Energies 11 03076 PDF

energies
Article
Analysis of the Impact of Auxiliary Ventilation
Equipment on the Distribution and Concentration
of Methane in the Tailgate
Magdalena Tutak 1, * and Jarosław Brodny 2
1 Faculty of Mining and Geology, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
2 Faculty of Organization and Management, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland;
jaroslaw.brodny@polsl.pl
* Correspondence: magdalena.tutak@polsl.pl; Tel.: +48-322-372-528

Received: 7 October 2018; Accepted: 2 November 2018; Published: 8 November 2018
Abstract: Methane, which is commonly found in hard coal deposits, represents a considerable threat
to the safety of mining operations in these deposits. The paper presents the results of tests, aiming to
limit the negative impact of methane on hard coal exploitation and improve work safety. The tests
encompassed an analysis of methane concentration distributions in the tailgate (in the intersection
area with the longwall), with account being taken of auxiliary ventilation equipment. This equipment
is responsible for reducing methane concentration levels in the intersection area between the longwall
and the tailgate. The analyses presented in the article were conducted for a spatial model of a longwall
area, using the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method. Account was taken of the real-world
measurements of the headings as well as the measurement data concerning methane concentration
and ventilation parameters. The tests took into account methane emissions from the mined coal and
from the goaf with caving. The analyses were performed for the system with and without auxiliary
equipment, for different velocities of the additional air stream. This made it possible to compare both
systems and determine the impact of auxiliary equipment on the distribution and concentration of
methane in the most vulnerable area of exploitation. The distributions of the air and gas mixture
were also determined in the analysed headings and goaf with caving. The results obtained clearly
demonstrate that using auxiliary equipment has a significant effect on the ventilation parameters of
the air stream and leads to reduction in methane concentrations in the most vulnerable section of
the longwall. These results also confirmed the advantages of auxiliary ventilation equipment, which
should contribute to their wider application in underground hard coal exploitation.
Keywords: methane hazard; longwall ventilation; mining exploitation; CFD
1. Introduction
Due to a series of inherent hazards, underground mining exploitation is very dangerous. One of
such threats that are commonly faced by hard coal mines is the methane threat [1–5]. It is related to the
risk of methane ignition and explosion in mine headings. Due to its serious consequences, it belongs
to one of the most dangerous hazards. This is evidenced by the statistics related to methane explosions
in underground mine headings [6–8]. A summary of the most tragic disasters related to methane
explosions in the world and in Poland is presented in Table 1.
Energies 2018, 11, 3076; doi:10.3390/en11113076 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 28
Table 1. Underground coal mine disasters related to methane explosions (examples) [6–8].
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 2 of 28
Year Country Coal Mine Cause of Explosion Fatalities
1887 Australia Bulli Ignition of gas and coal dust 81
1887 Table 1. Underground
Belgium La coal mine
Boule, disasters related to methane
Borinage explosions
Methane (examples) [6–8].
explosion 120
1914
Year
Canada
Country
Hillcrest
Coal Mine
Methane and coal dust explosion Fatalities
Cause of Explosion
189
1914 Japan Mitsubishi Hojyo Methane explosion 687
1887 Australia Bulli Ignition of gas and coal dust 81
1950
1887 China
Belgium Henan
La Boule, Borinage Methane explosion
Methane explosion 120187
1960
1914 China
Canada Henan
Hillcrest Methane andcoal
Methane and coaldust
dust explosion
explosion 189187
1914
1972 Japan
Zimbabwe WankieMitsubishi
CollieryHojyo
Disaster Methane Methane
and coalexplosion
dust explosion 687426
1950
1991 China
China Henan
Shanxi Methane explosion
Methane and coal dust explosion 187147
1960 China Henan Methane and coal dust explosion 187
2005
1972 China
Zimbabwe Liaoning
Wankie Colliery Disaster Methane Methane
and coalexplosion
2006
1991 Poland
China Halemba
Shanxi Methane andcoal
Methane and coaldust
dust explosion
explosion 14723
2005
2007 China
China Liaoning
Hanxi Methane explosion
Methane explosion 214105
2006
2009 Poland
Poland “Wujek”Halemba
(Śląsk) Methane and
Methane andcoal
coaldust
dustexplosion
explosion 23 20
2007 China Hanxi Methane explosion 105
2009
2009 China
Poland Heilongjiang
“Wujek” (Ślask)
˛ Methane Methane
and coalexplosion
2014
2009 Poland
China Mysłowice-Wesoła
Heilongjiang Methane explosion
Methane explosion 108 5
2014 Poland Mysłowice-Wesoła Methane explosion 5
Methane (CH4) is a naturally occurring gas, formed during the process of coalification [2,9,10].
In coal deposits,
Methane (CHmethane is present in two fundamental forms: as sorbed methane, which is
4 ) is a naturally occurring gas, formed during the process of coalification [2,9,10].
physicochemically bound
In coal deposits, methane is presentwith a carbon in substance,
two fundamental and as free
forms:methane, occurring
as sorbed methane, in pores
whichand is
crevices of gangues bound
physicochemically and coal. with When enclosed
a carbon in pores,
substance, andmethane, in the process
as free methane, of coal
occurring mining,
in pores andis
released
crevices into the mine’s
of gangues andatmosphere
coal. Whenwhich enclosedis also filled with
in pores, otherin
methane, gases, including
the process flammable
of coal mining,and is
explosive. Thethe
released into inflammable
mine’s atmospheregas mixture,
whichmostly
is also CH 4 (80–96%)
filled with otherwith minor
gases, constituents
including flammable of other
and
gases, such The
explosive. as Ninflammable
2, CO2, C2H4,gas andmixture,
C2H6 and occasionally
mostly containing
CH4 (80–96%) CO and
with minor H2S, is called
constituents a firedamp
of other gases,
[11,12]. Methane, being the major constituent of firedamp, is also synonymously
such as N2 , CO2 , C2 H4 , and C2 H6 and occasionally containing CO and H2 S, is called a firedamp [11,12]. referred to as
firedamp
Methane,[10].
being the major constituent of firedamp, is also synonymously referred to as firedamp [10].
Methane
Methaneisis odourless
odourless and colourless, and lighter lighter than
than air
air(its
(itsdensity
densityisis0.656
0.656kg/m
kg/m³).3 ). When
When its its
concentration
concentrationlevel
levelin inthe
the air
air ranges
ranges between
between 5% 5% and 15%, it becomes explosiveexplosive (in
(in mixture
mixture withwith the
the
air
airin
inwhich
whichoxygen
oxygen concentration
concentration is at least 12%) 12%) andand hence
henceisisextremely
extremelydangerous.
dangerous.
During
During mining
mining exploitation,
exploitation, the the areas
areas ofof longwalls are the most common common points
points of of methane
methane
accumulation.
accumulation.Methane
Methaneisisreleased
releasedinto
into the
the longwall
longwall and and its
its adjacent
adjacent headings from the mined coal, coal,
the exposed body of coal and goaf with caving. In the case of goaf with caving,
the exposed body of coal and goaf with caving. In the case of goaf with caving, the sources of the sources of methane
include the
methane coal left
include the in thisleft
coal areain as well
this areaasas
thewell
methane
as theflowing
methane out of the undertaken
flowing and overtaken
out of the undertaken and
seams through
overtaken seamsthe cracksthe
through andcracks
crevices
andincrevices
the rockinmass. Themass.
the rock flow directions of methane
The flow directions of from the
methane
goaves
from thewith caving
goaves withtocaving
the longwall and the tailgate
to the longwall and thehave beenhave
tailgate demonstrated in Figure 1.in Figure 1.
been demonstrated
Thedirections
Figure1.1.The
Figure directions of
of methane
methane flow
flow through the goaf
goaf (from
(from undertaken
undertakenand
andovertaken
overtakenseams)
seams)toto
thelongwall
the longwalland
and the
the tailgate.
tailgate.
ItItisismost
most common
common for for methane
methaneto toaccumulate
accumulateininthe
theupper
upper(roof) section
(roof) of mine
section headings
of mine andand
headings in
places with no air supply (the so-called dead zones). The accumulation of methane
in places with no air supply (the so-called dead zones). The accumulation of methane in the roof in the roof section
of a mine
section of aheading is termed
mine heading as methane
is termed layeringlayering
as methane [13]. [13].
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 3 of 28
The stability and dispersion of methane layer in underground coal mines are affected by various
geo-mining parameters, such as the velocity of airflow, the location of methane source, the rate of
The stability and dispersion of methane layer in underground coal mines are affected by various
methane emission, the width, surface roughness and inclination of mine airway, the presence of
geo-mining parameters, such as the velocity of airflow, the location of methane source, the rate of
bends and obstructions in the airway, the relative density of air and methane, and the type of mine
methane emission, the width, surface roughness and inclination of mine airway, the presence of bends
ventilation (ascensional or descensional) [14]. Some of these governing parameters jointly define the
and obstructions in the airway, the relative density of air and methane, and the type of mine ventilation
dimensionless methane layering number (L):
(ascensional or descensional) [14]. Some of these governing parameters jointly define the dimensionless
methane layering number (L): v
L
v 1
L = h Q i 1 3 (1)
gg∆ρQ
W 
3

 ρW
where gg is
where is the
the acceleration
acceleration due
due to to gravity
gravity (m/s ∆ρ is the density difference of air and
(m/s22),), Δρ and methane
methane
(kg/m 3 ), ρ is the density of air (kg/m33 ), v is the average air velocity (m/s), Q is the quantity of methane
(kg/m ), ρ is the density
3 (kg/m ), v is the average air (m/s), Q is the quantity
emitted intointo the
the mine
mine airway
airway (m(m33/s)
/s)and
andW Wisisthe
thewidth
widthof ofthe
theairway
airway(m).(m).
The length of methane layer is defined as the distance from the methane source to a point where
the mean concentration
concentration of of methane
methane in in the
the layer
layer is
is 5%
5% [11].
[11].
Equation
Equation (1) (1) indicates
indicatesthat
thatthe
themost
mostcrucial
crucialaspect
aspectfor formethane
methane layering
layering to to
occur is the
occur velocity
is the of
velocity
the air flowing through headings. With increase in air velocity, the layering number
of the air flowing through headings. With increase in air velocity, the layering number increases and increases and the
probability
the probability of occurrence of methane
of occurrence of methanelayering decreases.
layering Hence,
decreases. dispersion
Hence, of methane
dispersion layering
of methane more
layering
strongly
more stronglydepends on air on
depends velocity than the
air velocity thanmaking of gas of
the making [10].
gas [10].
The place most vulnerable to the phenomenon phenomenon of methane layering is the areas areas of
of longwalls
longwalls
ventilated
ventilated by means of the the “U-type”
“U-type” systems
systems from the the borders
borders (Figure
(Figure 2).2). This system is currently
used in more more than
than 75%
75% ofof all
all longwall
longwall headings
headings in in Poland.
Poland. As a result of its its application
application under
under
methane hazard conditions,
conditions, thethehighest
highestriskriskofofincreased
increasedmethane
methaneconcentration
concentration occurs
occurs inin
thethe area
area of
of
thethe intersection
intersection between
between the
the longwalland
longwall andthethetailgate,
tailgate,which
whichareareadjacent
adjacentto to the
the goaf with caving
caving
(Figure
(Figure 2).2).
Figure 2. Diagram of the “U-type” ventilation system from the borders with an indicated area of
Figure 2. of
methane
methane concentration
concentration increase.
increase.
In
In order
order toto use
use the
the “U-type”
“U-type” longwall
longwallventilation
ventilationsystem
systemfromfromthe
theborders,
borders,it itisisnecessary
necessary to
maintain longwall galleries along the body of coal, and their liquidation, after the
to maintain longwall galleries along the body of coal, and their liquidation, after the extraction extraction front is
shifted,
front is shifted, is carried out by caving. However, this liquidation does not take place on abasis,
is carried out by caving. However, this liquidation does not take place on a continuous
yet with a certain
continuous basis, time delay.
yet with This is due
a certain timetodelay.
the fact that
This is they
due cannot be liquidated
to the fact that they along
cannotwithbe the
progressing excavation face. The maximum length of the unliquidated sections
liquidated along with the progressing excavation face. The maximum length of the unliquidated of longwall headings
left behind
sections of the longwall
longwall according
headings to applicable
left behind provisions
the longwall is up toto6.0
according m [15]. Itprovisions
applicable is most common
is up for
methane to accumulate in this zone after flowing from the goaf with caving,
to 6.0 m [15]. It is most common for methane to accumulate in this zone after flowing from the and due to inadequate
intensity
goaf withofcaving,
ventilation,
and duethe permissible
to inadequate methane concentrations
intensity of ventilation,in mixture with air may
the permissible often be
methane
exceeded in this
concentrations inarea.
mixtureThis is also
with corroborated
air may by the results
often be exceeded in thisofarea.
the This
measurements conducted in
is also corroborated
real-world conditions [16,17].
by the results of the measurements conducted in real-world conditions [16,17].
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 4 of 28
In order to limit the possibilities for dangerous methane concentrations to accumulate in

this zone,
In orderauxiliary
to limit theventilation equipment
possibilities for dangerousis used. These
methane primarily include
concentrations air brattices
to accumulate in this zone,
(ventilation curtains) and
auxiliary ventilation auxiliary
equipment air ducts
is used. installed
These in the
primarily tailgate.
include airTheir task (ventilation
brattices is to reduce curtains)
the
concentration of methane by diluting it with an additional stream of air (the air
and auxiliary air ducts installed in the tailgate. Their task is to reduce the concentration of methane by duct) and
properly
diluting itdirecting
with an the air stream
additional flowing
stream of airout
(theofair
theduct)
longwall (the air brattice).
and properly directing the air stream flowing
Auxiliary
out of ventilation
the longwall (the airequipment
brattice). is used when the amount of methane released in the area
of ongoing exploitation
Auxiliary ventilationis up to 15 m3/min,
equipment withwhen
is used the cross-sectional
the amount ofarea of the tailgate
methane releasedfrom 6 toarea of
in the
8ongoing
m2, as well as when the methane-bearing capacity amounts to 25 m 3/min and the cross-section
exploitation is up to 15 m /min, with the cross-sectional area of the tailgate from 6 to 8 m2 ,
3
area of the
as well tailgate
as when theexceeds 8 m2 [18,19].
methane-bearing capacity amounts to 25 m3 /min and the cross-section area of the
The schematic location
2
tailgate exceeds 8 m [18,19]. of the auxiliary ventilation equipment in the tailgate (at the outlet
from The
the longwall
schematicventilated
location of bythe
means of theventilation
auxiliary U-type system from the
equipment borders)
in the tailgateis (at
presented in from
the outlet
Figure 3.
the longwall ventilated by means of the U-type system from the borders) is presented in Figure 3.
Schematiclocation
Figure3.3.Schematic
Figure locationof
ofthe
theauxiliary
auxiliaryventilation
ventilationequipment
equipment(AVE)
(AVE) in
in the
the tailgate.
tailgate.
To ensure
To ensure thethe safety
safety ofof ongoing
ongoing exploitation,
exploitation, itit is
is necessary
necessary to to determine
determine the the effectiveness
effectiveness of of the
the
equipment in
equipment in use.
use.This,
This,ininparticular,
particular, involves determining
involves determining its impact on methane
its impact on methane concentration values
concentration
in the area of exploitation.
values in the area of exploitation.
Works describing
Works describing analyses
analyses of of ventilation
ventilation systems
systems in in mine
mine headings
headings havehave been
been presented
presented in in
numerous publications
numerous publications [1,3,5,20–32].
[1,3,5,20–32]. TheyThey encompassed
encompassed both both real-world
real-world tests
tests [16,17,21,24–26,29,31]
[16,17,21,24–26,29,31]
and model-based analyses [1–5,10,20,23,27,28,30,32–37]. In the
and model-based analyses [1–5,10,20,23,27,28,30,32–37]. In the authors’ opinion, the authors’ opinion, theworks
works which
which areare
particularlyinteresting
particularly interestingininthis thisregard
regard are
are those
those presenting
presenting thethe results
results of model-based
of model-based teststests related
related to
to the
the release of methane into mine headings. This is because they make it possible
release of methane into mine headings. This is because they make it possible to determine a series of to determine a series
of essential
essential physical
physical andand chemical
chemical parameters
parameters related
related withwith ventilation
ventilation processes,
processes, thethe measurement
measurement of
of which in real-world conditions is extremely difficult if not impossible. Particular
which in real-world conditions is extremely difficult if not impossible. Particular potential in this regard potential in this
regard
is offeredis offered by numerical
by numerical simulations
simulations based on based on the Computational
the Computational Fluid Dynamics
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method.
(CFD) method.
Oberholzer and Meyer [38] used CFD method to evaluate the performance ofventilation
Oberholzer and Meyer [38] used CFD method to evaluate the performance of different different
systems forsystems
ventilation the purposefor theof purpose
methaneof dilution
methane anddilution
dust removal
and dust at development headings. Branny
removal at development [20]
headings.
studied the flow of air and methane mixture in the longwall-return
Branny [20] studied the flow of air and methane mixture in the longwall-return crossing zone and crossing zone and investigated
the impact of
investigated jetimpact
the fan positions
of jet fanon the methane
positions on thedistribution. Wala et al.Wala
methane distribution. [33–35]
et al.validated the CFD
[33–35] validated
the CFD simulation results with experimental data for designing mine face ventilation systems.al.
simulation results with experimental data for designing mine face ventilation systems. Wala et [33]
Wala
in their study on airflow patterns and methane distribution in the mine
et al. [33] in their study on airflow patterns and methane distribution in the mine face area observed face area observed good
agreement
good between
agreement the methane
between concentrations
the methane predictedpredicted
concentrations by CFD simulations and those determined
by CFD simulations and those
determined from experiments. In a numerical study on airflow recirculation andin methane
from experiments. In a numerical study on airflow recirculation and methane distribution auxiliary
ventilation in deep underground coal mine, Torano et al. [29] found higher
distribution in auxiliary ventilation in deep underground coal mine, Torano et al. [29] found higher methane concentrations
than the concentrations
methane statutory levelsthan in some roadway levels
the statutory zones in due to presence
some roadwayofzones dead duezones. Kurnia etofal.dead
to presence [23]
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 5 of 28
observed that methane dispersion inside mine tunnel is greatly influenced by the number as well as
location of methane sources and the quantity of methane released from each source. They enunciated
that methane concentration can be reduced below safe level by properly directing the ventilation flow
to the location of methane accumulation. Mishra et al. [2,10] and Kumar et al. [27] concluded that
ventilation plays a vital role in dispersion of methane and breaking methane layering to a safe level in
underground coal mines. These authors examined and described the impact of selected geological and
mining factors on the distribution of methane concentration levels in the tailgate [10].
However, the literature does not provide any works concerning the impact of auxiliary ventilation
equipment on the ventilation parameters of the air flowing through longwall headings. The only
works that take into consideration such equipment concern the mined dog heading [23,29,39–41].
The works discussed explain some of the phenomena related to the release of methane into mine
headings and its distribution. However, in most cases, they merely concern the outflow of methane
into the tailgate. Moreover, they fail to take into consideration the influence of goaf with caving on the
distribution and concentration of methane in the area of ongoing exploitation. Experience shows that,
in a number of cases, the size and porosity of this highly porous medium determine the effectiveness
of the entire ventilation process in a given mine.
It is therefore reasonable to carry out tests in order to determine the impact of auxiliary ventilation
equipment on the distribution of methane concentrations in the area of ongoing exploitation, with
account being taken of the goaf with caving. Such an approach to the issues at hand will make it
possible to perform a more in-depth analysis of the ventilation phenomena present during mining
operations. At the same time, it helps to unambiguously determine the actual impact of auxiliary
ventilation equipment on the ventilation parameters of the air and methane concentration levels.
To fill this gap, the authors developed a research methodology and carried out model-based
tests, the objective of which was to determine the impact of auxiliary ventilation equipment on
the distribution of methane concentration in the area of ongoing mining operation. The tests were
performed for a real-world system of headings in one of the mines, preserving their geometry and
taking into account the ventilation parameters obtained on the basis of measurements in real-world
conditions. This also concerns the auxiliary ventilation equipment which was used in the area of the
longwall under analysis. The analyses also took into consideration the goaves with caving along with
their actual physical parameters.
The tests were conducted using CFD. The related calculations were performed in ANSYS Fluent,
based on the finite volume method (FVM). The analyses performed made it possible to identify the
concentrations levels of methane and the physical parameters of the flowing gas mixture at each
spatial point of the area under examination, for the boundary conditions adopted. To unambiguously
determine the influence of auxiliary equipment on the distribution of methane concentration in the area
examined, the analyses were conducted for a system with and without such equipment. The results
obtained from model-based tests were compared with the results of the measurements in real-world
conditions, and there was satisfactory coherence between them. This confirmed the correctness of the
assumptions made and the methodology developed. To more precisely determine the impact of the
applied ventilation equipment on the ventilation parameters of the air stream, additional simulations
were conducted for three different values of the volume output of the air flowing out of the auxiliary
air duct. The results obtained indicate that the use of auxiliary equipment had an extremely positive
impact on the distribution of methane concentration in the area under analysis.
The primary objective of the paper was to develop a methodology of model-based tests for
analysing ventilation phenomena, with account being taken of the largest possible number of factors
that affect this process. Undoubtedly, a unique achievement of the paper is that the analysis takes into
consideration the impact of goaf with caving, as a porous medium, on the ventilation parameters of
the air stream. Another advantage of the paper is also the fact that the analysis was performed for
a functioning exploitation area with real-world measurement data. This lends credence to the tests
conducted and the results obtained.
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 6 of 28
TheThepractical
practical result
resultofofthe paper
the paperis the
is qualitative and quantitative
the qualitative representation
and quantitative of the ventilation
representation of the
phenomena
ventilation occurringoccurring
phenomena in the in area
the under
area underanalysis. TheThe
analysis. determined
determineddistributions
distributionsof methane
of methane
concentrationand
concentration andthethetrajectories
trajectoriesofofthe
theair–methane
air–methane mixture
mixture flow,
flow, with
with account
account being
being taken
taken of
of the
the
different volume outputs of the air supplied along the air duct into the area under
different volume outputs of the air supplied along the air duct into the area under analysis, provide analysis, provide an
anessential
essentialsource
sourceofofinformation
information forfor
thetheventilation
ventilation services.
services.In practice, they
In practice, cancan
they serve as the
serve basis
as the for
basis
selecting ventilation parameters for a given area in order to ensure safe and effective
for selecting ventilation parameters for a given area in order to ensure safe and effective exploitation.exploitation.
It It is therefore
is therefore reasonable
reasonable to that
to state statethethat the methodology
methodology developed,
developed, which uses which usestechniques
the CFD the CFD
techniques and the results of the measurements in in-situ conditions, offers extensive
and the results of the measurements in in-situ conditions, offers extensive possibilities in terms of possibilities in
terms of application for effective diagnosis and forecasting of the methane hazard in mine headings.
application for effective diagnosis and forecasting of the methane hazard in mine headings.
2. 2. Materials
Materials andMethods
and Methods
2.1.
2.1. Study
Study Area
Area
The
The model-basedtests
model-based testswere
wereconducted
conducted for thethe real-world
real-worldlongwall
longwallininone
oneofofthe
themines
mines located
locatedin
the GZW (Upper Silesian Coal Basin) area in Poland (Figure 4). This coal mine is located
in the GZW (Upper Silesian Coal Basin) area in Poland (Figure 4). This coal mine is located in the in the southern
part of GZW
southern part of(Upper
GZW Silesian
(Upper Coal Basin).
Silesian CoalItsBasin).
exploitation area is 44.4area
Its exploitation km2is, whereas
44.4 km2its extractable
, whereas its
resources amount to 155.9 million tonnes of coal [42,43]. The mine has five shafts, including
extractable resources amount to 155.9 million tonnes of coal [42,43]. The mine has five shafts, including two
ventilation
two shafts,
ventilation twotwo
shafts, materials andand
materials personnel transport
personnel shaftsshafts
transport and one
andextraction shaft. shaft.
one extraction
Figure 4.4.Location
Figure Locationofofthe
theregion
regionwhere
wherethe
thetests
testswere
wereconducted
conductedmodified
modifiedfrom
from[42].
[42].
Interventionary studies involving animals or humans, and other studies require ethical approval
Interventionary studies involving animals or humans, and other studies require ethical approval
must list the authority that provided approval and the corresponding ethical approval code.
must list the authority that provided approval and the corresponding ethical approval code.
The coal mine faces a series of natural mining hazards. According to Polish regulations,
The coal mine faces a series of natural mining hazards. According to Polish regulations, they
they include
include water water hazard
hazard (1st
(1st and
and 2nddegree),
2nd degree),methane
methanehazard
hazard(4th
(4th category),
category), methane
methane and and rock
rock
outburst hazard in some of the seams, rock burst hazard (1st degree in some
outburst hazard in some of the seams, rock burst hazard (1st degree in some of the seams) and dustof the seams) and dust
hazard
hazard (Classes
(Classes AA andandB Bofofcoal
coaldust
dustexplosion
explosionhazard).
hazard).ItItmust
mustbebeassumed
assumed that
that this
this is
is aa mine
mine where
where
exploitation is exposed to a series of safety
exploitation is exposed to a series of safety hazards. hazards.
TheThe legal
legalregulations
regulationscurrently
currentlyininforce
forceininPoland
Polandrequire
requirethat
thatthe
theexploited
exploited seams
seams or or their
their parts
parts
bebe
classified
classified into a relevant methane hazard category, with the assumption that the higher the hazard
into a relevant methane hazard category, with the assumption that the higher the hazard
scale
scaleis,is,
the higher
the higher itsitscategory
categoryis.is.The
Thehazard
hazardcategory
categoryisishighly
highlydependent
dependenton on the
the quantity
quantity of of natural
natural
methane included in a weight unit (Mg) of the body of coal. For the first (lowest)
methane included in a weight unit (Mg) of the body of coal. For the first (lowest) category of methanecategory of methane
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 7 of 28
hazard,
hazard, this
this quantity
quantity ranges
ranges fromfrom 0.1
0.1 to
to2.5 m33/Mg
2.5m /Mg (in terms of pure coal substance),
substance), while for
for the
the
fourth (highest)
fourth (highest) category,
category,ititisisover
over88m 3
m3/Mg
/Mg [44].
Description
Description of
of the
the Geological
Geological and
and Mining
Mining Conditions
Conditions of
ofthe
theLongwall
Longwallunder
underAnalysis
Analysis
The
The W-1
W-1 longwall
longwall under
under analysis
analysis was
was aa longitudinal
longitudinal system
system with
with aa roof
roof fall
fall from
from the
the exploitation
exploitation
field borders. Its length was 216.0 m, with a panel length of 1050 m and a
field borders. Its length was 216.0 m, with a panel length of 1050 m and a seam thickness ofseam thickness of 2.54
2.54 m;
m;
its ◦ ◦
its longitudinal
longitudinal inclination
inclination is
is 4.9
4.9°,, while
while its
its transverse
transverse inclination
inclination is
is 1.9
1.9°..
The
The longwall
longwall waswas ventilated
ventilated by by means
means ofof the
the U-type
U-type system,
system, with
with fresh
fresh air
air being
being supplied
supplied along
along
the
the tailgate through an
tailgate through an auxiliary
auxiliaryair airduct.
duct.It also
It also
hadhad a built-in
a built-in air brattice
air brattice (ventilation
(ventilation curtain).
curtain). The
The ventilation
ventilation diagram
diagram for for
thethe longwall
longwall under
under analysis,
analysis, alongwith
along withindicated
indicateddirections
directionsof of air
air flow,
flow, is
is
presented in Figure
presented in Figure 5. 5.
Figure 5.
Figure 5. The ventilation
ventilation scheme
scheme of
of the
the longwall
longwall under
under analysis.
analysis.
At
At the
the stage of designing mining exploitation
exploitation and developing
developing the technical design specifications
specifications
for
for the
the longwall,
longwall, calculations
calculations were
were performed
performed for for the
the minimum
minimum volume
volume output
output ofof fresh
fresh air
air that
that needs
needs
to
to be supplied
supplied to tothe
thelongwall
longwalldue duetoto
thethe methane
methane hazard.
hazard. ThisThis
valuevalue amounted
amounted to not toless
notthan
less 762.5
than
762.5 m 3 /min. This stage also involved determination of the forecasted methane amounts that will be
m /min. This stage also involved determination of the forecasted methane amounts that will be
3
released 3
released during
during exploitation.
exploitation. This
This value
value amounted
amounted to to 12.36
12.36 mm3CH4/min.
/min.
During exploitation,
During exploitation, air was
was supplied to the longwall along the maingate
supplied to the longwall along the maingate at the the average
average rate
rate of
of
1000 3
1000 m m /min,
3 whereas the
/min, whereas the air
air supply
supply rate along the tailgate with a built-in auxiliary air duct into the the
intersection 3
intersection areaarea between
between this
this tailgate
tailgate and
and the
the longwall
longwallwaswasequal
equalto toapprox.
approx.141141m m3/min.
/min.
The amount
The amount of of methane released from
released from the goaf with caving during exploitation was, on average,
12.36 3
12.36 m CH 3 CH44/min,
/min,with
with the
the average
average value
value of concentration
of its its concentration in tailgate,
in the the tailgate,
in theinmeasurement
the measurement point
point
locatedlocated at a distance
at a distance offrom
of 10 m 10 m the
from the longwall
longwall outlet,outlet, throughout
throughout the exploitation
the exploitation period, period,
being being
equal
equal to 0.96%.
to 0.96%.
2.2.
2.2. Methods
Methods
The
The purpose
purpose of of the
the model-based
model-based tests tests conducted
conducted waswas toto determine
determine thethe impact
impact of
of auxiliary
auxiliary
ventilation
ventilation equipment
equipment installed
installed inin the
the tailgate
tailgate on
on the
the distribution
distribution ofof methane
concentration in
in the
the
area
area of the longwall, with account being taken of the goaf with caving. The tests were conducted for
of the longwall, with account being taken of the goaf with caving. The tests were conducted for
aa spatial
spatial model
model of of the
the area
area under
under analysis,
analysis, using
using CFD.
CFD. The
The authors’
authors’ experiences
experiences and
and the
the results
results by
by
other researchers indicate that this method is widely applied for analysing phenomena
other researchers indicate that this method is widely applied for analysing phenomena related with related with
the
the flows
flows ofof fluids
fluids and
and gases,
gases, the
the transfer
transfer ofofmass
massandandheat
heatororthe
theprocesses
processesofofcombustion
combustion[45].
[45].
The paper made use of the ANSYS Fluent software, which
The paper made use of the ANSYS Fluent software, which is one of the most is one of the most popular
popular tools
tools for
for the CFD method, whereas the discretisation process was carried out
the CFD method, whereas the discretisation process was carried out by means of the FVM. The by means of the FVM.
The methodology
methodology for conducting
for conducting teststests
by by
meansmeansof of this
this programme
programme encompasses
encompasses development
development ofofa
amathematical
mathematicalmodel modelofofthe
thephenomenon
phenomenonin inquestion,
question,adoption
adoption ofof boundary
boundary conditions,
conditions, performance
performance
of calculations and analysis of the results obtained. The most important stages
of calculations and analysis of the results obtained. The most important stages of the work of the work methodology
are briefly discussed
methodology in the
are briefly subsequent
discussed chapters.
in the subsequent chapters.
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 8 of 28
2.2.1. Mathematical Models

The airflows at the maingate, tailgate and longwall were simulated as fully developed turbulent
flow by using a k–ε model standard. The numerical tests made use of the Species Transport Without
Reactions model implemented in the ANSYS Fluent software.
Basic Flow Equations

The system of balance equations of mass, momentum and energy (equations of fluid handling) of
one-component flow takes the following form [46,47]:
∂ →
(ρ) + div ρ v = 0 (2)
∂t
↔

∂ → ↔m ↔t
→→ →
ρ v + div ρ v v == div − p I + τ + τ + ρsb (3)
∂t
↔

∂ → ↔m ↔R →
→ →m →R
ρ v + div ρe v == div − p I + τ + τ v + qs + qs + ρse (4)
∂t
The system of Equations (2)–(4) in a vector form can be written as [46,47]:
 
   → 
0  
ρ ρv  ↔m ↔ R 0
∂ →   →→ ↔   τ + τ   → 

 ρ v  + div ρ v v + p I 
 == div   +  ρs p  (5)
∂t → ↔→
  ↔m ↔ R → →m → R 
ρe ρe v + p I v τ + τ v + qs + q ρse
The variables presented in the system of Equations (2)–(5) are [46,47]:

→ ↔m ↔t → →m → R
ρ, v , p, τ , τ , s p ,e, se , qs , qs (6)
→ ↔m
where ρ is the fluid density (kg/m3 ), v is the air velocity (m/s), p is the static pressure (Pa), τ the
↔t
viscous molecular stress tensor (Pa), τ is the turbulent Reynolds stress tensor (Pa), Sb is the source
→m
of forces (N/m3 ), e is the sum of kinetic and internal energy (J/kg), q is the molecular heat flux
→R
(J/(m2 ·s)), q is the turbulent heat flux (J/(m2 ·s)), Se is the source of heat (J/(m3 ·s)).
The basis for a mathematical description of the transportation process of methane released into
underground headings is the principle of mass conservation referred to this gas. The mathematical
model of transportation, being a set of advection–diffusion equations, which for i-th of this substance
i = 1, . . . .n, assumes the following form [48]:
∂
(ρYi ) + ∇ · (ρvYi ) = −∇ · Ji + Ri + Si (7)
∂t
where Ri is the net rate of production of species i by chemical reaction and Si is the rate of creation by
addition from the dispersed phase plus any user-defined sources, Ji is the diffusion flux of species and
Yi is the local mass fraction of each species.
The flow of air stream through a longwall is a turbulent flow. This flow features irregular
movements of the air stream particles, and the parameters of this flow undergo unpredictable random
changes in space and time. A characteristic phenomenon for this type of flow is the occurrence of
vortices of different sizes.
The analysis made use of the k–ε standard turbulence model, which belongs to semi-empirical
models and is characterized by parameters determined on the basis of experimental tests.
This model describes the components of the Reynolds turbulent stress tensor according to Boussinesq
hypothesis [23].
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 9 of 28
In the turbulence model k–ε, in the standard variation, the basic Navier–Stokes equation has been
transformed into the Reynolds averaged equation. This equation includes an additional term in the
form of the Reynolds stress tensor. Due to this term, the set of equations is not closed. To close the set
of equations, it is necessary to introduce additional differential equations, which include the equation
of kinetic turbulent energy and the equation of kinetic turbulent energy dissipation in the following
form [48]:
∂k ∂ ∂ µt ∂k
ρ + (ρkui ) = [(µ + ) )] + Gk + Gb − ρε − YM + Sk (8)
∂t ∂xi ∂x j σk ∂x j
∂ε ∂ ∂ µt ∂ε ε ε2
ρ + (ρεui ) = [(µ + ) )] + C1ε ( Gk + C3ε Gb ) − C2ερ + Sε (9)
∂t ∂xi ∂x j σε ∂x j k k
where C1ε , C2ερ , and C3ε are constants, σk , and σε are turbulent Prandtl numbers for k and ε, respectively,
Gb is the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to buoyancy, Gk is the generation of turbulence
kinetic energy due to the mean velocity gradients, YM is the contribution of the fluctuating dilatation
in compressible turbulence to the overall dissipation rate, and Sk , and Sε are user-defined source terms.
The flow turbulence model k–ε includes several variants, such as the k–ε standard, the k–ε
Renormalisation Group (RNG) and the k–ε Realizable. These variants differ, above all, in the method
for determining turbulence viscosity and the Prandtl number, as well as in the constants present
in the equations describing the kinetic energy of turbulence—k and the dissipation of turbulence
kinetic energy—ε [49–51]. The turbulence model k–ε is the most common model used for analysing
ventilation-related issued in underground mine headings [1–5,10,23,35,51], since it provides the best
representation of the actual course of this process.
Constitutive Equations
A ternary species mixture comprising oxygen, water vapour and methane exists in the ventilation
air in the mining headings. The interaction between the species is captured in the mixture density
which follows incompressible ideal gas law given by [4]:
pM
ρ= (10)
RT
where R is the universal gas constant and M refers to the mixture molar mass.
Mixture molar mass is given by:
−1
ωO2 ωCH4 ωN2 ωH2 O
M= + + + (11)
MO2 MCH4 MN2 MH2 O
where Mi is the molar mass of species i.

Mass fraction of nitrogen is calculated as:
ωN2 = 1 − (ωO2 + ωCH4 + ωH2 O) (12)
The air–methane mixture viscosity is calculated as:

xi µi
µ= ∑∑ (13)
i j xi Φi,j
where xi , and xj , are the mole fraction of species i and j, respectively, and:
!1  !1 ! 1 2
2 2 4
1 Mi µi Mi
Φi,j = √ 1 +  (14)
8 Mj µj Mj
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 10 of 28
The mole fractions are related to the mass fractions by:
ωM
xi = (15)
Mi
For practical purpose, methane concentration is presented in terms of percentage of methane

concentration, defined as CH4 = ωCH4 ×100%.
The mine walls roughness, Ks , is estimated from the correlation developed by [52] as a function of
flow resistance, described as:

µ α
Ks = 4.49 1/4 1/2 0.342 × exp 4341 −1 (16)
ρCµ k0 Cs ρ
where α is the air resistance coefficient, Cs is the roughness coefficient which identifies the roughness
shape and is equal to 0.5 for spherical sand grains, whereas Cµ1/4 and k1/20 is the dynamic velocity.
Permeability of the Goafs

The coefficient value of goaf permeability depends on the rocks types forming the caving.
The parameter which characterises these rocks (roof) with respect to their permeability is their
stratification resistance [53].
The destratification resistance of rocks is natural capability of the rock mass to oppose stratification
and caving of roof rock to the heading surface. This capability is equal to the tensile strength of the
forces directed vertically.
The destratification resistance of rocks is determined based on laboratory tests using downhole
penetrometers or by disruption segments of vertical drilling of bore in the direction of longitudinal
axis of opening. The value of this resistance is determined on the basis of the following dependence:
F
Rrri = 0.8 (17)
d2
where Rrri is the destratification resistance of rocks (Pa), F is the tensile strength (Pa) and d is the
diameter (m2 ).
The resistance of roof rock stratification forming caving is calculated from dependence [53]:
n
∑ Rrri mi
i =1
Rrrs = n (18)
∑ mi
i =1
where Rrrs is resistance of roof rock stratification (Pa), and mi is the thickness of layers (m).
The resistance of roof rock stratification calculated on the basis of Equation (18) enables us to
determine the permeability coefficient of goaf with caving from Equations (19) and (20) [53]:
µ 2
k( x) = for 0 ≤ x ≤ l (19)
r0 + ax2 3
µ 2
k( x) = 2 for l≤x≤l (20)
3

4
r0 + a 3l −x
where k(x) is the permeability coefficient of goaf (m2 ), µ is the coefficient of dynamic viscosity (Ns·m−2 ),
l is the total length of the longitudinal longwalls (m), r0 and a are empirical factors depending on the
mining geological conditions of the goafs.
where k(x) is the permeability coefficient of goaf (m2), μ is the coefficient of dynamic viscosity
(Ns∙m−22018,
Energies ), l 11,
is 3076
the total length of the longitudinal longwalls (m), r0 and a are empirical factors
11 of 28
depending on the mining geological conditions of the goafs.
3. Problem Statement
3. Problem Statement and
and Boundary
Boundary Conditions
Conditions
The fundamental role
The fundamental role for
for the
the correctness
correctness of
of the
the tests
tests conducted
conducted is is played
played by the development
by the development ofof
aa model,
model, which
which best
best represents
represents the
the real-world
real-world exploitation area, including the longwall, the goaf
exploitation area, including the longwall, the goaf with with
caving,
caving, as well as other mine headings and the conditions
as well as other mine headings and the conditions present
present inin them.
them.
For
For this purpose, a geometrical model was developed for the area
this purpose, a geometrical model was developed for the area under
under analysis,
analysis, with
with account
account
being
being taken of the geometry parameters of the longwall, the longwall headings (the maingate andand
taken of the geometry parameters of the longwall, the longwall headings (the maingate the
the tailgate) and the goaf with caving, which constitute the flow area for the air and methane
tailgate) and the goaf with caving, which constitute the flow area for the air and methane mixture mixture
(Figure
(Figure 6a).
6a). This
This model
model also
also included
included the
the auxiliary
auxiliary ventilation
equipment (Figure
(Figure 6b).
6b).
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Geometry
Geometry ofof the computational
computational domain
domain (longwall,
(longwall, longwall
longwall galleries,
galleries, goaf
goaf and
and air
air duct,
duct,
ventilation curtain, and ventilation sluice).
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 12 of 28
The geometry parameters of the area under analysis and the ventilation parameters of the flowing
air stream are presented in Table 2, and Table 3 contains a summary of the strength parameters of the
roof rocks forming the goaf with caving, which are necessary to determine the permeability of this
medium, according to Equations (18) and (19).
Table 2. Geometry and ventilation parameters of the test region.
Geometry and Ventilation Parameters Values

Air emission rate (Q1 )—maingate, m3 /min 1100.00
Air emission rate (Q2 )—air duct in tailgate, m3 /min 141.0
Methane emission rate (absolute methane content—QCH4 ), m3 CH4 /min 12.36
The height of longwall, m 3.5
The length of longwall, m 116.0
The width of longwall, m 3.5
The width of longwall galleries, m 4.0
The height of longwall galleries, m 3.5
The area of longwall galleries, m2 12.283
The length of goaf, m 100.0
The length of maingate, m 25
The length of tailgate m 79
The length of the unliquidated part of the airway behind the caving line of the longwall, m 4.0
The location of the outlet from the air duct in relation to the liquidation line of the airway, m 5.5
The location of the ventilation curtain in relation to the liquidation line of the airway 1.0
Diameter of air duct, m 1.0
Table 3. Parameters characterizing rocks littering in the roof of the longwall and forming goaf with caving.
Type of Roof Rocks Compressive Strength, MPa Tensile Strength, MPa Rrrs , MPa
Clay slates with coal lamina 17.50 2.08
Coarse-grained 24.60 2.30 3.88
Sandstones 53.60 6.10
At the next stage, discretisation of the model was performed, involving generation of a mesh
consisting of a finite number of control volumes. The mesh generated for the geometric model consisted
of hexahedron elements. Its dimensions are 0.15 m × 0.15 m × 0.15 m. Before selecting the size of
the mesh elements, there was an analysis of its sensitivity to the calculation results obtained. Based
on this analysis, it was assumed that, for model-based tests of air flow through the goaf with caving,
one may adopt a numerical mesh with a size of the cubic elements equal to 0.15 m × 0.15 m × 0.15 m.
Smaller elements significantly extend the time of calculations, without making any changes in the
results obtained.
Next, boundary conditions were adopted along with a physical model, which was used for
numerical calculations. The case at hand employed the standard turbulence model k–ε. The authors in
their earlier study also found that the standard turbulence model k–ε is the most preferred model for
studying the methane layering behavior and dispersion of methane [2,10]. The model thus developed
was subjected to a numerical analysis. After setting the boundary conditions, the solutions were
initialized. During iterations, the convergence was set at 1 × 10−6 (as per the “Fluent” support
documentation) [48].
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 13 of 28
4.4.Results
Resultsand
andDiscussion
Discussion
The
Thecalculations
calculations performed
performed helped
helped toto obtain
obtain aa series of interesting
series of interesting results.
results. Particular
Particularsignificance
significance
was
wasascribed
ascribedtoto determining
determining the the impact
impact of auxiliary ventilation
of auxiliary ventilation equipment
equipmenton onthe
theparameters
parametersofofthethe
ventilation system. As mentioned before, no such tests had ever been carried out
ventilation system. As mentioned before, no such tests had ever been carried out before. Therefore, before. Therefore,
analyses
analyseswere
wereconducted
conducted for for two
two ventilation systems: one
ventilation systems: one without
without and
and the
the other
otherone onewith
withauxiliary
auxiliary
ventilation
ventilation equipment.
equipment. InInorder
order toto compare
compare these
these systems,
systems, all the input
all the input geometry,
geometry, physical
physicalandand
chemical parameters were
chemical parameters were the the same in both cases.
cases.
The
Theresults
resultsobtained
obtained demonstrated
demonstrated significant
significant differences for both the the systems
systems under
underanalysis.
analysis.
This
Thisconcerned
concernedthe theparameter
parametervalues
valuesofofthe airair
the and gasgas
and mixture
mixture flowing
flowingin the analysed
in the headings
analysed and
headings
goaves with with
and goaves caving, as well
caving, as the
as well as distribution
the distributionof methane
of methaneconcentration.
concentration.In order to illustrate
In order the
to illustrate
differences between
the differences bothboth
between systems, Figure
systems, 7 presents
Figure the the
7 presents trajectories of the
trajectories air air
of the flowing through
flowing throughthe
goaves withwith
the goaves caving andand
caving thethe
intersection
intersection area
areabetween
betweenthethelongwall
longwalland and the tailgate
tailgate with
withbuilt-in
built-in
auxiliary
auxiliaryventilation
equipment (Figure 7a,c) and and without
withoutsuch
suchequipment
equipment(Figure
(Figure7b,d).
7b,d).
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure
Figure7.7.The
Thetrajectories
trajectories of
of air
air flowing
flowing through the intersection
intersection of
of the
thelongwall
longwalland
andthe
theairway
airwaywith
with
built-in
built-inAVE
AVE (a,c)
(a,c) and without such equipment
equipment (b,d).
(b,d).
Figure8,8,on
Figure onthe
theother
other hand,
hand, presents
presents the
the distributions
distributions of
of velocity
velocityvectors
vectorsforforthe
themixture
mixtureofofgases
gases
flowing through the area under analysis with auxiliary ventilation equipment installed in the
flowing through the area under analysis with auxiliary ventilation equipment installed in the tailgate tailgate
(Figure8a,c)
(Figure 8a,c) and
and without
without such
such equipment
equipment (Figure
(Figure 8b,d).
8b,d).
The analysis of the distributions obtained clearly demonstrates
The analysis of the distributions obtained clearly demonstrates that
that the
theapplication
applicationof ofauxiliary
auxiliary
ventilation equipment has a very important effect on the manner, in which the mixture of gasesflows
ventilation equipment has a very important effect on the manner, in which the mixture of gases flows
through the area in question.
through the area in question.
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 14 of 28
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
FigureFigure The distributions
8. The8. distributions of velocityvectors
of velocity vectors for
for the
the air
airflowing through
flowing the intersection
through of the of the
the intersection
longwall and the tailgate with built-in AVE (a,c) and without such equipment (b,d).
longwall and the tailgate with built-in AVE (a,c) and without such equipment (b,d).
In the case of the system with auxiliary ventilation equipment, the air stream flowing out of the
In the case of
longwall the
hits thesystem with
air brattice auxiliarycurtain)
(ventilation ventilationlocatedequipment, the After
in the tailgate. air stream flowing
it bounces out
off, the airof
the longwall hits the air brattice (ventilation curtain) located in the tailgate.
stream travels towards the unliquidated section of the tailgate located behind the caving line of the After it bounces off,
the air longwall
stream travels
and hence towards the unliquidated
also towards sectionThis
the goaf with caving. of the
leadstailgate located behind
to the formation the caving
of a gyrating flow
line of and
the recirculation
longwall and of air at thealso
hence outlet from the
towards thelongwall.
goaf with Suchcaving.
a flow generates
This leads large
to curvatures
the formation of theof
current line. Two air streams overlap in this section of the tailgate:
a gyrating flow and recirculation of air at the outlet from the longwall. Such a flow generates the main stream flowing out of
the longwall and the refreshing stream flowing out of the auxiliary air duct. This leads to significant
large curvatures of the current line. Two air streams overlap in this section of the tailgate: the
changes in the distribution of methane concentrations in this area (Figure 9a).
main stream flowing
In the absence out of of the longwall
auxiliary andthe
equipment, theairrefreshing
stream flowingstream flowing
through out of the
the longwall auxiliary
changes its
air duct.
flowThis
angleleads
by 90to significant
◦ and flows intochanges in The
the tailgate. the section
distribution of methane
of this tailgate locatedconcentrations
behind the cavinginline this
area (Figure 9a).
of the longwall continues to be an area which is practically not accessed by the air stream. As a result,
this is the accumulation
In the absence of auxiliary area equipment,
for the methane theflowing from flowing
air stream the goaf with caving
through (Figure
the longwall9b). changes
its flow angleThe bydistributions
90° and flows of methane concentrations
into the tailgate. The in section
vertical sections of the tailgate
of this tailgate located with built-in
behind the
auxiliary ventilation equipment (a) and without such equipment (b) are presented in Figure 8. They are
caving line of the longwall continues to be an area which is practically not accessed by the air
presented in vertical sections located every 1.0 m from the liquidation line of the tailgate (for 15
stream. As a result, this is the accumulation area for the methane flowing from the goaf with
sections). Figures 10–14, on the other hand, presents the distributions of methane concentrations in
cavingselected
(Figurevertical
9b). sections of the tailgate with built-in auxiliary ventilation equipment (a) and without
The
suchdistributions
equipment (b). of methane concentrations in vertical sections of the tailgate with built-in
auxiliary ventilation equipment (a) and without such equipment (b) are presented in Figure 8.
They are presented in vertical sections located every 1.0 m from the liquidation line of the tailgate
(for 15 sections). Figures 10–14, on the other hand, presents the distributions of methane
concentrations in selected vertical sections of the tailgate with built-in auxiliary ventilation
equipment (a) and without such equipment (b).
Energies
Energies 2018, 11, 11,
2018, x FOR
3076PEER REVIEW 15 of 2815 of 28
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure 9. The distributions of methane concentrations in vertical sections of the tailgate with built-in
Figure
Figure 9. The
9. and
The distributions
distributions of methaneconcentrations
concentrations in
invertical
verticalsections of of
thethe
tailgate withwith
built-in
AVE (a) without such of methane
equipment (b). sections tailgate built-in
AVEAVE (a) and
(a) and without
without such
such equipment(b).
equipment (b).
Plane 1 Plane 1
Plane 1 Plane 1
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 10.10.
TheThe distributionsofofmethane
distributions methane concentrations
concentrationsininselected vertical
selected sections
vertical (Plane
sections 1) of 1)
(Plane theof the
Figure 10.
tailgateThe
withdistributions
built-in AVE of
(a) methane
and concentrations
without such equipmentin
tailgate with built-in AVE (a) and without such equipment (b). selected
(b). vertical sections (Plane 1) of the
tailgate with built-in AVE (a) and without such equipment (b).
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 16 of 28
Plane 2 Plane 2
Plane 3 Plane 3
Plane 4 Plane 4
Plane 5 Plane 5
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 11.11.
TheThe distributionsof
distributions of methane
methane concentrations
concentrationsin in
selected vertical
selected sections
vertical (Planes
sections 2–5) of2–5)
(Planes the of the
tailgate with built-in AVE (a) and without such equipment
tailgate with built-in AVE (a) and without such equipment (b). (b).
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 17 of 28
Plane 6 Plane 6
Plane 7 Plane 7
Plane 8 Plane 8
Plane 9 Plane 9
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 12.12.
concentrationsin in
selected vertical
selected sections
vertical (Planes
sections 6–9) of6–9)
(Planes the of the
tailgate with built-in AVE (a) and without such equipment
tailgate with built-in AVE (a) and without such equipment (b). (b).
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 18 of 28
Plane 10 Plane 10
Plane 11 Plane 11
Plane 12 Plane 12
Plane 13 Plane 13
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 13.13.
TheThe distributions of
concentrationsin in
selected vertical
selected sections
vertical (Planes
sections 10–13)10–13)
(Planes of of
the tailgate with built-in AVE (a) and without such equipment
the tailgate with built-in AVE (a) and without such equipment (b).(b).
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 19 of 28
Plane 14 Plane 14
Plane 15 Plane 15
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 14.14.
distributions ofmethane
concentrationsinin
selected vertical
selected sections
vertical (Planes
sections 14 and
(Planes 1415)
and 15)
of the tailgate with built-in AVE (a) and without such equipment
of the tailgate with built-in AVE (a) and without such equipment (b). (b).
Analysing the presented distributions of methane concentration, one can conclude that auxiliary
Analysing
ventilation the presented
equipment distributions
has a fairly of methane
significant impact on suchconcentration,
distributions. one can conclude that
auxiliary ventilation equipment has a fairly significant
Installing this equipment in the tailgate significantly changes impact on such distributions.
the location of the area with
Installing this equipment in the tailgate significantly changes
maximum methane concentrations. In the event where auxiliary ventilation equipment the location ofisthe
notarea with
installed,
maximum
the maximummethane concentrations.
methane concentrationIn the event
values where
are present auxiliary
in the ventilation
roof section equipment
of the heading, whereas is not
in
the case where this equipment is used, the maximum methane concentration
installed, the maximum methane concentration values are present in the roof section of the values are present in the
lateral (sidewall)
heading, whereas section
in theof thecaseheading.
whereMoreover, when auxiliary
this equipment equipment
is used, is used, the section
the maximum methane of
the unliquidated tailgate behind the longwall caving line is intensively ventilated,
concentration values are present in the lateral (sidewall) section of the heading. Moreover, when thus preventing
the accumulation of methane which flows out of the goaves. In the event where this equipment is
auxiliary equipment is used, the section of the unliquidated tailgate behind the longwall caving
not present, the unliquidated section of the tailgate is an ideal location for methane to accumulate
line is intensively ventilated, thus preventing the accumulation of methane which flows out of
due to lack of air supply. The equipment applied, besides changing the location of the zone exposed
the goaves. In the event where this equipment is not present, the unliquidated section of the
to high methane concentration levels, contributes to significant reduction in the size of this zone
tailgate is an
(Figures ideal
8 and 9).location
This leads forto methane to accumulate
a more favourable due of
distribution tomethane
lack of air supply. The
concentrations in equipment
this region.
applied,Itbesides
is also changing
evident that the thelocation
absenceof the
of zone exposed
auxiliary to highequipment
ventilation methane concentration
in the case oflevels, high
contributes
methane-bearing capacities of the longwall, which may practically make it impossible to maintainmore
to significant reduction in the size of this zone (Figures 8 and 9). This leads to a safe
favourable
values fordistribution of methanein
methane concentrations concentrations
mixture with air. in As
thisa consequence,
region. this significantly limits the
possibilities for safe exploitation
It is also evident that the absenceto be carried out.
of auxiliary ventilation equipment in the case of high
The distributions
methane-bearing presented
capacities in Figures
of the 9 andwhich
longwall, 10 are significantly affectedmake
may practically by the it
manner in whichto
impossible
air and methane flow through the goaf with caving.
maintain safe values for methane concentrations in mixture with air. As a consequence, this
As a result of using auxiliary ventilation equipment, methane flows out of the goaf at the lateral
significantly limits the possibilities for safe exploitation to be carried out.
(side) surface of the gallery (Figure 15a). On the other hand, when no such equipment is present,
The distributions presented in Figures 9 and 10 are significantly affected by the manner in which
methane is released through the upper section of the surface adjacent to the goaf (Figure 15b). This is
air and methane flow through the goaf with caving.
due to the fact that auxiliary ventilation equipment directs the air stream towards the goaf with caving,
As a result
thereby of using
preventing auxiliary
the free ventilation
flow of methane into equipment, methane
the tailgate with flows
the entire outadjacent
surface of the goaf
to theat the
goaf.
lateral (side)
Takingsurface
accountof ofthe
the gallery
goaf with(Figure
caving 15a).
in the On the other
analysis showshand, when nothey
how important suchareequipment
for the flowis
present, methane is released through the upper
of gases and the values of methane concentration (Figure 15). section of the surface adjacent to the goaf (Figure
15b). This is due to the fact that auxiliary ventilation equipment directs the air stream towards
the goaf with caving, thereby preventing the free flow of methane into the tailgate with the entire
surface adjacent to the goaf.
Taking account of the goaf with caving in the analysis shows how important they are for
the flow of gases and the values of methane concentration (Figure 15).
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 20 of 28
(a) (b)
FigureFigure 15. The
15. The manner
manner in which
in which methaneisisreleased
methane released from
from the
thegoaf
goafwith
withcaving into
caving thethe
into tailgate withwith
tailgate
built-in
built-in AVEAVE (a) and
(a) and without
without such
such equipment(b).
equipment (b).
In order to verify the results obtained from model-based tests, they were compared with the
In order to verify the results obtained from model-based tests, they were compared with
results of the measurements performed in the gallery under analysis. Methane concentration levels
the results of the measurements performed in the gallery under analysis. Methane concentration
in Polish mines are measured on a point-to-point (local) basis, only in places (points) specified in
levelsrelevant
in Polish mines are
regulations. measured
Methane on a sensors,
detection point-to-point (local) methane
which measure basis, only in places (points)
concentration values in
specified in relevant regulations. Methane detection sensors, which measure
the air flowing out of the longwall, are installed in the tailgate, at a distance of up to 10.0 methane
m from
concentration
the longwallvalues inThe
outlet. theschematic
air flowing out of the
distribution longwall,
of the automaticaremanometry
installed sensors
in the tailgate, at of
for the area a
distance of up tounder
the longwall 10.0 m from the
analysis longwallinoutlet.
is presented The
Figure 3. schematic Figure
Additionally, distribution
3 showsofthe
themeasurement
automatic
line which
manometry is located
sensors foralong the tailgate
the area of theand crosses the
longwall measurement
under analysis point (P2). This line
is presented is situated
in Figure 3.
at a height of 2.7 m and at a distance of 3.5 m from the outlet of the
Additionally, Figure 3 shows the measurement line which is located along the tailgate and longwall (Figures 3 and 6b).
Thethe
crosses arrangement
measurement of sensors
pointfor measuring
(P2). This linemethane concentration
is situated levels
at a height andm
of 2.7 the measurement
and lineof
at a distance in
the region was made under analysis.
3.5 m from the outlet of the longwall (Figures 3 and 6b). The arrangement of sensors for
The comparison of the methane concentration values obtained from the measurements in
measuring methane concentration levels and the measurement line in the region was made
real-world conditions and those determined through model-based tests, for a system with auxiliary
underventilation
analysis.equipment, is presented in Table 4.
The comparison of the methane concentration values obtained from the measurements in
real-world conditions
Table and those
4. The comparison determined
of the through values
methane concentration model-based
obtained fromtests,
thefor a system inwith
measurements
auxiliary real-world
ventilation conditions and those
equipment, determinedin
is presented through
Tablemodel-based
4. tests, for a system with auxiliary
ventilation equipment (AVE).
Table 4. The comparison of the methane concentration values obtained from the measurements in
Model with Auxiliary
Methane Concentration Level, %
real-world conditions and those determined through Equipment Real System
model-based tests, for a systemError,
with%auxiliary
Ventilation
ventilation equipment (AVE).
Point P1 0.97 1.1 11.82
Point P2 0.87 0.99 12.12
Methane Concentration Model with Auxiliary Ventilation
Real System Error, %
Level, % Equipment
The relative error between the values of methane concentration levels from the measurements and
Point P1 0.97 1.1 11.82
those obtained through the numerical method does not exceed 12.2%. It can, therefore, be assumed
Point obtained
that the results P2 0.87 to the values measured in
for the calculations are close 0.99 12.12
real-world conditions.
This shows that the real-world system has been well reproduced in the model.
The Norelative error between
measurements the values
were performed of methane
for methane concentration
concentration levels from
values in real-world the
conditions
measurements andwithout
for the system those obtained
auxiliarythrough the The
equipment. numerical method
comparison does
of the not exceed
methane 12.2%. Itvalues
concentration can,
therefore, be assumed
determined that of
on the basis the results obtained
model-based tests, forfor the calculations
systems are close
with and without to the
auxiliary values
ventilation
equipment in the measurement points (P1 and P2), is shown in Table 5.
measured in real-world conditions. This shows that the real-world system has been well
reproduced in the model.
No measurements were performed for methane concentration values in real-world
conditions for the system without auxiliary equipment. The comparison of the methane
concentration values determined on the basis of model-based tests, for systems with and without
auxiliary ventilation equipment in the measurement points (P1 and P2), is shown in Table 5.
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 21 of 28
Table
Table The
5. 5. comparison
The comparisonofofthe
themethane
methaneconcentration valuesdetermined
concentration values determinedon onthe
thebasis
basis
ofof model-based
model-based
tests, forfor
tests, systems with
systems withand
andwithout
withoutAVE
AVEin
inthe
themeasurement points (P1
measurement points (P1and
andP2).
P2).
Methane Concentration
Methane Concentration Model
Model with
withAuxiliary
Auxiliary Model
Model without
without Auxiliary
Auxiliary
Level,
Level, % % Ventilation
Ventilation Equipment
Equipment Ventilation
VentilationEquipment
Equipment
PointPoint
P1 P1 0.97
0.97 3.05
3.05
PointPoint
P2 P2 0.87
0.87 1.75
1.75
The results obtained confirm the effectiveness of using auxiliary ventilation equipment.
The results obtained confirm the effectiveness of using auxiliary ventilation equipment.
The authors of the paper also determined the average values for methane concentration
The authors of the paper also determined the average values for methane concentration levels
levels in the cross-sections of the tailgate. It was assumed that such a presentation of results will
in the cross-sections of the tailgate. It was assumed that such a presentation of results will provide
provide a fuller explanation of the methane distributions in this tailgate and the impact of
a fuller explanation
auxiliary of equipment
ventilation the methaneof distributions in thisThe
these distributions. tailgate and the obtained
distributions impact offor
auxiliary ventilation
the systems
equipment of these distributions. The distributions obtained for the systems with this equipment
with this equipment and without it for 75 m of the tailgate’s length, counting from the goaf side, and
without it for 75 m of the
are presented in Figure 16.tailgate’s length, counting from the goaf side, are presented in Figure 16.
Figure
Figure 16.16.
TheThe averagevalues
average valuesofofmethane
concentrations in
inthe
thecross-sections
cross-sectionsofofthe tailgate
the forfor
tailgate thethe
systems
systems with
with and
and withoutAVE.
without AVE.
It should
It should alsobebestressed
also stressedthat
thatsuch
such measurements
measurements cannot
cannotbe beperformed
performed inin
real-world
real-worldconditions.
conditions.
Using
Using thethe measurement
measurement lineline assumed
assumed andand marked
marked in Figures
in Figures 3 and311,
and
the11, the distributions
distributions of
of methane
methane concentration values were determined in the points located along this line
concentration values were determined in the points located along this line (24 points). As mentioned (24 points). As
mentioned
before, before,
this line this in
is located line
theistailgate
locatedatinthe
theinstallation
tailgate atheight
the installation height
of the sensor of the sensor
for measuring for
methane
measuring methane concentrations in the real-world heading. The values of methane
concentrations in the real-world heading. The values of methane concentrations in the points located concentrations
onin the points located on the assumed measurement line for the systems with and without auxiliary
the assumed measurement line for the systems with and without auxiliary ventilation equipment
ventilation equipment are presented in Figure 17.
are presented in Figure 17.
Analysing the distributions obtained (Figures 16 and 17), one may conclude that the application
Analysing the distributions obtained (Figures 16 and 17), one may conclude that the application
of auxiliary ventilation equipment has a significant impact on the reduction of methane concentration
of auxiliary ventilation equipment has a significant impact on the reduction of methane concentration
levels in the tailgate.
levels in the tailgate.
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 22 of 28
Figure 17. The values of methane concentrations in the points located on the assumed measurement
Figure
Figure 17. The values of methane concentrations in the points located on the
on assumed measurement
line for 17.
the The values
systems withofand
methane
withoutconcentrations
AVE. in the points located the assumed measurement
line for the systems with and without AVE.
line for the systems with and without AVE.
In order to illustrate the impact of auxiliary ventilation equipment on the velocities of the
In order to illustrate the impact of auxiliary ventilation equipment on the velocities of the
In order
air flowing to illustrate
through the impact
the tailgate, of auxiliary
the distributions ventilation
of these equipment
velocities on the
are presented in velocities
Figure 18. of the
air flowing through the tailgate, the distributions of these velocities are presented in Figure 18.
These
air distributions
flowing througharethepresented
tailgate, on
thethe planes located
distributions every velocities
of these 1.0 m fromarethepresented
caving linein
inFigure
the 18.
These distributions are presented on the planes located every 1.0 m from the caving line in the tailgate.
tailgate.
These distributions are presented on the planes located every 1.0 m from the caving line in the
tailgate.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 18. The
Figure18. The distributions of air
distributions of air stream
stream velocities
velocitiesininthe
thetailgate
tailgatewith
withAVE
AVE(a)
(a)and
andwithout
without such
such
equipment (b).
equipment (b).
(b)
Figure 18. The distributions of air stream velocities in the tailgate with AVE (a) and without such
equipment (b).
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 23 of 28
For a more complete analysis of the phenomenon at hand, the authors also determined the
For a more complete analysis of the phenomenon at hand, the authors also determined the
impact of the volume output of the additional air stream supplied along the auxiliary air duct on
impact of the volume output of the additional air stream supplied along the auxiliary air duct on the
thedistribution
distributionofof methane
concentration in the
in the tailgate.
tailgate. Moreover,
Moreover, the calculations
the calculations were were carried
carried out forout
forthree
threeadditional
additional values of air volume output, amounting to 165.0 m 3 /min, 188.0 m3 /min and
values of air volume output, amounting to 165.0 m /min, 188.0 m /min and 212.0
3 3
212.0 m3 /min.
m3/min. The The distributions
of methane concentrations
concentrations obtained
obtained for these
for these cases cases are presented
are presented in
in Figure 19.
Figure 19.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure
Figure 19. 19.
TheThe distribution
distribution of methane
of methane concentration
concentration in theintailgate
the tailgate with built-in
with built-in AVE
AVE and and an
an additional
additional
stream of air stream
supplied of along
air supplied along the
the auxiliary air auxiliary
duct withairthe duct with thecapacities:
following following 165.0 m3 /min
capacities: 165.0(a),
188.0 m3 /min
m3/min (a), 188.0 m3/min
(b) and m3and
212.0(b) /min212.0
(c).m3/min (c).
EnergiesEnergies
2018, 2018,
11, x11,
FOR3076PEER REVIEW 24 of 28 24 of 28
The average methane concentration values in the cross-sections of the tailgate for the analysed
The average methane concentration values in the cross-sections of the tailgate for the analysed
volume outputs of the
The average air stream
methane supplied
concentration valuesalong
in thethe auxiliary of
cross-sections airtheduct arefor
tailgate presented
the analysedin Figure 20.
volume outputs
volume
of the
outputs of
airairstream
the stream
suppliedalong
supplied
alongthe
the auxiliary
auxiliary air
airare
duct
duct are presented
presented in Figure
in Figure 20.
20.
Figure 21, on the other hand, demonstrates the changes in methane concentration values along the
FigureFigure
21, on
21,the other
on the hand,
other hand, demonstrates
demonstrates the changes in methane concentration values
the along the
measurement line (marked in Figure 3) for thethechanges
analysedin methane concentration
capacities values along
of the auxiliary air stream.
measurement lineline
measurement (marked
(markedin inFigure
Figure 3)3)for
forthethe analysed
analysed capacities
capacities of the auxiliary
of the auxiliary air stream.air stream.
Figure 20. Average methane concentration values in the cross-sections of the tailgate for the analysed
Figure
Figure 20. Average
20. Average methaneconcentration
methane concentration values in the
values in cross-sections of the tailgate
the cross-sections of thefor the analysed
tailgate for the analysed
volume outputs of the air stream supplied along the auxiliary air
volume outputs of the air stream supplied along the auxiliary air duct. duct.
volume outputs of the air stream supplied along the auxiliary air duct.
Figure 21. The

Figure values
21. The ofofmethane
values methane concentrations along
concentrations along the measurement
the measurement line (marked
line (marked in Figure 3)infor
Figure 3) for
Figure 21.
the The values
analysed of methane
capacities of the air concentrations
stream supplied alongthe
through theairmeasurement
duct. line (marked in Figure 3) for
the analysed capacities of the air stream supplied through the air duct.
the analysed capacities of the air stream supplied through the air duct.
The distributions determined indicate that, with a constant inflow of methane into the tailgate,
The distributions
increasing determined
the air stream indicate
volume supplied alongthat, with aairconstant
the auxiliary duct leadsinflow of methane
to significant reduction into
in the
The distributions determined indicate that, with a constant inflow of methane into the
tailgate, increasing of
the concentration thethisair
gasstream volume
in the headings supplied
under analysis. along the auxiliary air duct leads to
tailgate, increasing the air stream volume supplied along the auxiliary air duct leads to
significant reduction in the concentration of this gas in the headings under analysis.
significant reduction in the concentration of this gas in the headings under analysis.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Underground mining exploitation, due to the conditions in which it is carried out, is exposed to
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 25 of 28
5. Conclusions
various types of risks referred to as natural hazards in Poland. Based on many years of experience and
the analysis of critical events, it can be concluded that methane represents one of the most dangerous
hazards to this process and, above all, to the mining crew working in the headings. It is therefore
necessary to conduct tests with a view to developing effective methods for limiting the risk of its
ignition and explosion. The solution analysed in the paper is fully in line with this course of action.
The objective of the tests was to determine the impact of auxiliary ventilation equipment on
the distribution and concentration of methane in the area of ongoing exploitation. The analysis was
based on the tests carried out on a model representing a real-world area under mining exploitation,
with account being taken of the test results in real-world conditions.
The results obtained unambiguously indicate that the application of auxiliary ventilation
equipment, in the form of an air brattice (ventilation curtain) and an auxiliary air duct, significantly
improves the ventilation parameters of the air stream in the area under analysis. An unquestionable
advantage of the paper, which demonstrates its uniqueness, is the precise spatial representation of the
real-world exploitation area as well as the consideration given to the impact of goaf with caving on the
distributions determined. This made it possible to obtain reliable results that can be used in practice.
A lack of reliable tests results for the impact of such equipment on the ventilation system raises serious
concerns about its application.
For this reason, the present paper should provide an essential source of knowledge concerning
the effects of using auxiliary ventilation equipment in areas of mining operations. The multivariate
analysis concerning the selection of the velocity for the air stream supplied along the auxiliary air
duct indicates a wide scope of possibilities in terms of adjusting the parameters of this equipment to
real-world conditions. The drops in methane concentration levels obtained in the entire area under
analysis, as well as the practical elimination of the zone of hazardous methane accumulation in
the remaining section of the tailgate, bear testimony to the effectiveness of the auxiliary ventilation
equipment in use.
The results obtained corroborate the advantages of this equipment and should lead to its wider
application in practice, all the more so since this equipment is of simple design, easy to assemble and
requires no complicated operation.
Therefore, the present paper represents an example of practical application of advanced
computational tools and complex theories. Therefore, it seems reasonable to conclude that tests
carried out according to the CFD methodology, besides their scientific aspect, also carry a huge
application potential.
In the authors’ opinion, the methodology developed for assessing ventilation systems in mines by
means of numerical modelling, with the use of real-world test results (even partial), should be more
widely applied in practice. This should particularly concern the multivariate analyses of emergency
situations and the forecasting of ventilation-related hazards. This is best illustrated by the methodology
developed, the analyses performed and the results obtained for the case at hand.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.B.; methodology, J.B. and M.T.; software, M.T.; validation, J.B. and
M.T.; formal analysis, J.B. and M.T.; investigation, J.B. and M.T.; resources, J.B. and M.T.; data curation, J.B.
and M.T.; writing of the original draft preparation, J.B. and M.T.; writing of review and editing, J.B. and M.T.;
visualization, M.T.; supervision, J.B.; project administration, J.B.; funding acquisition, M.T.
Funding: This research was funded by MNiSW, grant number 06/030/BK_18/37.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank MESco Sp. z o.o. for providing software support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Energies 2018, 11, 3076 26 of 28
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© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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energies

Keywords: methane hazard; longwall ventilation; mining exploitation; CFD

Energies 2018, 11, 3076; doi:10.3390/en11113076 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

In order to limit the possibilities for dangerous methane concentrations to accumulate in

2.2.1. Mathematical Models

Basic Flow Equations

The variables presented in the system of Equations (2)–(5) are [46,47]:

where Mi is the molar mass of species i.

ωN2 = 1 − (ωO2 + ωCH4 + ωH2 O) (12)

The air–methane mixture viscosity is calculated as:

The mole fractions are related to the mass fractions by:

For practical purpose, methane concentration is presented in terms of percentage of methane

Permeability of the Goafs

Table 2. Geometry and ventilation parameters of the test region.

Geometry and Ventilation Parameters Values

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 28

Figure 21. The

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