are
summarized below:
Aluminum - restricts grain growth during heat treatment and promotes surface hardening by nitriding.
Chromium - is a hardener, promotes corrosion resistance, and promotes wear resistance.
Copper - promotes resistance to atmospheric corrosion and is sometimes combined with molybdenum
for this purpose in low-carbon steels and irons. It strengthens steel and increases the yield point without
unduly changing elongation or reduction of area.
Manganese - in low concentrations promotes hardenability and nondeforming, nonshrinking
characteristics for tool steels.
Molybdenum - is usually associated with other elements, especially chromium and nickel. It increases
corrosion resistance, raises tensile strength and elastic limit without reducing ductility, promotes
casehardening, and improves impact resistance.
Nickel - boosts tensile strength and yield point without reducing ductility; increases low-temperature
toughness, whereas ordinary carbon steels become brittle; promotes casehardening; and in high
concentrations improves corrosion resistance under severe conditions. It is often used with chromium.
Invar - contains 36% nickel.
Silicon - strengthens low-alloy steels; improves oxidation resistance; with low carbon yields transformer
steel, because of low hysteresis loss and high permeability; in high concentrations provides hard, brittle
castings, resistant to corrosive chemicals, useful in plumbing lines for chemical laboratories.
Sulfur - promotes free machining, especially in mild steels.
Titanium - prevents intergranular corrosion of stainless steels by preventing grainboundary depletion of
chromium during such operations as welding and heat treatment.
Tungsten, vanadium, and cobalt - are all used in high-speed tool steels, because they promote hardness
and abrasion resistance. Tungsten and cobalt also increase high-temperature hardness.

Stainless Steels
Stainless steels of primary interest in building are the wrought stainless steels of the austenitic
type. The austenitic stainless steels contain both chromium and nickel.

Reinforcing Steel Bars

Cement concrete is one of the most versatile and established construction material throughout
the world. Concrete being extremely weak in tension requires reinforcement, which is in variably steel.
Steel reinforcement is available in the form of bars of specific diameters with different chemical
composition, e.g., mild steel and high tensile steel, and surface characteristics : plain or deformed.
Effectiveness of concrete reinforcement may be enhanced by the use of low-alloy steel, or by
mechanical strengthening, or by heat treatment. Mechanical strengthening of steel is done by drawing,
stretching, twisting; the yield point of steel rises by about 30%. Heat treatment increases strength and
improves mechanical properties of steel and effects 30 to 40% savings on reinforcement. Steel bars can
also be strengthened by cold drawing after rolling. Mild steel has a definite yield point. Cold working
increases the yield stress of mild steel.

Rusting and Corrosion

When steel is exposed to atmosphere, it is subjected to action of atmospheric agencies. The
humid air causes the rusting of steel (the formation of oxides on the surface of steel), also the
atmospheric conditions along with rain produces oxidation and corrosion. Consequently, the physical
and mechanical properties are affected.
Of the various theories of corrosion, the acid theory is applicable to the corrosion of iron.
According to this theory rusting is caused by action of oxygen, carbon di-oxide and moisture converting
the iron into ferrous bicarbonate. Further, the ferrous bicarbonate on oxidation changes to ferric
bicarbonate and subsequently to hydrated ferric oxide.
To safeguard iron and steel from rusting and corrosion some of the prevalent methods are
enamelling; applying metal coatings – galvanizing, tin plating, electroplating; and applying organic
coatings – painting and coal tarring. Of these methods painting is the most common. Enamelling consists
in melting a flux on the surface of iron in muffle furnace and then coating it with a second layer of more
fusible glaze. Galvanising is the process of coating iron with a thin film of zinc, whereas in tin plating a
film of tin is coated.
 NON – FERROUS METALS

The non-ferrous metals and their alloys are used despite their high cost because they provide a
wide variety of properties. Some of the more commonly used non-ferrous metals are aluminium,
copper, tin, zinc, lead and manganese.

1. ALUMINUM
Aluminium is silver white in colour with a brittle metallic lustre on freshly broken surface. It is
malleable, less ductile than copper but excels zinc, tin, and lead. Aluminium is harder than tin.
Aluminium is very light, soft, strong and durable, has low thermal conductivity but is a good conductor
of electricity. Aluminium can be riveted and welded, but cannot be soldered. It can be tempered at 350°
C. The melting point is 657° C, tensile strength is 117.2 N/mm2 in the cast form and 241.3 N/mm2 when
drawn into wires. Aluminium is found to be resistant to the attack of nitric acid, dissolves slowly in
concentrated sulphuic acid and is soluble in hydrochloric acid. At normal temperature it is not affected
by sulphur, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, vinegar, sea water, etc., but is rapidly corroded by caustic
alkalis.
Aluminium is commonly alloyed with copper silicon, magnesium or zinc to improve its
mechanincal propeties. Some aluminium alloys also contain one or more of the metals manganese, lead,
nickel, chromium, titanium, beryllium. A large part of the aluminium production is utilized in making
light, stiff, corrosion-resistant alloys with these metals.

Uses:
Pure aluminium is very soft and is unsuitable for structural purposes. Satisfactory properties are
derived by alloying copper, manganese, zinc, silicon, nickel with aluminium. It is most suitable for
making door and window frames, railings of shops and corrugated sheets for roofing system. Aluminium
sheets are used over doors in bathrooms to protect them from getting rot and for stamping into a
variety of shapes. Aluminium powder is used for making paint. Aluminium is extensively used in making
parts of internal combustion engine, airplanes, utensils and packings for medicines, chocolates, etc.
Alluminium alloys are widely used for the manufacture of rolled sections, such as angles, channels, I-
sections, round and rectangular pipes, rivets and bolts.
 2. COPPER
Copper is a bright shining metal of reddish colour which turns greenish on exposure to weather.
Copper is malleable and ductile and can be worked in hot and cold conditions. It is not weldable, except
on red heat. It is soft and good conductor of heat and electricity. The electrical resistivity of copper
having less than 0.1 per cent non-metallic impurities lies between 0.155–0.159 ohm per meter gram at
20° C. The resistivity increases with the content of impurities and with amount of wire drawing. Its
tensile strength is high.
The alloying elements most frequently used with copper are zinc, tin, and lead. Some of the
important alloys made with copper are brass and bronze.
Uses:
Copper is extensively used for electrical purposes, tubes for condensers and for other
conductors which must withstand corrosion. In buildings copper is used for roofing, sheeting and damp
proofing. Its use is restricted in the appliances and connections used for water supplies in houses.

3. ZINC
The most important property of zinc is its resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Ductility is good and
it can be deformed into desired shapes. Lead (< 0.1 per cent) makes the spelter roll easier, however, it
softens, weakens and ductility is reduced. Iron and cadmium embrittle and harden zinc and are,
therefore, a detriment in spelter which is to be rolled or used for galvanizing. They should not exceed
0.02 per cent. Zinc, either rolled or cast, shows no well defined yield point.

Uses:
It is used to produce brass, German silver, some of the bronzes, as a protective coating on iron
and steel, boiler tubes, fruit jar covers and cans for resisting corrosion and for negative pole pieces of
batteries.

4. LEAD
Mainly used in its pure form, lead is the densest, softest and the weakest metal. Pure lead can
be scratched even with finger nail, highly malleable and can be rolled, into thin foils. It has a blue grey
colour and dull metallic lusture when freshly fractured. When exposed to moist air it loses lusture due to
oxidation. Its relative density is 11.34 and melting temperature is 327° C. The softness and specific
gravity of lead are reduced because of the impurities such as antimony, arsenic, zinc and copper.
Magnesia (2 percent) raises the hardness abruptly. Some of the important lead alloys are lead antimony
alloy, lead tin alloys, and fusible alloy.

Uses:
It finds its principal use in paints as base, lead pipes and joints in sanitary fittings and in
batteries.

5. TIN
Tin is a silvery-white, lustrous, and extremely malleable metal. It is so soft that it can be cut by a
knife. Its specific gravity is 7.3 and it melts at 232° C. It is harder, more ductile and stronger than lead.
Tin is as ductile as soft steel. It is highly resistant to corrosion and has low tensile strength. The
important tin alloys are solder, babbitt metal, white metal, and pewter.

Uses:
Sheets coated with tin are used to make cans, utensils and furnace pipes. Sheets coated with
lead-tin alloy are used for roofing. Tin is also used for making bronze and other alloys.

6. NICKEL
A brittle metal approaching sliver in colour nickel takes good polish and at ordinary temperatures
does not tarnish or corrode in dry air. It has specific gravity 8.30, when cast and 8.70, when rolled. Its
melting point is 1500° C. It is almost as hard as soft steel far more malleable, and when rolled and
annealed, is somewhat stronger and almost as ductile. Nickel resists alkaline corrosion, but gets readily
dissolved in nitric acid and aquaregia. The presence of carbon, arsenic, sulphur leads to brittleness.
Small amounts of magnesium render it more ductile whereas iron makes it hard.
 ASPHALT AND BITUMINOUS MATERIALS

Bitumens are mainly composed of a mixture of high- molecular hydrocarbons, methane,

napthane and other aromatic series and their oxygen or sulphur derivatives. Tar and asphalt are the
two varieties of bituminous materials. Tars are bituminous condensates obtained in the process of
destructive distillation of coal, petroleum, wood and other organic materials at high temperature
without access of air. They are composed of hydrocarbons and their sulphurous, nitrous and oxygen
derivatives. Asphalt on the other hand is a naturally occurring bitumen which is a combination of an
inorganic mineral matter either calcareous or siliceous and an organic matter—a chemical compound of
carbon and hydrogen. Bitumens and bituminous materials are being extensively used in damp proofing
the basements, floors, roofs, damp proof courses; painting timber and steel structural elements; as
adhesives and caulking compounds, and tars are used as binders in road works.
Bitumen is a noncrystalline solid or viscous material derived from petroleum, by natural or
refinery process and substantially soluble in carbon disulphide. It is asphalt in solid state and mineral tar
in semi fluid state. Bitumen is brown or black in colour.

Forms of Bitumen:
1. Bitumen Emulsion
A liquid product containing bitumen to a great extent in an aqueous medium. The bitumen
which is in a very finely divided state (globules of about 2 micron diameter) is kept suspended in the
aqueous medium with the help of some suitable stabilizing agents. Depending upon the stability of the
protective coating of the emulsifying agent, the emulsions are classed as rapid setting (RS), medium
setting (MS) and slow setting (SS). These emulsions are always stored in air tight drums.

2. Blown Bitumen - is obtained by passing air under pressure at a higher temperature through the
bitumen. It can be used as roofing and damp-proofing felts, in the manufacture of pipe asphalts and
joint fillers, as heat insulating material, etc.

3. Cut – back Bitumen - is obtained by fluxing asphaltic bitumen in presence of some suitable
liquid distillates of coal tar or petroleum. It is mainly used in road construction and in soil stabilization
(2–4%). Cut-backs are commercially manufactured in the following three groups:
 A. Rapid curing (RC) cut-backs containing naptha or gasoline.
B. Medium curing (MC) cut-backs containing kerosene.
C. Slow curing (SC) cut-backs containing light oils as fluxing agents.

Each of the above group of cut-backs is further subdivided into six categories from 0 to 5. The six
different viscosities are named by numbers 0 to 5 in the increasing order of viscosity.

4. Plastic Bitumen - consists of bitumen, thinner and a suitable inert filler. The amount of inert
filler is about 40 to 45 per cent. It is used for filling cracks in masonry structures, for stopping leakage,
etc.

5. Straight Run Bitumen - is the bitumen being distilled to a definite viscosity or penetration
without further treatment.

Properties of Bitumen:
The various properties are viscosity, ductility, softening point, and resilience.
a. Viscosity - depends greatly on temperature. At lower temperature, bitumen has great
viscosity and acquires the properties of a solid body, while with increase in temperature the
viscosity of bitumen decreases and it passes into liquid state.
b. Ductility - depends upon temperature, group composition and nature of structure. Viscous
bitumens, containing solid paraffins at low temperatures are very ductile.

c. Softening Point - is related to viscosity. Bitumen needs sufficient fluidity before specific
application.

d. Resilience - Bitumen is resilient, non-rigid and as such it is capable of absorbing shocks and
accommodate itself to the movement in structure due to temperature, settlement or
shrinkage.
TAR
It is a dark (deep black) viscous liquid produced by destructive distillation of organic material
such as coal, oil, lignite and wool. Depending upon the source of origin it is classified as coal tar, wood
tar and mineral tar. Tar is restraint to petroleum-based solvents. It has very low bitumen content.

Classifications of Tar:
1. Coal Tar - is obtained, as a by product in the destructive distillation of coal, or in the
manufacture of coal gas. It is heavy, strong smelling and black. These generally have high specific
gravities and viscosities, and good adhesive properties. On the further distillation of coal tar (from coal
gas) coal naphtha, creosote oil, dyes, etc. are obtained, coal tars for road works are obtained by coking
coal or melting together coal pitch with oils or dehydrated raw tar.

2. Wood Tar - is obtained by the destructive distillation of resinous wood (pine, etc.). It contains
creosote and as such is a very strong preservative. On further distillation wood tar produces wood
creosote. Compared to coal tar creosote, it is an inferior preservative for wood. The residue left after
the distillation is known as pitch.

3. Mineral Tar - is obtained by the distillation of bituminous shales. Some examples are tarmac,
tar paving and tar macadam.

ASPHALT
Asphalt is a natural or artificial mixture in which bitumen is associated with inert mineral matter.
It is black or brownish black in colour. At temperature between 50–100°C it is in liquid state whereas at
temperature less than this it remains in solid state. Because it is a thermoplastic material it softens as it
is heated and hardens as it is cooled. It is the basic paving material in use today. Asphalt used in
pavements is produced in three forms: asphalt cement, asphalt, cutback, and asphalt emulsion.
Forms of Asphalt:
1. Asphalt Cement - Asphalt cement is a blend of hydrocarbons of different molecular weights. The
characteristics of the asphalt depend on the chemical composition and the distribution of the molecular
weight hydrocarbons. As the distribution shifts toward heavier molecular weights, the asphalt becomes
harder and more viscous. At room temperatures, asphalt cement is a semisolid material that cannot be
applied readily as a binder without being heated.

2. Asphalt Cutback - A cutback is produced by dissolving asphalt cement in a lighter molecular

weight hydrocarbon solvent. When the cutback is sprayed on a pavement or mixed with aggregates, the
solvent evaporates, leaving the asphalt residue as the binder. In the past, cutbacks were widely used for
highway construction. They were effective and could be applied easily in the field. However, three
disadvantages have severely limited the use of cutbacks. First, as petroleum costs have escalated, the
use of these expensive solvents as a carrying agent for the asphalt cement is no longer cost effective.
Second, cutbacks are hazardous materials due to the volatility of the solvents. Finally, application of the
cutback releases environmentally unacceptable hydrocarbons into the atmosphere. In fact, many
regions with air pollution problems have outlawed the use of any cutback material.

3. Asphalt Emulsion - An alternative to dissolving the asphalt in a solvent is dispersing the asphalt
in water as emulsion. In this process the asphalt cement is physically broken down into micron - sized
globules that are mixed into water containing an emulsifying agent. Emulsified asphalts typically consist
of about 60% to 70% asphalt cement, 30% to 40% water, and a fraction of a percent of emulsifying
agent.

Unlike asphalt cement, liquid asphalt products: cutbacks and emulsions, have been developed
and can be used without heating. Although emulsions and cutbacks can be used for the same
applications, the use of emulsions is increasing because they do not include hazardous and costly
solvents.
Although the liquid asphalts are convenient, they cannot produce a quality of asphalt concrete
comparable to what can be produced by heating neat asphalt cement and mixing it with carefully
selected aggregates. Asphalt cement has excellent adhesive characteristics, which make it a superior
binder for pavement applications. In fact, it is the most common binder material used in pavements.
 The main use of asphalt is in pavement construction and maintenance. In addition, asphalt is
used in sealing and waterproofing various structural components, such as roofs and underground
foundations. The selection of the type and grade of asphalt depends on the type of construction and the
climate of the area.
Asphalt cements, also called asphalt binders, are used typically to make hot-mix asphalt
concrete for the surface layer of asphalt pavements. Asphalt concrete is also used in patching and
repairing both asphalt and portland cement concrete pavements.
Liquid asphalts (emulsions and cutbacks) are used for pavement maintenance applications, such
as fog seals, chip seals, slurry seals, and microsurfacing. Liquid asphalts may also be used to seal the
cracks in pavements. Liquid asphalts are mixed with aggregates to produce cold mixes, as well. Cold
mixtures are normally used for patching (when hot-mix asphalt concrete is not available), base and
subbase stabilization, and surfacing of low-volume roads.

Paving Applications of Asphalt

Term Description Application

Hot mix Carefully designed mixture of

Pavement surface, patching.
asphalt asphalt cement and aggregates.

Patching, low volume road surface,

Cold mix Mixture of aggregates and liquid asphalt.
asphalt stabilized base.

Spray of diluted asphalt emulsion

Fog seal Seal existing pavement surface.
on existing pavement surface.

Spray coat asphalt emulsion to

Prime coat bond aggregate base and asphalt Construction of flexible pavement
concrete surface.
Construction of new pavements
Spray coat asphalt emulsion
Tack coat or between an existing pavement
between lifts of asphalt concrete.
and an overlay.
Spray coat of asphalt emulsion
Maintenance of existing pavement
Chip seal (or asphalt cement or cutback)
or low volume road surfaces.
followed with aggregate layer.

Mixture of emulsion, well-graded

Slurry seal Resurface low volume roads.
fine aggregate and water.
 Mixture of polymer modified
Texturing, sealing, crack
emulsion, well-graded crushed
Microsurfacing filling, rut filling, and minor
fine aggregate, mineral filler,
leveling.
water, and additives.
 PAINTS AND OTHER COATINGS

Paints are used to protect metals, timber, or plastered surfaces from the corrosive effects of
weather, heat, moisture or gases etc and to improve their appearance.

Types of Paints:
Protective and decorative coatings generally employed in building are the following:

1. Oil Paint - Drying-oil vehicles or binders plus opaque and extender pigments.
2. Water Paint - Pigments plus vehicles based on water, casein, protein, oil emulsions, and rubber
or resin latexes, separately or in combination.
3. Calcimine - Water and glue, with or without casein, plus powdered calcium carbonate and any
desired colored pigments.
4. Varnish - Transparent combination of drying oil and natural or synthetic resins.
5. Enamel - Varnish vehicle plus pigments.
6. Lacquer - Synthetic-resin film former, usually nitrocellulose, plus plasticizers, volatile solvents,
and other resins.
7. Shellac - Exudations of the lac insect, dissolved in alcohol.
8. Aluminum Paint - Fine metallic aluminum flakes suspended in drying oil plus resin, or in
nitrocellulose.

Fundamental components of an oil-based paint:

A. Body
Commonly used bases (body) are White lead, Zinc oxide, Iron oxide, Metallic powder
such as Al, Cu, Br. Paints more often named after the base as Lead paint, Zinc paint, and
Aluminum paint. The binder, or resin, is the actual film forming component of paint. It imparts
adhesion, binds the pigments together, and strongly influences such properties as gloss
potential, exterior durability, flexibility, and toughness. Binders include synthetic or natural
resins such as acrylics, polyurethanes, polyesters, melamine resins, epoxy, or oils.
Typical binders include synthetic or natural resins such as acrylics, polyurethanes, polyesters,
melamines, epoxy, or oils. Typical diluents include organic solvents such as petroleum distillate,
alcohols, ketones, esters, glycol ethers, and the like. Water is a common diluent. Body of the
paint has the following properties:
- Forming the main body of a paint.
- Make the paint film harder and more resistant to abrasion.
- Reduce shrinkage cracks on drying.
- In white paint body is also the pigment.

B. Vehicle
Facilitates the paint to be conveniently spread over the surface. The main purpose of
the vehicle is to adjust the viscosity of the paint. It is volatile and does not become part of the
paint film. It can also control flow and application properties. It's main function is as the carrier
for the non volatile components. Water is the main vehicle for water based paints. Solvent
based, sometimes called oil based paints can have various combinations of solvents as the
vehicle including aliphatics, aromatics, alcohols, and ketones.
Following are descriptions of the most commonly used vehicles and binders for paint:

a. Natural Drying Oils - Drying oils harden by absorbing oxygen. The most important
natural oils are linseed from flax seed (for many years the standard paint vehicle), tung oil
(faster drying, good compatibility with varnish), oiticica oil (similar to tung), safflower (best
nonyellowing oil), soybean (flexible films), dehydrated caster (good adhesion, fast drying),
and fish oil (considered inferior but cheap).

b. Alkyds - These, the most widely used paint vehicles, are synthetic resins that are
modified with various vegetable oils to produce clear resins that are harder than natural
oils. Properties of the film depend on relative proportions of oil and resin. The film is both
air drying and heat hardening.

c. Latexes - Latex paints are based on emulsions of various polymers including acrylics,
polyvinyl acetate, styrene-butadiene, polyvinyl chloride, and rubber. They are easy to apply,
dry quickly, have no solvent odor, and application tools are easily cleaned with soap and
water. The films adhere well to various surfaces, have good color retention, and have
varying degrees of flexibility.
 d. Epoxy and Epoxy-Polyester - Catalyzed two-part, all-epoxy coatings are formed by
addition of a catalyst to the liquid epoxy just before application (pot life a few minutes to a
day). Films are as hard as many baked-on coatings and are resistant to solvents and traffic.
Oil-modified epoxy esters, in contrast, harden on oxidation without a catalyst. They are less
hard and chemically resistant than catalyzed epoxies, but dry fast and are easily applied.
Epoxy-polyesters mixed just before use produce smooth finishes suitable for many interior
surfaces and are chemically resistant.

e. Polyurethanes - These produce especially abrasion-treatment, fast-hardening coatings.

Two-component formulations, of variable pot life, are mixed just before use. One-
component formulations cure by evaporation and reaction with moisture in air (30 to 90%
relative humidity). Oils and alkyds may be added.

f. Vinyl Solutions - Solutions of polyvinyl chloride and vinyl esters dry rapidly and are built
up by successive, sprayed thin coatings. They characteristically have low gloss, high
flexibility, and inertness to water but are sensitive to some solvents. Adhesion may be a
problem. Weather resistance is excellent.

C. Pigment
Pigments are materials which gives the paint its color. In white paint the body is the
pigment. Pigments impart such qualities as color and opacity ( sometimes inappropriately called
“hiding” ), and influences properties such as gloss, film flow, and protective abilities. Some
pigments are toxic, such as those used in lead paint. Paint manufacturers replaced lead white
with a less toxic substitute, which can even be used to color food titanium white (titanium
dioxide) which was first used in paints in the 19th century. The titanium white used in most
paints today is often coated with silicon or aluminum oxides for various reasons such as better
exterior durability, or better hiding performance via better efficiency promoted by more optimal
spacing within the paint film.

D. Thinner
 These are volatile constituents added to coatings to promote their spreading qualities
by reducing viscosity. They should not react with the other constituents and should evaporate
completely. Liquid thinner is added in the paint for the following functions:
- Increase fluidity.
- Making paint more smooth.
- Help penetration into porous surfaces.

E. Dryers
These are catalysts that hasten the hardening of drying oils. Most dryers are salts of
heavy metals, especially cobalt, manganese, and lead, to which salts of zinc and calcium may be
added. Iron salts, usable only in dark coatings, accelerate hardening at high temperatures.
Dryers are normally added to paints to hasten hardening, but they must not be used too
liberally or they cause rapid deterioration of the oil by over oxidation. Dryers are used to
accelerate the oxidation and hardening of vehicle.

PAINTING DEFECTS:
A painted building with full colour effects gives complete satisfaction. But the appearance of
defects, becomes a ready source of complaint. Unfortunately painting defects are by no means
uncommon. They may arise from a variety of causes but the principal reasons behind them are incorrect
choice of paint in relation to backing materials, application of paint to a damp surface or one to which
moisture may have access and; poor workmanship.

A. Effects of Background
The factors affecting durability are dampness, cleanliness, movements, chemical reactions,
etc.

a. Dampness - The traditional construction in brick, cement, etc. involve the use of wet
procedures. If paint is applied on an insufficiently dry background the moisture is trapped
and in the process of subsequent drying the adhesion of the paint breaks down. Emulsion
paints are somewhat better in this respect.
 b. Cleanliness - Paint will not adhere to the surface if it is not cleaned of dirt or dust.

c. Movements - The painting processes can be delayed for proper results for movements
caused by shrinkage and special paints should be used for thermal movements.

d. Chemical Reactions - between backing material and paint film may push the paint off
the backing material and lead to softening or discolourise the paint. This effect generally
occurs only if moisture is present and is noticeable in oil paints over materials containing
cement or lime. The breakdown of bond is because of the crystallization of salts below the
paint film and the discolouration is usually due to action of free lime on the pigments.

B. Effect of Weather
The paint film is subjected to chemical attack of atmosphere, sunlight and heat, all deteriorating
it. Special chemical resistant paints should be applied in industrial areas. Alkali resistant paints weather
well in coastal areas. Blue and green colours tend to fade when exposed to bright light. In addition the
fierce heat of sun may breakdown the paint film because of the disintegration of the material itself and
also because of the thermal movement. The most common defects noticed after painting are as as
follow:

a. Blistering and Peeling - are swelling of the paint film and can be defined as localized
loss of adhesion between one or more coatings or between primer and parent surface.
When swelling is because of oil or grease on the surface it is known as blistering and in case
of moisture it is called peeling. It occurs in nonporous coatings such as oil based paints and
enamels. A special heat-resisting type of paint should be used for hot surfaces such as
radiators.

Causes : It is brought about by moist air, oily or greasy surface, or imprisoned gases between
the painted surface and the paint film, which expand under the influence of heat.

Cure : Emulsion paints provide a porous coating and allow the moisture to pass through.

b. Checking - is a mild form of cracking. If hair cracks produced enclose small area it is
known as crazing. In case the enclosed area is large the defects is called crocodiling.
Causes : It is caused when the paint film lacks in tensile strength and occurs when paint is
applied during very cold weather or because of insufficient drying of undercoat.

Cure : When cracks are very small and do not enlarge with time, the top coating is
flattened with sandaper and a fresh coat of paint is applied.

c. Cracking - The cracks extend throughout the entire paint system extending right down
to the original surface.

Causes :
- Cracks in the plaster or masonry do not let the paint to remain intact.
- Paint applied on glossy surface.
- Premature application of top coat before the previous coat has completely dried.
- Painting improperly seasoned wood.

Cure : The causes of cracking should be attended to.

d. Flaking - is detachment of paint film from the surface.

Causes : The moisture penetrates through the cracks on the coatings and the bond between
surface and paint film is lost.

Cure :
- Use of plastic emulsion paints.
- Surface should be rubbed with sandpaper before applying a fresh coat.
- All dirt or dust on surface should be removed prior to painting.

e. Chalking - Paint film becomes powder due to insufficient oil in primer.

f. Alligatoring One layer of paint films sliding over the other one, when a hard paint is
applied over a soft one or vice versa.
g. Wrinkling - or crawling appears when the paint film is quite thick or the oil in the paint
is more than required. The lower portion of the paint does not dry due to greater thickness
of the paint film which shrinks due to drying in course of time.

h. Running and Sagging - Paints applied over smooth and glossy surface do not stick and
flow back or towards the unpainted area. This is known as running and sagging. The surface
to-be painted should, therefore, be rubbed with a sandpaper before painting.

i. Mildew - Mildew thrives in warm, moist and dark places. Zinc oxide and phenol
mercury oleate are very useful to check its growth.

j. Bloom - is identified as dull patches on the finished, polished or painted surface due to
defect in the quality of paint or poor ventilation.

k. Flashing - is characterized by the appearance of certain glossy patches on the painted

surface. The reasons attributed to this defect are weathering actions, use of cheap paint,
and poor workmanship.

l. Grinning - is due to the imperfect opacity of the paint film even after the final coat. The
background and its defects can be clearly visible in such a case.
 MASONRY UNITS AND ARCHITECTURAL TILES

A masonry structure is formed by combining masonry units, such as stone, blocks, or brick, with
mortar. Second to wood, masonry is probably the oldest building material used by man; it certainly
dates from the ancient civilizations of the Middle East and was used widely by the Greeks and Romans.
Early cultures used mud building bricks, and very little of their work has survived, but stone structures
such as the Egyptian pyramids, Greek temples and many structures made from fired clay bricks have
survived for thousands of years. The Romans used both fired clay bricks and hydraulic (lime/pozzolana)
mortar and spread this technology over most of Europe.
The basic principle of masonry is of building stable bonded (interlocked) stacks of handleable
pieces. The pieces are usually chosen or manufactured to be of a size and weight that one person can
place by hand. A wide variety of manufactured products are produced from concrete and used in
building construction. These include such items as concrete brick, concrete block or tile, concrete floor
and roof slabs, precast wall panels, precast beams, and cast stone. These items are made both from
normal dense concrete mixes and from mixes with lightweight aggregates. Concrete masonry units can
be either solid or hollow, but clay bricks, glass blocks, and stone are typically solid. Structural clay tiles
are hollow units that are larger than clay bricks and are used for structural and non-structural masonry
applications, such as partition walls and filler panels. They can be used with their webs in either a
horizontal or a vertical direction. Masonry units are a popular construction material throughout the
world and competes favorably with other materials, such as wood, steel, and concrete for certain
applications.

Masonry units can be classified as follows:

1. concrete masonry units
2. clay bricks
3. structural clay tiles
4. glass blocks
5. stone

Concrete masonry units are manufactured using a relatively dry (zero-slump) concrete mixture
consisting of portland cement, aggregates, water, and admixtures. Type I cement is usually used to
manufacture concrete masonry units; however, Type III is sometimes used to reduce the curing time. Air-
entrained concrete is sometimes used to increase the resistance of the masonry structure to freeze and
thaw effects and to improve workability, compaction, and molding characteristics of the units during
manufacturing.
Concrete masonry units can be classified as load bearing (ASTM C90) and non–load bearing
(ASTM C129). Load-bearing units must satisfy a higher minimum compressive strength requirement than
non–load-bearing units. The compressive strength of individual concrete masonry units is determined by
capping the unit and applying load in the direction of the height of the unit until failure (ASTM C140).

Ceramic tiles have quickly become one of the most popular types of material used in building finishes.
Ceramic tile is made up of sand, natural products, and clays and once it has been moulded into shape
they are then fired in a kiln. Ceramic tiles can either be glazed or unglazed. With the increasing
popularity, hundreds of different designs of ceramic tiles are produced.

Benefits of Ceramic Tile

1. Durability
When choosing a type of flooring to be installed, it is important to consider whether it will be durable or
not. Ceramic tiles have a much longer life in comparison to other materials that are used to cover floors
and walls. Another benefit associated with the durability of ceramic tiles is that they are resistant to
moisture. Ceramic tiles are impervious making it suitable to be used in wet areas.
2. Resistance
Alongside general durability, ceramic tiles are also known because of the ample amount of resistances.
Ceramic tile is generally placed in high-traffic areas. With that being said, ceramics are far more
resistant to tread wear in comparison to other flooring materials. Also, ceramics are virtually slip
resistant once an abrasive glaze is added to the tiles.

3. Color Permanence
Flooring can be exposed to numerous amounts of materials ranging from chemicals to sunlight. With
that being said, ceramic tiles that are constantly exposed to sunlight will not lose their color or begin to
fade. Having color permanence in flooring helps to ensure that it will remain in pristine condition for
the entire lifetime.

4. Hygienic
For areas with high sanitary standards, considering using ceramic tiles is a wise decision. In comparison
to other flooring such as hardwood and carpet, cleaning ceramics is simple and can be completed by
using an array of different cleaning products making it possible to be kept clean on a regular basis.

Tile Defects:
 01. Buckling or Tenting or Popping-up of Tiles:

Causes:
01. Tile is a porous substance; therefore, after sometimes because of absorption of water, it can swell.
Due to expansion, the pressure will cause the tile to pop-up and the tiles may get buckled or tent up.

02. This problem occurs due to not using the correct adhesives over the concrete slab that is still under
curing.

03. This problem also occurs due to temperature changes and lack of movement joints.

Solutions:
01. To prevent the tiles from buckling or tenting, install the tiles with a suitable bonding material.
 02. Chipped Tiles:

Causes:
01. If any hard object drops on the glazed tile, there is a chance of chipping of the tile.

02. Also, by dragging of heavy objects over the tiles, it may result in surface chipping of tiles.
Solutions:
01. Fill the chipped portion by epoxy or adhesives. Then paint over the filler to match the colour of the
tiles.

02. To rectify with the tiles from this defect, one simple solution is to fill the chipped section with the
nail paint same as the colour of tiles.
 03. Cracking of Tiles:

Causes:
01. If the tile has not achieved full coverage of adhesives under the tile over the entire surface, there will
be a void under some portion of the tiles. When pressure is applied to that tile, it will crack from the
corner or from the edges.

02. Also, when heavy objects such as pots, cans, etc. drop on the tiles, the tiles break and crack.

Solutions:
01. For small cracks, apply paint that closely matches the colour of the tiles.

02. To prevent it from cracking, avoid dropping of objects on the floor tiles.

03. For large cracks, you have to replace the tiles with new tiles of a similar type of design if available or
you have to work out some new design pattern with new and old tiles.
 04. Fading of Tiles:

Causes:
01. This problem occurs due to the use of unnecessary acidic cleaners, especially in shower areas. This
usually starts when a film of grout left on the tile at the time of installation. This film grabs dirt and soap
and builds up over time.

02. Also, the tiles may fade due to direct sunlight falling on the tile surface.

Solutions:
01. Use good detergent or any household cleaning product to prevent the tiles from fading.

02. Provide curtains on the window. This will protect the tiles from discoloration due to ultraviolet
radiation of the sun.
 05. Shade Variation in Tiles:

Causes:
01. Water absorption is the primary cause for the shade variation of tiles. If the tiles are wet or put in
water, it will absorb moisture to some degree, depending on the type of tiles. And then, just like wet
chalk or a sponge, the tiles body will look darker.

02. Variation in firing during manufacturing, glaze thickness, printing and input materials also causes the
shade variation of tiles. Hence, it is a manufacturing defect.

Solutions:
01. Assign tiles with different shade into the different rooms or areas, according to size and quantity.

02. Buy tiles from reputable sources.

03. One can’t repair manufacturing defect and such tiles should be rejected and should not use.
 06. Rust Stains on Tiles:

Causes:
01. Rust stain can occur when metal items come into contact with water and tiles. Gas cylinder creates
thick rust formation on the tiles.

02. Metal chairs and outdoor heaters are also common causes of rust. Once it has taken a grip on the
surface, it can be difficult to remove rust stains.

Solutions:
01. You can use the lemon juice, kerosene, toothpaste, vinegar, baking soda, etc. to remove rust stains
from the tiles surface.
 07. Crazing:

Causes:
01. Crazing is a network of lines or cracks in the fired glaze surface. Crazing is the most common problem
formed in the glazed surface. It is basically manufacturing defect.
Solutions:
01. Apply properly glaze effect on the tile surface so that the craze will not form.

02. Manufacturing defects are difficult to solve and hence be cautious while buying.
08. Warped Tile:

Causes:
01. The term warped means to make or become bent or twisted out of shape due to the effect of heat.
Any warping in ceramic tile happens in the factory during manufacture. Hence, it is basically a
manufacturing defect.
Solutions:
01. Buy tiles from reputable sources.

02. Inspect tiles before buying.

09. Size Variation:

Causes:
01. Glazed ceramic tiles or vitrified tiles will always have a small variation in size during the
manufacturing process.

02. Tiles shrink during manufacture and that shrinkage will vary from tile to tile.
Solutions:

01. Assort and arrange the tiles of the same size in a particular area or room so as to minimize this
defect.

https://www.multicable.com/resources/reference-data/wire-abbreviations-and-descriptions/

Common Pipe Materials Used in the Home

Your home plumbing system will have different types of piping materials for different uses, including fresh
water supply, waste drainage, irrigation, gas pipes for appliances, and so on. Which type is used in which
application will largely depend on the age of your plumbing system. An older plumbing system may be
dominated by cast iron and galvanized iron, while a new home will have plastic pipe of various types used
almost exclusively.

The following are the types of plumbing materials commonly used in piping for waste lines, water supply
pipes, and natural gas supply:
 Cast iron for plumbing waste lines.
 PVC (Poly0Vinyl Chloride) for plumbing waste lines.
 Chromed brass for plumbing waste lines
 Chromed copper for water supply lines.
 Galvanized iron for water supply lines.
 Copper (rigid and flexible) for water supply lines.
 CPVC (Chlorinated Poly-Vinyl Chloride) for water supply lines.
 PEX (Cross-linked Polyethylene) for water supply lines
 Black Iron for gas pipes.

Cast Iron

Appearance: Large-diameter heavy metal pipe, dull black with a rough, mottled surface.

Description: High-quality sanitary waste drain pipe that is heavy and deadens the sound of flowing waste
water very well. This pipe is strong and long-lasting but hard to cut—often requiring a special cutting tool
with sharp chain cutting wheels. Repairs are often made using plastic PVC piping. Cast iron is rarely used in
new consruction, in favor of plastic PVC or ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) pipe.

Prevalent Use: Use for main soil stack waste lines and vent pipes.

Cutting and Fitting: Requires heavy-duty reciprocating saw or special cutting tool , called a cast-Iron pipe
cutter. Fitting cast-iron pipes and fittings together is done using special methods, including lead and
oakum in soil pipe joints, hubbed fittings, or hubless couplings using pressure bands, and other methods
usually unfamiliar to the homeowner.

PVC (Poly Vinyl Chloride

Appearance: White, rigid plastic.

Description: PVC is now the de-facto standard in home waste line materials. It is a strong, chemical-
resistant rigid pipe that is heat resistant and easily cut and fit. It is often used to repair sections of broken
cast-iron waste pipe, as well as repairs to other drain lines.

Prevalent Use: Use for sanitary waste lines, vent pipes, and drain traps.

Cutting and Fitting: PVC pipe is easily cut with a hacksaw or tubing cutter. The sections are joined together
mechanically, using plastic pressure fittings for later removal, or permanently joined using special chemical
solvent.
NOTE: You may notice another plastic pipe used in your home plumbing system—a black plastic pipe. This
is ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), and has largely been replaced by PVC in new construction and
plumbing repairs, mostly because it degrades when exposed to sunlight. If you have ABS pipe, it is cut and
fitted using the same methods as for PVC.

Chromed Brass

Appearance: Bright, shiny chrome-finished pipe of larger diameter (+1”)

Description: Chromed brass is often used in lieu of PVC for exposed waste line applications, such as “P”
traps or other drain traps where appearance is important.

Prevalent Use: Exposed drains and traps.

Cutting and Fitting: Easily cut with a hacksaw, and joined with slip fittings.

Chromed Copper

Appearance: Bright, shiny chrome finished pipe of smaller diameter (3/8” or less)

Description: Chromed copper pipe is often used where the appearance of exposed water supply lines is
important.

Prevalent Use: Exposed water supply lines, such as supply tubing for toilets or pedestal sinks.

Cutting and Fitting: Easily cut with a tubing cutter or hacksaw, and joined with chromed brass compression
fittings.

Galvanized Iron

Appearance: Dull silver-gray rigid metal pipe.

Description: Galvanized iron pipe was once a popular method of plumbing water supply lines in the home,
but it gradually fails due to corrosion and rust. Forthis reason, it is no longer commonly used and has been
largely replaced with copper pipe or PEX plastic pipe. Galvanized iron pipe is difficult to cut and join and
not easily fabricated on site by the home owner. Repairs are usually done by replacing the pipes with
copper or PEX.

Prevalent Use: Water supply lines and drain lines in older homes.
Cutting and Fitting: Can be cut using a reciprocating saw or hacksaw. Pipe is joined using using threaded
galvanized iron fittings.

Copper (Rigid and Flexible)

Appearance: Dull, copper-colored metal pipe.

Description: Copper pipe comes in two types, rigid and flexible. The rigid type comes in several wall
thicknesses: K, L, and M. Type M is the one normally used for water supply pipes. Copper has proven itself
over the decades to be corrosion resistant and very reliable. Copper is a soft metal and so can be easily cut
and fabricated. It is also prone to damage, may develop pinholes over time and can rupture from frozen
water in pipes.

Rising costs for copper in recent years have caused PEX and CPVC to be used more frequently. Copper pipe
costs as much as three times as much as PEX.

Prevalent Use: Rigid copper pipes are used for longer runs of water supply, and in some cases as waste
lines in the home. Flexible copper is used in short runs, for water supply, and for the water supply tubing
for refrigerators and dishwashers. Copper may also be used for gas piping.

Cutting and Fitting: Copper pipe is easily cut with a tubing cutter or hacksaw. Sections are joined together
with soldered copper connectors or copper compression fittings. Flexible copper pipe may also be
terminated by flaring its end and using brass flare fittings.

CPVC (Chlorinated Poly Vinyl Chloride)

Appearance: Dull white or cream-colored plastic.

Description: CPVC is an inexpensive rigid plastic that is designed to withstand high pressure and
temperature.

Prevalent Use: CPVC is used for hot and cold water supply piping.

Cutting and Fitting: The pipe is easily cut with a tubing cutter or hacksaw. CPVC is joined permanently
together using plastic fittings and solvent glue, or with grip fittings where the pipes may need to
be disassembled in the future.

PEX (Cross-linked Polyethylene)

Appearance: Typically blue (cold water) or red (hot water) or white flexible plastic pipe.
Description: PEX is made of cross-linked HDPE (high-density polyethylene) polymer and is an incredible
piping material that has been in use since the 1970s. PEX is strong and flexible, withstanding temperatures
from below 32°F to 200°F. PEX is corrosion resistant, and unlike copper pipe, will not develop pinholes.
Because PEX is flexible and uses fewer connections and fittings, it is easier and faster to install. The
reduced number of required fittings in a PEX system also reduces the possibility of leaks.

PEX has become a favorite of contractors installing new plumbing systems, and plumbers making major
upgrades to older systems. Increasingly, homeowners are also discovering the merits of PEX pipe.

Prevalent Use: Water supply and radiant heating pipe,

Cutting and Fitting: PEX is cut and fit with specialized fittings and tools.

Black Iron

Appearance: Dull black rigid pipe, usually 1" or less in diameter.

Description: Black pipe looks like almost exactly like galvanized iron pipe, except it is darker and specifically
designed for gas applications.

Prevalent Use: Natural gas or propane supply pipes. It is often used for feeding gas supply to the furnace,
boiler, or water heater.

Cutting and Fitting: Can be cut using a reciprocating saw or hacksaw. Pipe is joined using threaded black
pipe fittings.

DETERMINATION OF SLUMP OF PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE

 APPARATUS
1. Slump – made of galvanized metal not thinner than No. 16 gage in the form of the lateral surface of
the frustum of a cone with the base 203 mm (8 in.) in diameter, the top 102 mm (4 in.) in diameter and
the height 305 mm (12 in.)
2. Tamping Rod – made of a round, straight steel rod 16 mm (5/8 in.) in diameter and approximately 600
mm (24 in.) in length, having the tamping and rounded to a hemispherical tip, the diameter of which is
16 mm.

3. Scoop or Shovel - a tool with a broad flat blade and typically upturned sides
4. Steel Ruler - Steel scale in tempered stainless steel, with matt chromeplated surface for anti-glare
reading.

5. Container for mixing concrete sample

 SAMPLE
 The sample of concrete from which tests specimens are made shall be representative of the
entire batch. It shall be obtained in accordance with Method in Sampling Fresh Concrete.
PROCEDURE
 CALCULATION
  Record the slump in terms of millimeters to the nearest 6 mm (1/4 in) and subsidence of
the specimen during the test.
Slump = 305 – millimeter of height after subsidence
 SAMPLING
 The elapsed time between the first and final portions of the composite samples shall be
as short as possible, but in no instance shall exceed 15 minutes.
 Transport the individual samples to the place where fresh concrete tests are to be
performed or where the specimens are to be molded. They shall then be combined and
remix with a shovel, the minimum amount necessary to ensure uniformly and
compliance with the minimum time limits specified in no. 3.
 Start test for slump within 5 minutes after obtaining the final portion of the composite
sample. Complete the test as expeditiously as possible. Start molding specimens for
strength tests within 15 min., after fabricating the composite sample. Keep the clasped
time between obtaining and using the sample as short as possible and protect the
sample from the sun, wind, and other sources of rapid evaporation, and from
contamination.
 PROCEDURE
 Size of Sample – make the samples to be used for strength tests a minimum of 28 liters
(1 ft3). Smaller samples may be permitted for slump test and size shall be dictated by the
maximum aggregate size.
 The procedures used in sampling shall include the use of every precaution that will
assist in obtaining samples that are truly representative of the nature and condition of
concrete sampled as follows:
 Sampling from Stationary Mixers
 Sample the concrete at two or more regularly spaced intervals during discharge of
middle portion of the batch. Perform sampling by passing a receptacle completely
through the discharge stream, or by completely diverting the discharge into a sample
container. Take care not to restrict the flow of concrete from the mixer, container, or
transportation unit so as to cause segregation. These requirements apply to both tilting
and non-tilting mixers.
 Sampling from Paving Mixers
  Obtain the sample after the contents of the paving mixer have been discharged. Obtain
material from at least five different locations in the pile and combine into one test
sample. Avoid contamination with subgrade material or prolonged contact with
absorptive subgrade. To preclude contamination or absorption by the subgrade, the
concrete may be sampled by placing a shallow container on the subgrade and
discharging the concrete across the container.
 Sampling from Revolving Drum Truck Mixers or Agitators
 Obtain samples after all of the water has been added to the mixer. Do not obtain
samples from the very first or last portions of the batch discharge. Perform sampling by
repeatedly passing a receptacle through the entire discharge stream or by completely
diverting the discharge into a sample container. Regulate the rate of discharge of the
batch by the rate of revolution of the drum and not by the size of the gate opening.
 Sampling from Open-Top Truck Mixers, Agitators, Non-agitating Equipment, or Other Types of
Open-Top Containers
 Obtain the sample by whichever of the procedures described above is most applicable
under the given conditions.

Making and Curing Concrete Compressive and Flexural strength test specimens
in the Field
This method provides standard requirements for making, curing, protecting, and transporting concrete
specimen under field conditions.
• Apparatus
 CYLINDER MOLDS constructed in the form of right circular cylinder and the top open to receive
the concrete and shall be watertight and sufficiently strong and tough to permit their used
 without tearing, crushing, or deforming. It shall have a separate base plate and a means of
attaching it to the cylinder sidewalls.
 BEAM MOLDS shall be rectangular in shape and of the dimension required to practice the
specimens. The sides, bottom, and ends shall be at right angles to each other and shall be
straight and true and free of warpage.
 TAMPING ROD 16 mm (5/8 in.) in diameter and approximately 600 mm (24 in.) long, having a
hemispherical tip of the same diameter as the rod for preparing 150mm (6 in.) x 300 mm (12 in.)
cylinders.
 small tools such as SHOVEL, PAILS, HOWELS, STAIGHT EDGE, SCOOPS, RULERS, AND WOOD
FLOAT.
 WATER STORAGE TANK suitable for cure test specimen.
 SAMPLING AND MIXING RECEPTACLE shall be suitable heavy gage metal pan. Wheel barrow, or
flat, clear not absorbent mixing board or sufficient capacity to allow easy remixing of the entire
sample with a shovel or trowel.

SAMPLING CONCRETE
1. The sample used to fabricate test specimens under this standard shall be obtained in
accordance with the Method of Sampling Fresh Concrete unless an Alternatives has been
approved.
2. Record the identity of the sample with respect to the location of the concrete represented and
the times of casting.

TEST SPECIMENS
1. COMPRESIVE STRENGTH SPECIMENS shall be cylinders of concrete cast and hardened in an
upright position, with a length equal to twice the diameter. The standard specimen shall be the
6 by 12 in. cylinder when the maximum size of the coarse aggregates does not exceed 2 in.,
either the con8crete sample shall be treated by wet sieving or the diameter of the cylinder shall
be at least three times the nominal size of the coarse aggregates does not exceed 1 in., the
specimen may be 4 by 8 in. cylinders.
 2. FLEXURAL STRENGTH SPECIMENS shall be rectangular beams of concrete cast and hardened
with long axes horizontal. The length shall be at least 2 in. greater than three times the depth as
tested. The ration of width to depth as molded shall not exceed 1.5. The standard beam shall be
6 by 6 in. in cross section, and shall be used for concrete with the minimum size coarse
aggregates exceed in 2 in. The smaller cross sectional dimension of the beam shall be least three
times the nominal maximum size of the coarse aggregates. Unless required by project
specifications beams made in the field shall not have a width or depth of less than 6 in.

MOLDING SPECIMEN
1. PLACING OF MOLDS molds specimen promptly on a level, rigid horizontal surface, free from
vibration and other disturbances, at a place near as practicable to the location where they are to
be stored.
2. PLACING THE CONCRETE place the concrete in the molds using a scoop, blunted trowel, or
shovel. Select each scoopful, trowelful, or shovelful of concrete from the mixing pan to ensure
that it is representative of the batch. Remix concrete in the mixing pan with a shovel or trowel
to prevent segregation during the molding of specimens. Move scoop, trowel or shovel around
the perimeter of the mold opening when adding concrete to ensure an even distribution of the
concrete and to minimize segregation. Further disturbance the concrete by use of tamping rod
prior to the start of consolidation. In placing the final layer, the operator shall attempt to add an
amount of concrete that will exactly fill the mold after compaction. Do not add
nonrepresentative concrete to an under filled mold

CONSOLIDATION
1. RODDING place the concrete in the mold, in required number of layers of approximately equal
volume. For cylinder, rod each layer with the rounded end of the rod using the number of
strokes specified in table. The number of rodding per layer required for beams is one for each 2
𝑖𝑛2 top surface area of the specimen. Rod the bottom layer throughout its depth. Distribute the
stroke uniformly over the cross section of the mold and for each upper layer allow the rod to
1
penetrate about 2 in. into the underlying layer when the depth of the layer is less than 4 in. or

more. After each layer is rodded, tap the sides of the mold lightly 10 to 15 times with the mallet
to close the voids. After each layer is rodded, spade the concrete along the sides and ends of
beam molds with a trowel or other suitable tool.
 Table 1 Number of layers required for specimens

SPECIMEN TYPE AND MODE OF NUMBER OF LAYERS APPROXIMATE DEPTH

SIZE AS DEPTH, in. COMPACTION OF LAYERS, in. (mm)
(mm)

CYLINDER: UP TO 12 RODDING 3 EQUAL 4 (100)

(305)

BEAM: 6 (152) TO 8 RODDING 2 EQUAL HALF DEPTH OF

(204) SPECIMEN

Table 2 diameter of rod and number of rodding

DIAMETER OF DIA. OF ROD, in. (mm) NUMBER OF

CYLINDER, in. (mm) STROKES/LAYER

6 (152) 5/8 (16) 25

1. FINISHING after consolidation, strike off the surface of the concrete and float or trowel it as
required. Perform all finishing with the minimum manipulation necessary to pro-duce a flat even
surface that is level with the rim or edge of the mold and the has no depression or projections
1
larger than 8 in.

i. CYLINDER after consolidation, finish the top surfaces by striking them off with
the tamping rod where the consistency of the concrete permits or with a wood
float or trowel. If desired, cap the top surface of freshly made cylinders with a
thin layer of stiff Portland cement paste with is permitted to harden and cure
with the specimen.
 ii. BEAMS after consolidation of concrete, strike off the top surface to the required
tolerance to produce a flat even surface. A wood float may be used.
CURING:
1. COVERING AFTER FINISHING immediately after finishing, precaution shall be taken to
prevent evaporation and loss of water from the specimens. Cardboard molds may expand and
damage specimens at an early age if the outside of the molds absorbs water. Protect the outside
surfaces of cardboards molds from the contact with wet burlap or other sources of water. Cover
specimens with a non-absorbent, non-reactive plate or sheet to help retard evaporation, but the
burlap must not be in contact with the surface of the concrete.
BASIS FOR ACCEPTANCE OR QUALITY CONTROL
1. INITIAL CURING IN AIR during the initial 24±8h after molding the temperature
immediately adjacent to the specimens shall be maintained in the range of 60 to
80 F (16 to 27 C), loss of moisture from the specimens shall be prevented. The
molds of specimens not to be transported shall be removed after the initial
24±8ℎ and standard curing at 73.4 ±3𝐹, shall be started immediately.
Specimen to be transported for standard curing before 48 h shall remain in the
molds but shall continue initial curing at 60 to 80 F until time for transportation.
Specimens to be transported after 48 h age shall be demolded following the
24±8ℎ initial curing and place immediately in saturated lime water at 73.4 ±3𝐹
until the time of transporting.
2. INITIAL CURING OF CYLINDERS IN WATER immediately after molding, immerse
the specimens in saturated lime water at 60-80F for 24+-8h. This curing is not
acceptable for specimen in cardboard molds or molds which expands when
immerse in water. Remove specimens from molds at 24±8ℎ protect from loss
of moisture and within 30 min. start standard curing at 73.4 ±3𝐹.
CURING SPECIMENS FOR CHECKING THE ADEQUANCY OF LABORATOERY MIXTURE
Proportions for Strength or as the Basis for Acceptance or Quality Control at Remote sites:
1. Specimens prepared and stored at remote sites which do not have facilities shall be cured in
accordance with the provisions of the “Curing Specimens for Checking the Adequacy of
Laboratory Mixture Proportions for Strength or as the Basis for Acceptance of Quality Control”
except as modified by this section.
 2. INITIAL CURING REMOTE SITES specimens shall be cured in accordance with section 2.1, except
that the temperature range of 60-80F shall be for the range of 73.4 +3 F in section 2.1.1 and
2.1.2.
1. Specimens not to be transported or to be transported after 48 h age
may be cured without demolding provided that loss of moisture is
prevented in accordance with 2.1.1 or 2.1.2 until the time of
transportation or testing.

1. STANDARD CURING AT REMOTE SITES specimens to be stored at a remote site and shipped to a
laboratory for test or to be tested at the remote site shall be cured in accordance with 3.1, 3.2,
and 3.2.1 until the time of shipment or test. Specimens shall not be exposed to dripping or
running water.
1. Beam specimens to be stored and tested at remote sites shall be cured
in accordance with 3, except that for a minimum of 20 h prior to testing,
they shall be stored in saturated lime water at 60 to 80 F. Drying of the
surfaces of the beam shall be prevented between removal from the lime
water and completion of testing.
CURING FOR DETERMINING FROM REMOVAL TIME OR WHEN A STRUCTURE MAY BE PUT INTO SERVICE
1. CYLINDERS store in or on the structure as near to the point of deposit of the concrete
represented as possible. Protect all surface of the cylinders from the elements in as near as
possible the same way as the formed work. Provide the cylinders with the same temperature
and moisture environment as the structural work. Test the specimens in the moisture condition
resulting from the specified curing treatment. To meet this condition, Specimens made for the
purpose of determining when a structure may be put in service shall be removed from the
molds at the time of removal of form work.
TRANFORTATION OD SPECIMENS TO LABORATORY
1. Specimens shall not be transported from the field to the laboratory before completion of the
initial curing. Specimens to be transported prior to an age of 48 h shall not be demolded prior to
completion of transportation. During transportation, the specimens must be protected with
suitable cushioning material to prevent damage from jarring and damage by freezing
temperature, or moisture loss. Moisture loss may be prevented by wrapping the specimens in
plastic or surrounding them with wet sand or wet sawdust. When specimens are received by the
 laboratory, the shall be removed from the molds if not done before shipment and placed in the
requires standard curing at 73.4 + 3 F.

Determination of Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens

APPARATUS
Compressive Testing Machine – any type of sufficient capacity and capable of providing the
rate of loading. It must be proper operated and must apply the load continuously without shock
and shall equipped with two steel bearing block with hardened face.
- It shall have a dial provided with a graduated scale that can be read at least the nearest
1110 N ( 2501 bf ) of load.
- The dial pointer shall be sufficient length to reach graduation marks and each.
- the pointer shall be equipped with zero adjustments is easily accessible from the outside
of the dial case and with minimum load indicator.
- Capping Material and Facilities
- Curing Tank
TEST SPECIMENS
1. Test specimens shall be in cylindrical mold having 150 mm diameter and 300 mm in
height. The diameter of the test specimen shall be determined to the nearest 0.25 mm
(0.01 in) by averaging two diameters measured at right angle to each other at about
midheight of the specimen. The end of compression test specimens that are not plane
within 0.002 in shall be capped.
2. Test specimens shall be kept moist by any convenient method during the period
between removal from moist storage and testing.
PROCEDURE
1. Placing the Specimen – Place the plain ( lower ) bearing block, with its hardened face up on
the table or platen of the testing machine directly under the spherically seated ( upper ) bearing
block. Wipe,clean the bearing faces of the upper and lower bearing blocks and of the test
specimen and place the test specimen on the lower bearing block. Carefully align the axis f the
specimen with the center of thrust of spherically seated block and rotate gently prior to testing
to assure uniform seating.
2. Rate of Loading – Apply the load continuously and without shock at a constant rate within
the range of 0.14 to 0.34 Mpa per second (20 to 50 psi/sec.) During the application of the first
half of the anticipated load a higher rate of loading shall be permitted. Apply the load until the
specimen fails and record the maximum load carried by the specimen during the test Note the
type of failure and the appearance of the concrete.
CALCULATION
1. Calculate the compressive strength of the specimen by dividing the maximum load
carried by the specimen during the test by the average cross-sectional area and express
the result to the nearest 69 Kpa ( 10 psi) .
2. If the specimen length-to-diameter ratio is less than 1.8 correct the result by multiplying
the appropriate correction factor.
NOTE : These correction factors apply to lightweight concrete weighing between 100
and 120 lb/ft. ( 1600 and 1920 kg/m3) and to normal weight concrete they are
applicable to concrete dry or soaked at the time of loading. Values not given in the table
shall be determined by interpolation. The correction factors are applicable for normal
concrete strength from 2000 to 6000 psi ( 13.8 to 41.4 Mpa )

D
- 1.75 1.50 1.25 1.00
L

FACTOR 0.98 0.96 0.93 0.87

DETERMINATION OF FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF CONCRETE (USING SIMPLE BEAM WITH THIRD-
POINT LOADING)
I. APPARATUS:
1) Flexural Beam
- Motorized pump or hand operated testing machines having sufficient
volumes in one continuous stroke to complete a test without requiring
replenishment and capable of applying loads at a uniform rate without
shock or interruption.
II. TEST SPECIMEN:
1) The test specimen shall confirm to the requirements of section.Making and
curing concrete compressive and flexural strength test specimen in the field and
quality of water to be used in concrete. The test depth shall have a test span
with 2% of being three times its depth on tested. The sides of specimen shall be
at right angles with the top and bottom. All surfaces in contact with the load
applying and support blocks shall be smooth and free of scars, indentations,
holes or inscribed identifications.
III. PROCEDURE
 1) Turn the test specimen on its side with respect to its position as molded and
center on the bearing blocks. Center the loading system in relation to applied
force. Bring the load-applying block in contacts with the surface of the third
points between supports.
2) Use leather shims only when the specimen surface in contact with the block or
support depart a plane by not more than 0.0015 in. (38 mm). Leather shall be
uniform ¼ in. (6.4 mm) thickness, 1-2 in. (25-50 mm) in with, and shall extend
across the full width of the specimen. The load may be applied rapidly, up to
approximately 50% of the breaking load. Thereafter, apply the continuously at a
rate which constantly increases the extreme fiber stress between 861 and 1207
kPa (125 and 175 psi) per minute until rupture occurs.
3) Take three (3) measurement across each dimension (one at each edge and one
at the center) in the nearest 1.3 mm (0.015 in.) to determine the average width,
average depth and the line of fracture location of the specimen at the section of
failure.
IV. CALCULATIONS:
1) If the failure occurs in the tension surface within the middle third of the span
length, calculate the rapture by formula:
PL
R=--------------------
bd2
R= modulus of rapture
P= maximum applied load indicated by testing machine
L= span length
b= average with of specimen
d= average depth of specimen
2) If the failure occurs in the tension surface outside the middle third of the span
length by not more than 5% of the length, calculate the modulus of rapture by
formula:
 3Pa
R=--------------------
bd2
a= average distance between line of fracture and the nearest support measured
on the tension surface of beam.

DETERMINATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST OF CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS

SIGNIFICANCE:
Compression test is performed on concrete masonry units such as solid load , hallow load, and non-
load bearing blocks to determine its strength properties. The test is important for the evaluation of
compressive strength as a basic of acceptance.

APPARATUS

COMPRESSION MACHINE:
BEARING BLOCKS - Made of hardened metal with at least 150 mm face diameter
STEEL PLATE - Thickness not less than 12.7 mm
CAPPING MATERIAL
STEEL TAPE MEASURE
TEST SPECIMEN
1. Three full-size units shall be tested for compression strength taken from the six units selected from
each lot of 10,000 units of fraction thereof.

PROCEDURE

1. Measure over-all dimension of each unit with steel scale or tape.

2. Set the specimen on the lower bearing block and center it beneath the upper bearing block. The
position of the specimen shall be the same position as in service. The upper bearing block firmly
attached at the center of the sensitive platen of the testing machine. If the bearing area is not sufficient
to cover the area of the specimen, a steel plate shall be placed between the spherical bearing block and
the capped specimen. a hardened metal bearing block shall be used beneath the specimen to minimize
wear of the lower patent.
3. Apply the load up to one half of the expected maximum load at any convenient rate and adjust the
controls of the machine as required to give a uniform rate of travel of the moving head such that the
remaining load is applied in not less than one (1) or more than 2 min.

DETERMINATION OF ABSORPTION AND MOISTURE CONTENT OF

CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS

SIGNIFICANCE
 Absorption and moisture content tests on concrete masonry units are performed so as
to determine the actual percentage of water and the absorption characteristic of the concrete
when subjected in a saturated condition. The values of this are necessary in the evaluation
relative to its permissible value of acceptance.

APPARATUS
1. OVEN- with temperature up to 115oC.
2. WEIGHING BALANCE- sensitive within 0.5% of the weight.
3. CONTAINER for saturating sample.
4.
TEST SPECIMEN
Three (3) full size units shall be used taken from six (6) units selected from each lot of
10,000 units or fraction thereof.

PROCEDURE
1. Dry the specimen in a ventilated oven to a temperature of 100 to 115 oC (212 to
239oF) for not less than 24 hours to a constant weight and obtain the dry weight.
2. Immerse completely the test specimen in a container with water at room
temperature of 15.6 to 26.7oC (60 to 80oF) for 24 hours.
3. Weigh the specimen while suspended by a metal wire and completely submerged in
water.
4. Remove from water and allow to drain for one (1) minute by placing them on a 9.5
coarser wire mesh. Wipe visible surface water with damp cloth and immediately
weigh.
CALCULATION
1. Calculate the absorption by the following formulas:

(Wet Weight−Dy Weight)

Absorption, kg/m3= (Wet Weight−Suspended Immerse wt)x1000

2. Calculate the moisture content of the units at time of sampling, expressed as

percentage of total absorption, by dividing the difference between the average
weight as sampled and the average dry weight by the difference between the
average wet weight and the average dry weight, multiplied by 100, or Moisture
content, %(of total absorption).

(Weight as sampled−Dry Weight)

Moisture Content, %= x100
(Wet Weight−Dry Weight)

Preparation of Disturbed Soil Samples for Test

Significance
This method describes the preparation of disturbed soil and soil aggregate samples as received
from the field for subsequent tests by reducing aggregations of particles into sizes which will
pass certain sieves
APPARTUS
1. Balance, sensitive to 0.1g
2. Oven with temperature control.
3. Standard sieves, 19mm, 4.75mm, 2.00mm, 0.425mm
4. Mortar and rubber-covered pestle
5. Sample Splitter

Initial Preparation of Test Sample

1. The soil sample as received from the field shall be dried thoroughly in air or in drying
apparatus at a temperature not exceeding 60° C.
2. Obtain the required quantity of sample for each test by the method of quartering or by a
sample splitter. The aggregation of soil particle shall be broken up by pulverizing apparatus,
Care should be taken so that individual particles are not broken.

Test Samples
Mechanical Analysis and Specific Gravity
The fraction retained on the 2.00mm sieve shall be set aside for use In sieve analysis of the
coarse material. The material required to obtain a representative gradation and depending on the
maximum particle size shall not be less than the amount shown in the following table.
1. Largest Particles Size Minimum mass
9.5mm ---------------------------- 0.5kg
25.0mm ---------------------------- 2.0kg
50.0mm ---------------------------- 4.0kg
75.0mm ---------------------------- 5.0kg
2. The fraction passing the 2.0 mm sieve shall be thoroughly mixed and by the use of splitting or
quartering, representative portions having approximate weights as follows shall be obtained.

- For the hydrometer analysis ad sieve analysis of the fraction passing the 2.0mm sieve,

100g for sandy soil

 60g for silty or clayey soils
- For specific gravity
25g when the volumetric flask is used and
10g when the stopped bottles are used

Physical Test
1. Separation the remaining portion of the sample passing the 2.00mm sieve into two portions with a
0.425mm sieve. Ground the portion retained in a mortar with a rubber-covered pestle to further
reduce the size of aggregations. Separate the ground soil with the 0.425mm sieve. Repeat the
pulverizing and sieving operation, if necessary, to obtain a sufficient quantity of sample passing the
0.425mm sieve for the “limit “test.
2. Mix thoroughly the portion passing the 0.425, sieve in step (1) and set aside for the “Limits” tests.
Moisture Density Relations
1. Separate the sample for compaction test with either a 4.75mm or 1.0mm sieve whichever is
required. Ground the portion retained in a mortar with rubber-covered pestle to break up particle
aggregations. Separate the ground soil with the required sieve to obtain the sample needed for the
compaction test.
2. Mix thoroughly the portions passing the required sieve in step (1) and set aside for the compaction
test or moisture density test.

Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soils

SCOPE
1.1. This method covers a procedure for using a thin-walled metal tube to recover relatively
undisturbed soil samples suitable for laboratory tests of engineering properties, such as
strength, compressibility, permeability and density. Thin-walled tubes used in piston, plug, or
rotary-type samplers, such as the Denison or Pitcher, must comply with the portions of this
practice, which describe the thin-walled tubes.
APPARTUS
6. Drilling Equipment—any drilling equipment may be used that provides a reasonably clean hole;
that minimizes disturbance of the soil to be sampled; and that does not hinder the penetration
of the thin-walled sampler. Open borehole diameter and the inside diameter of driven casing or
hollow stem auger shall not exceed 3.5 times the outside diameter of the thin-walled tube. 5.2.
7. Sampler Insertion Equipment—shall be adequate to provide a relatively rapid continuous
penetration force. For hard formations it may be necessary, although not recommended, to
drive the thin-walled tube sampler.
8. Sampler Head—serves to couple the thin-walled tube to the insertion equipment and, together
with the thin-walled tube, comprises the thin-walled tube sampler. The sampler head shall
contain a suitable check valve and a venting area to the outside equal to or greater than the
area through the check valve.
9. Thin-Walled Tubes—should be manufactured as shown in Figure 1. They should have an outside
diameter of 50.8 to 127.0 mm (2 to 5 in.) and be made of metal having adequate strength for
use in the soil and formation intended. Tubes shall be clean and free of all surface irregularities
including projecting weld seams. Other diameters may be used but the tube dimensions should
be proportional to the tube designs presented here.
Length of tubes
 Inside Clearance Ratio, should not be greater than one percent or as specified by the engineer or
geologist for the soil and formation to be sampled. Generally, the inside clearance ratio used
should increase with the increase in plasticity of the soil being sampled, except for sensitive soils
or where local experience indicates otherwise. See Figure 1 for definition of inside clearance
ratio.
Dimensional Tolerance
 Tolerances, shall be within the limits shown in Table 2.

PROCEDURE
3. Advance the borehole using methods outlined in AASHTO R 13. Clean out the borehole to sampling
elevation using whatever method is preferred that will ensure the material to be sampled is not
disturbed. If groundwater is encountered, maintain the liquid level in the borehole at or above
groundwater level during the sampling operation.
4. Bottom discharge bits are not permitted. Side discharge bits may be used, with caution. Jetting
through an open-tube sampler to clean out the borehole to sampling elevation is not permitted.
Remove loose material from the centre of a casing or hollow stem auger as carefully as possible to
avoid disturbance of the material to be sampled. Note 2—Roller bits are available in downward-
jetting and diffused-jet configurations. Downward-jetting configuration rock bits are not acceptable.
Diffuse-jet configurations are generally acceptable.
5. Place the sample tube so that its bottom rests on the bottom of the hole. Record the depth to the
bottom of the sample tube to the nearest 0.3 m (0.1 ft.). Advance the sampler without rotation by a
continuous relatively rapid motion.
6. Determine the length of advance by the resistance and condition of the formation, but the length
shall never exceed 5 to 10 diameters of the tube in sands and 10 to 15 diameters of the tube in
clays. Note 3—the mass of the sample, laboratory-handling capabilities, transportation problems,
and commercial availability of tubes will generally limit maximum practical lengths to those shown
in Table 1. 6.5. When the formation is too hard for push-type insertion, the tube may be driven.
Other methods, as directed by the engineer or geologist, may be used. If driving methods are used,
the data regarding mass and fall of the hammer and penetration achieved must be shown in the
report. Additionally, that tube must be prominently labelled a “driven sample.” 6.6. In no case shall
a length of advance be greater than the sample-tube length minus an allowance for the sampler
head and a minimum of 76.2 mm (3 in.) for sludge-end cuttings. Note 4—the tube may be rotated
to shear bottom of the sample after pressing is complete. 6.7. Withdraw the sampler from the
formation as carefully as possible in order to minimize disturbance of the sample. Where the soil
formation is soft, a delay before withdraw of the sampler (typically 5 to 30 minutes) may improve
sample recovery.
PREPARATION FOR SHIPMENT
3. Upon removal of the tube, measure the length of sample in the tube. Remove the drill cuttings in
the upper end of the tube and measure the length again. Seal the upper end of the tube. Remove at
least 25 mm (1 in.) of material from the lower end of the tube. Use this material for soil description.
Measure the overall sample length. Seal the lower end of the tube. Alternatively, after
measurement, the tube may be sealed without removal of soil from the ends of the tube if so
directed by the engineer or geologist.
 Note 5—Field extrusion and packaging of extruded samples under the specific direction of a
geotechnical engineer or geologist is permitted. Samples are extruded in special hydraulic jacks
equipped with properly sized platens to extrude the core in a continuous smooth speed. Bent or
damaged tubes should be cut off before extruding.
 Note 6—Tubes sealed over the ends as opposed to those sealed with expanding packers should
contain end padding in end voids in order to prevent drainage or movement of the sample
within the tube. 7.2.
4. Prepare and immediately affix labels or apply markings as necessary to identify the sample. Assure
that the markings or labels are adequate to survive transportation and storage.
 Note 7—Top end of tube should be labelled “TOP”.
REPORT
1. The appropriate information on the field log is required as follows:
 Name and location of the project
 Boring number and precise location on project
 Surface elevation or reference to a datum
 Date and time of boring—start and finish
 Depth to top of sample and number of sample
 Description of sampler: size, type of metal, type of coating
 Method of sampler insertion—push or drive
 Method of drilling, size of hole, casing, and drilling fluid used
 Depth to groundwater level—date and time measured
 Any possible current or tidal effect on water level
 Soil description
 Length of sampler advance; and

REDUCING FIELD SAMPLES OF AGGREGATES TO TESTING SIZE

Introduction
This method covers the reduction of field samples to the appropriate size for testine
employing techniques that are intended to minimize variations in measured characteristics
between the test sample so selected and field sample.
Significance and Use
1. Specifications for aggregates require sampling portions of the material for testing. These
methods provide for reducing the large sample obtained in the field in to a convenient
size for conduction a number of test to describe the material and measure its quality in
a manner that the smaller portion is most likely to be representation of the field sample,
and thus, of the total supply. The individual test methods provide for minimum weights
of material to be tested.
2. Under certain circumstances, reduction in size of the field sample prior to testing is not
recommended. Substantial differences between the selected sample sometimes cannot
be avoided, as for example, in the case of the aggregate having relatively few large size
particles in the sample. chance inclusion or exclusion of only one or two particles in the
selected particle may importantly influence interpretation of the characteristics of the
field sample. In this cases, the entire field sample should be tested.
Selection of method
1.Fine aggregate – field samples of fine aggregate that are drier than the saturated surface-dry
condition (Note 1) shall be reduced in size by a mechanical splitter according to method A. field
sample having free moisture on the particle surfaces may be reduced in size by quartering
according to method B, or by treating as a miniature stockpile as describe in method C.
1.1 If the use of Method B Method C is desired, and the field sample does not have free
moisture on the particle surfaces, the sample may be moistened, to achieve this condition,
thoroughly mixed, and then the sample reduction performed.
Note 1 – the method of determining the saturated surface-dry condition is described in
AASHTO T 84. As a quick approximation, if the fine aggregate will retain its shape when molded
in hand, it may be considered to be wetter than saturated surface-dry.
 1.2 If use of method A is desired and the field sample has free moisture on the particle
surfaces, the entire field sample may be dried at least the surface dry condition, using
temperatures that do not exceed those specified for any of the tests contemplated, and then
the sample reduction performed. Alternatively, if the moist field sample is very large, a
preliminary split may be made using a mechanical splitter having a wide chute opening 38 mm
(1 ½ in) or more to reduce the sample to not less than 5000g.
2. Coarse aggregate and mixtures of Coarse and fine aggregates – reduce the sample using
mechanical splitter in accordance in Method A (preferred method) or by quartering in
accordance with method B. The miniature stockpile, method C, is not permitted for coarse
aggregate or mixtures of coarse and fine aggregates.
Sampling
1. The field sample of aggregate shall be taken in accordance with sampling aggregates is
usually adequate. When additional tests are to be conducted, the user shall satisfy
himself that the initial size of the field sample is adequate to accomplish all intended
tests.

Method A – Mechanical Splitter

Apparatus
1. Sample splitter – sample splitters shall have an even number of equal width chutes, but
not less than a total of eight for coarse aggregate, or twelve for fine aggregate, which
discharge alternatively to each side of the splitter. The minimum width of the individual
chutes shall be approximately 50% larger than the largest particles in the sample to be
split (Note 2).
Note 2: mechanical splitters are commonly available in sizes adequate for coarse
aggregate having the largest particle not over 37.5 m (1 ½ in). For the fine aggregate,
splitter having chutes 13mm ( ½ in) wide will be satisfactory when the entire sample
will pass a 9.5mm ( 3/8 in) sieve.
Procedure
Place the held sample in the hopper or pan distributes it from edge to edge, so that when it is
introduced into the chutes, approximately equal amounts will flow through each chute. The
rate at which the sample is introduced shall be such as to allow the free flowing through the
chutes into the receptacles below. The portion of the material collected in the other receptacle
may be reserved for reduction in size for other tests.
Method B – Quartering
Apparatus
Apparatus shall consists of straight edge scoop, shovel or trowel; a broom or brush and
a canvass blanket approximately 2 by 2.5 m (6 by 8 ft.)
Procedure
1 .Use either the procedure described in Method B – Quartering procedure 1.1 or 1.2 or both a
combination of both.
1.1 Place the field sample on a hard screen, level the surface where there will be
neither loss of material nor the accidental addition of foreign material. Mix the
material thoroughly by turning, shovel the entire sample over three times. With the
last turning, shovel the entire sample into a conical pile by depositing each shovelful
on the top of the preceding one. Carefully flatten the conical pile to a uniform
thickness and diameter by pressing down the apex with the shovel so that each
quarter sector of the resulting pile will contain the material originally in it. The
diameter should be approximately four to eight times the thickness. Divide the
flattened mass into four equal quarters with a shovel or trowel and remove
diagonally opposite quarters, including fine material, and brush the cleared spaces
clean. Successfully mix and quarter the remaining materials unit the sample is
reduced to the desire size.
1.2 As an alternative to the procedure described in Method B – Quartering procedure
1.1 when the floor surface is uneven, the field sample may be placed on a canvass
blanket and with a shovel as described in Method B – Quartering procedure 1.1 or
by alternatively lifting each corner of the canvass and pulling it over the sample
toward the diagonally opposite corner causing the material to be rolled. Flatten the
pile as described in Method B – Quartering procedure 1.1 or if the surface beneath
the and under the center of the pile, then left both ends of the stick, dividing the
 sample into two equal parts. Remove a stick leaving a fold of the blanket the
divided portions. Insert the stick under the center of the pile, at right angles to the
first division and again lift both ends of the stick, dividing the sample into four equal
parts. Remove two diagonally opposite quarters, being careful to clean the fines
from the blanket. Successively mix and quarter the remaining material until the
sample is reduced to the desired size.
Method C – Miniature stockpile sampling (Damp fine aggregate only)
Apparatus
1. Apparatus shall consist of straight edged scoop, shovel or trowel for
mixing the aggregate, and either the small sampling thief, small scoop or
spoon for sampling.
Procedure
1. Place the field sample of the damp fine aggregate on a hard clean, level
surface will be neither loss of material nor the accidental addition of
foreign material. Mix the material thoroughly by turning the entire
sample over three times. With the last turning, shovel the entire sample
into conical pile by depositing each shovelful on top of the preceding
one. If desired, the conical pile may be flattened to a uniform thickness
and diameter by pressing down the apex with shovel so that each
quarter sector of the resulting pile will contain the material originally in
it. Obtain sample for each test by selecting at least five increments of
material at random location from the miniature stockpile, using any of
the sampling devices described in Section Method C – Apparatus.
Precision and Accuracy
1. Since this method produces no numerical test result, determination of
precision is not possible. However, failure to carefully follow the
 procedures described herein could result in providing a biased sample to be
used in subsequent testing.

-Building Materials by S. K. Duggal

-MATERIALS FOR
CIVIL AND
CONSTRUCTION
ENGINEERS
THIRD EDITION
MICHAEL S. MAMLOUK
JOHN P. ZANIEWSKI

-BUILDING MATERIALS
& CONSTRUCTION
Puli Venkateshwara Rao, M.E. (STRUCT. ENGG.)
M. VISHNUKANTH, B.TECH.(Civil)