15EI251L-ELECTRONICS AND INSTRUMENTATION

LAB MANUAL

Faculty of Engineering and Technology

Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering
SRM IST, SRM Nagar
Kattankulathur – 603203
Kancheepuram District
Tamil Nadu
 CONTENTS

S.NO CONTENTS PAGE NO

01 Characteristics of Pn junction and Zener 12

diode
02 Characteristics of BJT in CE & CB 20

03 Characteristics of Junction field effect 28

Transistor
04 Characteristics of SCR 32

05 Characteristics of DIAC & UJT 34

06 Characteristics of RTD 38

07 Characteristics of Thermistor 42

08 Characteristics of Thermocouple 46

09 Characteristics of Load cell 49

Characteristics of Strain gauge 53
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3
2. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY CLASSES

1. Enter the Lab with CLOSED TOE SHOES.

2. Students should wear lab coat.

3. The HAIR should be protected, let it not be loose.

4. TOOLS, APPARATUS and COMPONENT sets are to be returned before

leaving the lab.

5. HEADINGS and DETAILS should be neatly written

i. Aim of the experiment

ii. Apparatus / Tools / Instruments required

iii. Theory

iv. Procedure / Algorithm / Program

v. Model Calculations/ Design calculations

vi. Block Diagram / Flow charts/ Circuit diagram

vii. Tabulations/ Waveforms/ Graph

viii. Result / discussions .

6. Experiment number and date should be written in the appropriate place.

7. After completing the experiment, the answer to pre lab viva-voce questions should be neatly
written in the workbook.

8. Be REGULAR, SYSTEMATIC, PATIENT, AND STEADY.

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 3. SYLLABUS

STUDENT OUT COME

a,b, k, An ability to apply knowledge in characteristics of electronics devices and Transducer
experiments.

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 4. INTRODUCTION

Breadboard
Breadboards are an essential tool for prototyping and building temporary circuits. These boards
contain holes for inserting wire and components. Because of their temporary nature, they allow
you to create circuits without soldering. The holes in a breadboard are connected in rows both
horizontally and vertically as shown below.

How To Use A Breadboard

Another way to create and test a circuit is to build it on a breadboard. These boards are essential
for testing and prototyping circuits because no soldering is needed. Components and wires are
pushed into the holes to form a temporary circuit. Because it’s not permanent, you can experiment
and make changes until the desired outcome is reached.

Below the holes of each row are metal clips that connect the holes to each other. The middle rows
run vertically as shown while the exterior columns are connected horizontally. These exterior
columns are called power rails and are used to receive and provide power to the board.

Digital Multimeter

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A multimeter is a device that’s used to measure electric current (amps), voltage (volts) and
resistance (ohms). It’s a great for troubleshooting circuits and is capable of measuring both AC
and DC voltage. Check out this post for more info on how to use a multimeter.

Jumper WireThese wires are used with breadboard and development boards and are
generally 22-28 AWG solid core wire. Jumper wires can have male or female ends depending

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on how they need to be used.

Electronic Components
Now its time to talk about the different components that make your electronic projects come to
life. Below is a quick breakdown of the most common components and functions they perform.

Resistor
Resistors are used to resist the flow of current or to control the voltage in a circuit. The amount of
resistance that a resistor offers is measured in Ohms. Most resistors have colored stripes on the
outside and this code will tell you it’s value of resistance.

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.

Diode
A diode allows electricity to flow in one direction and blocks it from flowing the opposite
way. The diode’s primary role is to route electricity from taking an unwanted path within the
circuit.

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Transistor
Transistor are tiny switches that turn a current on or off when triggered by an electric signal. In
addition to being a switch, it can also be used to amplify electronic signals. A transistor is similar
to a relay except with no moving parts.

SYMBOLS

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 DIAC

INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE STARTING THE EXPERIMENT

1.Study the circuit, theory and procedures, expected output before doing the experiment.

2. Get familiarize with the components and equipments used in the lab, Ex: Resistors, Diode,
BJTs, FETs, Digital Multi-meter etc.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

FORWARD BIAS:

IN4007

REVERSE BIAS:

IN4007

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Ex.No.1 .a

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

AIM:

To study the PN junction diode characteristics under Forward & Reverse bias conditions.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Range Type Qty

1 R.P.S (0-30)V 1
2 Ammeter (0–100) mA & (0-500)µA 1
3 Voltmeter (0–1)V & (0-30)V 1
4 Diode IN4001 1
5 Resistor 1kΩ 1
6 Wires

THEORY:

A PN junction diode is a two terminal junction device. It conducts only in one direction (only on
forward biasing).

FORWARD BIAS:

On forward biasing, initially no current flows dueto barrier potential. As the applied potential
exceeds the barrier potential the charge carriers gain sufficient energy to cross the potential barrier
and hence enter the other region. The holes, which are majority carriers in the P-region, become
minority carriers on entering the N-regions, and electrons, which are the majority carriers in the
N-region, become minority carriers on entering the P-region. This injection of Minority carriers
results in the current flow, opposite to the direction of electron movement.
REVERSE BIAS:

On reverse biasing, the majority charge carriers are attracted towards the terminals due to the
applied potential resulting in the widening of the depletion region. Since the charge carriers are
pushed towards the terminals no current flows in the device due to majority charge carriers. There
will be some current in the device due to the thermally generated minority carriers. The generation
of such carriers is independent of the applied potential and hence the current is constant for all
increasing reverse potential. This current is referred to as Reverse Saturation Current (IO) and it
increases with temperature. When the applied reverse voltage is increased beyond the certain limit,
it results in breakdown. During breakdown, the diode current increases tremendously.

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14
PROCEDURE:

FORWARD BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Vary the applied voltage in steps of 0.1V.

3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings If.

4. Plot a graph between Vf& If

REVERSE BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Vary the applied voltage steps of 0.5V.

3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings Ir.

4. Plot a graph between Vr& Ir

RESULT:

Forward and Reverse bias characteristics of the PN junction diode was Studied and verified.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

FORWARD BIAS:

IZ7.5V

REVERSE BIAS:

IZ7.5V

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Ex.No.1.b

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

AIM:

To study the characteristics and to determine the breakdown voltage of a zener diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Range Type Qty

1 R.P.S (0-30)V 1
2 Ammeter (0–100) mA 1
3 Voltmeter (0–1)V & (0-30)V 1
4 Zener Diode IZ7.5 V 1
5 Resistor 1kΩ 1
6 Wires

THEORY:

A properly doped crystal diode, which has a sharp breakdown voltage, is known as zener diode.

FORWARD BIAS:

On forward biasing, initially no currentflows due to barrier potential. As the applied potential
increases, it exceeds the barrier potential atone value and the charge carriers gain sufficient energy
to cross the potential barrier and enter the other region. the holes ,which are majoritycarriers in p-
region,become minority carriers on entering the N-regions and electrons, which are the majority
carriers in the N-regions become minority carriers on entering the P-region. This injection of
minority carriers results current, opposite to the direction of electron movement.

REVERSE BIAS:

When the reverse bias is applied due to majority carriers small amount of current (ie) reverse
saturation current flows across the junction. As the reverse bias is increased to breakdown voltage,
sudden rise in current takes place due to zener effect.

ZENER EFFECT:

Normally, PN junction of Zener Diode is heavily doped. Due to heavy doping the depletion layer
willbe narrow. When the reverse bias is increased the potential across the depletion layer is more.
This exerts a force on the electrons in the outermost shell. Because of this force the electrons are
pulled away from the parent nuclei and become free electrons. This ionization, which occurs due
to electrostatic force of attraction, is known as Zener effect. It results in large number of free
carriers, which in turn increases the reverse saturation current.

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18
PROCEDURE:

FORWARD BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the power supply in such a way that the readings are taken in steps of 0.1V.

3. Note down the corresponding ammeter readings.

4. Plot the graph : Vf(vs) If.

REVERSE BIAS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Vary the power supply in such a way that the readings are taken in steps of 0.5V.

3. Note down the corresponding Ammeter readings Ir.

4. Plot a graph between Vr& Ir

RESULT:

Forward and Reverse bias characteristics of the zener diode was studied and verified.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

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Ex.No.2.a

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT IN CE CONFIGURATION

AIM:

To study and plot the transistor characteristics in CE configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Range Type Qty

1 R.P.S (0-30)V 2
2 Ammeter (0–100) mA & (0- 1
500)µA
3 Voltmeter (0–1)V & (0-30)V 1
4 BJT 1
5 Resistor 1kΩ 2
6 Wires

THEORY:

A BJT is a three terminal two – junction semiconductor device in which the conduction is due to
both the charge carrier. Hence it isa bipolar device and it amplifier the sine waveform as they are
transferred from input to output. BJT is classified into two types – NPN or PNP. A NPN transistor
consists of two N types in between which a layer of P is sandwiched. The transistor consists of
three terminal emitter, collector and base. The emitter layer is the source of the charge carriers
and it is heartily doped with a moderate cross sectional area. The collector collects the charge
carries and hence moderate doping and large cross sectional area. The base region acts a path for
the movement of the charge carriers. In order to reduce the recombination of holesand electrons
the base region is lightly doped andis of hollow cross sectional area. Normally the transistor
operates with the EB junction forward biased. In transistor, the current is same in both junctions,
which indicates that there is a transfer of resistance between the two junctions. Hence known as
transfer resistance of transistor.

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PROCEDURE:

INPUT CHARECTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set VCEas constant, vary VBEin regular interval of steps and note down the Corresponding IB.

3. Repeat the above procedure for different values of VCE.

3. Plot the graph: VBEVs IBfor a constant VCE.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set IB as constant and Vary VCE in regular interval of steps and note down the corresponding
ICreading.
3. Repeat the above procedure for different values of IB.
4. Plot the graph: VCEVs IC for a constant IB.

RESULT:

The transistor characteristics of a Common Emitter (CE) configuration were plotted.

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24
Ex.No.2.b

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT IN CB CONFIGURATION

AIM:

To study and plot the transistor characteristics in CB configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Range Type Qty

1 R.P.S (0-30)V 2
2 Ammeter (0–100) mA 2
3 Voltmeter (0-30)V 1
4 BJT 1
5 Resistor 1kΩ 2
6 Wires

THEORY:

A BJT is a three terminal two – junction semiconductor device in which the conduction is due to
both the charge carrier. Hence it is a bipolar device and it amplifier the sine waveform as they are
transferred from input to output. BJT is classified into two types – NPN or PNP. A NPN transistor
consists of two N types in between which a layer of P is sandwiched. The transistor consists of
three terminal emitter, collector and base. The emitter layer is the source of the charge carriers
and it is heartily doped with a moderate cross sectional area. The collector collects the charge
carries and hence moderate doping and large cross sectional area. The base region acts a path for
the movement of the charge carriers. In order to reduce the recombination of holes and electrons
the base region is lightly doped and is of hollow cross sectional area. Normally the transistor
operates with the EB junction forward biased. In transistor, the current is same in both junctions,
which indicates that there is a transfer of resistance between the two junctions. Hence known as
transfer resistance of transistor.

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INPUT CHARACTERSTICS OUTUT CHARACTERSTICS

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PROCEDURE:

INPUT CHARECTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set VBC as constant, vary VBE in regular interval of steps and note down the Corresponding IE.

3. Repeat the above procedure for different values of VBE

3. Plot the graph: VBEVs IEfor a constant VCB

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set IE as constant and Vary VBC in regular interval of steps and note down the corresponding
ICreading.
3. Repeat the above procedure for different values of IE.
4. Plot the graph: VCBVs IC for a constant IE.

RESULT:

The transistor characteristics of a Common Base(CB) configuration were plotted.

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Ex.No:3

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF JUNCTIONFIELD EFFECTTRANSISTOR

AIM:

To Plot and study the characteristics of FET.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME RANGE QUANTITY

1 R.P.S (0-30)V 2
2 Ammeter (0-30)mA 1
3 Voltmeter (0-30)V 1
(0-10)V 1
4 FET BFW10 1
5 Resistor 1kΩ 2
6 Bread board - -
7 Wires - Req

THEORY:

FET is a voltage operated device. It has got 3 terminals. They are Source,Drain & Gate. When the
gate is biased negative with respect to the source, thePN junctions are reverse biased & depletion
regions are formed. The channel ismore lightly doped than the p type gate, so the depletion regions
penetratedeeply in to the channel. The result is that the channel is narrowed, its resistanceis
increased, & ID is reduced. When the negative bias voltage is furtherincreased, the depletion
regions meet at the centre& ID is cut-off completely.

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TABULAR COLUMN:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:

VGS= VGS=
VDS (V) ID(mA) VDS (V) ID(mA)

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PROCEDURE:

DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set the gate voltage VGS = 0V.
3. Vary VDS in steps of 1 V & note down the corresponding ID.
4. Repeat the same procedure for VGS = -1V.
5. Plot the graph VDS Vs ID for constant VGS.

RESULT:
Thus the Drain characteristics of given FET is Plotted and studied.

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Circuit Diagram:

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EX NO.4 STUDY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF SCR

Aim:
To obtain the V-I characteristics of SCR and find the break over voltage
and holding current.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME RANGE QUANTITY

1 R.P.S (0-30)V 1
2 Ammeter (0-100)mA 1
3 Voltmeter (0-30)V 1
4 SCR TYN604 1
5 Resistor 1K Ω, 330 Ω 1
6 Bread board - 1
7 Wires - Req

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Circuit diagram

Forward direction:

Reverse Direction

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Ex.No.5
Date:
Characteristics of DIAC
Aim:
To draw the V-I characteristics of DIAC and obtain the break over voltage (VBO).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO NAME RANGE QUANTITY

1 R.P.S (0-60)V 1
2 Ammeter (0-100)mA 1
3 Voltmeter (0-50)V 1
4 DIAC SSD3A 1
5 Resistor 1K Ω 1
6 Bread board - 1
7 Wires - Req

Theory:

A DIAC is a two terminal three layer bidirectional device which can be switched from its off
state to on state for either polarity of applied voltage. The operation of DIAC is identical both in
forward and reverse conduction. The DIAC does not conduct until the applied voltage of either
polarity reaches the break over voltage VBO.

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TABULATIUON:

S.NO FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

VOLTAGE(V) CURRENT(mA) VOLTAGE(V) Current(mA)

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Procedure:
1. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. First DIAC is connected in forward direction.
3. The input supply is increased in step by step by varying the RPS
4. The corresponding ammeter and voltmeter readings are notedand tabulated.
5. Then the DIAC is connected in reverse condition.
6. The above process is repeated

Result:
Thus the V-I characteristics of DIAC was obtained and graph was drawn.

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EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

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Ex.No. 6

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF RTD

AIM:

To study and verify the characteristics of RTD.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No. Name Type Qty

1 RTD PT-100 1
2 Thermometer 1
3 Multi meter 1
4 Beaker 1
5 Electric Stove 1

THEORY:

Resistance Temperature Detectors operate through the principle of electrical resistance changes in
pure metal elements. Platinum is the most widely specified RTD element type although nickel,
copper, and Balco (nickel-iron) alloys are also used. Platinum is popular due to its wide
temperature range, accuracy, stability, as well as the degree of standardization among
manufacturers. RTDs are characterized by a linear positive change in resistance with respect to
temperature. They exhibit the most linear signal with respect to temperature of any electronic
sensing device.

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MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

TEMPERATURE (ºC) RESISTANCE(Ω)

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connections were given as per the diagram.

2. Temperature of the water in beaker was measured using the thermometer.
3. Corresponding resistance value of RTD was also noted from multimeter.
4. The temperature of the water has been increased and follow step 2&3.
5. Note the values of temperature and resistance in tabular column.
6. Plot a graph between temperature and resistance.

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of RTD was studied and verified.

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\

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Ex.No.07

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMISTOR

AIM:

To study and verify the characteristics ofthermistor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Qty

1 Thermistor 1
2 Thermometer 1
3 Multi meter 1
4 Beaker 1
5 Electric Stove 1

THEORY:

Thermistors are generally composed of semiconductor materials. Although positive temperature

coefficient units are available, most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient (TC); that
is, their resistance decreases with increasing temperature. The negative T.C. can be as large as
several percent per degree Celsius, allowing the thermistor circuit to detect minute changes in
temperature which could not be observed with an RTD or thermocouple circuit. The price we pay
for this increased sensitivity is loss of linearity. The thermistor is an extremely non-linear device
which is highly dependent upon process parameters. Consequently, manufacturers have not
standardized thermistor curves to the extent that RTD and thermocouple curves have been
standardized.

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MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

TEMPERATURE (ºC) RESISTANCE(KΩ)

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connections were given as per the diagram.

2. Temperature of the water in beaker was measured using the thermometer.
3. Corresponding resistance value of Thermistor was also noted from multimeter(2KΩ).
4. The temperature of the water has been increased and follow step 2&3.
5. Note the values of temperature and resistance in tabular column.
6. Plot a graph between temperature and resistance.

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of thermistor was studied and verified.

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46
Ex.No.08

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMOCOUPLE

AIM:

To study and verify the characteristics ofthermocouple.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Type Qty

1 Thermocouple Type K 1
2 Thermometer 1
3 Multi meter 1
4 Beaker 1
5 Electric Stove 1

THEORY:

Thomas Seebeck discovered if metals of two different materials were joined at both ends and one
end was at a different temperature than the other, a current was created. This phenomenon is known
as the Seebeck effect and is the basis for all thermocouples.
A thermocouple is a type of temperature sensor, which is made by joining two dissimilar metals
at one end. The joined end is referred to as the HOT JUNCTION. The other end of these dissimilar
metals is referred to as the COLD END or COLD JUNCTION. The cold junction is actually
formed at the last point of thermocouple material.

Certain combinations of metals must be used to make up the thermocouple pairs. If there is a
difference in temperature between the hot junction and cold junction, a small voltage is created.
This voltage is referred to as an EMF (electro-motive force) and can be measured and in turn used
to indicate temperature. The voltage created by a thermocouple is extremely small and is measured
in terms of millivolts (one millivolt is equal to one thousandth of a volt). In fact, the human body
creates a larger millivolt signal than a thermocouple. To establish a means to measure temperature
with thermocouples, a standard scale of millivolt outputs was established.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connections were given as per the diagram.

2. Temperature of the water in beaker was measured using the thermometer.
3. Corresponding voltage value of thermocouple was also noted from multimeter.
4. The temperature of the water has been increased and follow step 2&3.
5. Note the values of temperature and voltage in tabular column.
6. Plot a graph between temperature and voltage.

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of thermocouple was studied and verified.

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EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

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Ex.No.09

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF LOAD CELL

AIM:

To study and verify the characteristics ofload cell.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Qty

1 Load cell trainer kit 1
2 Weights
3 Multi meter 1

THEORY:

Load cells are designed to sense force or weight under a wide range of adverse conditions; they
are not only the most essential part of an electronic weighing system, but also the most vulnerable.
In order to get the most benefit from the load cell, the user must have a thorough understanding of
the technology, construction and operation of this unique device. In addition, it is imperative that
the user selects the correct load cell for the application and provide the necessary care for the load
cell during its lifetime. Understanding these important issues and properly maintaining the load
cells will ensure trouble free weighing for a long period of time. Load cells may be damaged
because of (shock) overloading, lightning strikes or heavy surges in current, chemical or moisture
ingress, mis-handling (dropping, lifting on cable, etc.), vibration, seismic events or internal
component malfunctioning.

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MODEL GRAPH:

TABULAR COLUMN:

Load (g) Voltage (V) Voltage (V)

Loading Unloading

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the sensor to the load cell trainer kit.

2. Connect the multimeter to trainer kit.
3. Add weight and note the voltage change in multimeter
4. Plot the graph between load and voltage.

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of load cell was studied and verified.

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EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

53
Ex.No.10

Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF STRAIN GAUGE

AIM:

To study and verify the characteristics ofload cell.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Qty

1 Starin gauge trainer kit 1
2 Weights
3 Multi meter 1

THEORY:

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain (ε)
is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown in Figure 1 below. Strain can be positive
(tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units
such as in./in. or mm/mm.

When a bar is strained with a uniaxial force, as in Figure 1, a phenomenon known as Poisson Strain
causes the girth of the bar, D, to contract in the transverse, or perpendicular, direction. The
magnitude of this transverse contraction is a material property indicated by its Poisson's Ratio. The
Poisson's Ratio ν of a material is defined as the negative ratio of the strain in the transverse
direction (perpendicular to the force) to the strain in the axial direction (parallel to the force), or ν
= –εT/ε. The most widely used gauge, however, is the bonded metallic strain gauge. The metallic
strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid
pattern.). The cross sectional area of the grid is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and
Poisson Strain. The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached directly

54
to the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred directly
to the strain gauge, which responds with a linear change in electrical resistance.

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TABULAR COLUMN:

Load (g) Loading Unloading

Voltage (V) Strain Voltage (V) Strain

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the sensor to the strain gauge trainer kit.

2. Connect the multimeter to trainer kit.
3. Add weight and note the voltage change in multimeter
4. Plot the graph between load and voltage.

RESULT:

Thus the characteristics of strain gauge was studied and verified.

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