Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Estimación Paramétrica de la
Máquina de Inducción
Julio 2012
Índice general
1. Introducción 3
2. Métodos convencionales aproximados 5
2.1. Método clásico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2. Ensayos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3. Métodos optimizados 13
3.1. Máquina de jaula sencilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4. Métodos dinámicos 25
4.1. Modelos lineales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
A. Revisión Bibliográca 74
1
ÍNDICE GENERAL 2
B. Referencias Recientes 88
Capítulo 1
Introducción
la determinación de sus parámetros respectivos. Una vez que los parámetros son cono-
estado de la máquina, dentro del grado de aproximación permitido por las hipótesis
simplicadoras iniciales.
mático, para determinar variables difíciles de medir o para reducir las incertidumbres y
los errores introducidos por los dispositivos de medición. En las máquinas de inducción
resulta de gran interés determinar el par eléctrico, así como la magnitud y dirección
Puede resultar extraño incluir en el mismo tema los procesos de estimación paramé-
trica con los métodos de estimación de estado, pero es necesario destacar que el éxito de
existente entre estas técnicas es tan estrecha que resulta lógico tratar el problema en
armoniosa estos conceptos, si pretenden competir con los accionamientos clásicos, o con
Tal vez el problema más simple de la estimación de los parámetros del modelo de la
con cierta precisión los parámetros del circuito equivalente clásico. Este problema se
3
CAPÍTULO 1. INTRODUCCIÓN 4
las técnicas simples que se empleaban en el pasado, pueden tener en muchos casos
rámetros que el circuito equivalente clásico. Esto hace pensar con cierta lógica en la
el circuito equivalente para determinar los parámetros de los modelos transitorios. Sin
embargo, los modelos dinámicos están orientados a otro tipo de aplicaciones. En estas
son importantes, es necesario utilizar técnicas de estimación mucho más rápidas y re-
nadas. Las técnicas modernas de medición y adquisición de datos en tiempo real hacen
posible nuevos métodos de medida. En algunos casos es necesario realizar una adapta-
ción permanente de los parámetros del modelo a medida que el proceso transcurre y las
solución de este importante problema [6, 27, 46, 47, 61]. Recientemente algunos autores
han aplicado las técnicas de estimación para resolver el problema [17, 41, 58, 71]. En
este trabajo se presentan algunas ideas originales, que pueden simplicar y acelerar los
básicas de la optimización matemática de funciones [9, 23, 65]. Cuando las funciones
que se desean optimizar no son lineales, el problema se complica notablemente [23]. Los
para abordar este problema, pero cuando el tiempo de solución es una variable crítica,
este capítulo se comparan y discuten los diferentes métodos propuestos, con la intención
denido por seis parámetros o elementos circuitales, tres resistencias que modelan las
máquinas de inducción con rotores de jaula de ardilla con barras profundas o doble
transformador con carga resistiva variable. Por esta razón, la metodología utilizada en
aplicar con ciertas variaciones a la estimación aproximada de los parámetros del circuito
son dos: por un lado la posibilidad de movimiento relativo entre la pieza del estator y la
del rotor, y por otro la presencia del entrehierro necesario para permitir este movimiento.
comparación con la corriente nominal, por esta razón se puede despreciar esta rama del
tenga acceso a los terminales primarios y secundarios de las bobinas. Sin embargo, en
5
CAPÍTULO 2. MÉTODOS CONVENCIONALES APROXIMADOS 6
2.2. Ensayos
lizan los ensayos normalizados de vacío y cortocircuito [52, 66, 73]. El primero con la
ción de la resistencia del circuito primario y del circuito secundario se pueden realizar
de las dos bobinas. La separación entre las reactancias de dispersión primaria y secun-
reluctancia del camino magnético en cada bobina. En los transformadores cuyos cir-
cuitos primarios y secundarios tienen la misma potencia aparente, las bobinas ocupan
en por unidad -, las dos reactancias de dispersión del modelo T del transformador son
situación es diferente, debido a que las ranuras y los caminos magnéticos de las bobinas
A pesar de las diferencias existentes entre los modelos clásicos del transformador y
paramétrica consiste en utilizar exactamente las mismas hipótesis empleadas para los
transformadores. Según esta idea, se realizan los ensayos de vacío y rotor bloqueado
namiento externo. De esta forma el deslizamiento entre la velocidad angular del campo
magnético rotatorio del estator y la velocidad angular mecánica del rotor es nulo. En
estas condiciones la fuerza electromotriz inducida en los conductores del rotor es cero y
CAPÍTULO 2. MÉTODOS CONVENCIONALES APROXIMADOS 7
Figura 2.1: Montaje experimental para el ensayo de vacío con accionamiento externo
del eje de la máquina
nominal en el estator y se miden con la mayor precisión posible las corrientes por las
potencia durante el ensayo. Estos instrumentos son vatímetros normales que producen
una deexión de la aguja unas cinco veces mayor que la de un vatímetro convencio-
signicativa en la rama serie del modelo, aun cuando está comprendida entre una ter-
√
S0= 3V0 · I0 (2.1)
P 0 = P 1 + P2 (2.2)
q
Q0 = S02 − P02 (2.3)
CAPÍTULO 2. MÉTODOS CONVENCIONALES APROXIMADOS 8
V02
Rm ≈ (2.4)
P0
V02
Xm ≈ (2.5)
Q0
El ensayo de rotor bloqueado consiste en trabar el rotor de la máquina de induc-
esto reduce aún más la corriente que circula por ella durante el ensayo. En el transfor-
despreciable.
tres y seis veces la corriente nominal. La corriente de vacío está comprendida entre la
razón la corriente de la máquina durante este ensayo puede alcanzar a ser entre seis
práctico es posible despreciar esta rama en la estimación de los parámetros. Sin embargo
de un transformador [73].
mente el rotor. Como el circuito equivalente en este ensayo también es muy inductivo,
quier forma, es necesario utilizar una tensión sucientemente grande como para que el
Aun cuando el ensayo a rotor bloqueado se realice con cierta rapidez, la resistencia
CAPÍTULO 2. MÉTODOS CONVENCIONALES APROXIMADOS 9
medidas realizadas por este importante factor. Para este n, se miden las resistencias del
Esta medida se realiza inyectando corriente continua en las bobinas y se mide la caída
estas medidas, se realiza una nueva medida de las resistencias del estator, por el mismo
quina está bobinada con cobre recocido en frío, la ecuación que determina la variación
√
SRB= 3VRB · IRB (2.7)
PRB = P1 + P2 (2.8)
q
2 2
QRB = SRB − PRB (2.9)
P0
RT ≈ Re + Rr = 2
(2.10)
3IRB
QRB
XT ≈ Xe + X r = 2
(2.11)
3IRB
Las resistencias se pueden corregir desde la temperatura de la prueba, a la tem-
peratura nominal de operación. Como además se conoce la resistencia del estator por
medición directa, la resistencia del rotor referida al estator se calcula por diferencia:
PRB
Rr ≈ RT − Re ≈ 2
− Re (2.12)
3IRB
CAPÍTULO 2. MÉTODOS CONVENCIONALES APROXIMADOS 10
La resistencia del rotor es tal vez el parámetro más importante del modelo de la
eléctrico. Para obtener una aproximación más precisa de este parámetro se puede con-
s
Te (s → 0) → 3 V2 (2.14)
ωs Rr th
3sn Vn2
Rr ≈ (2.15)
ωs Tn
Con las medidas realizadas, no es posible obtener una separación de las reactancias
de fuga del estator y rotor, la práctica más habitual consiste en dividirlas por igual en
las dos ramas. Sin embargo, es necesario recordar que los caminos de fuga del estator y
del rotor son diferentes. Los caminos de fuga dependen de las formas de las ranuras, y
inducción no pueden determinar completamente los seis parámetros del circuito equi-
valente clásico. Cada uno de estos ensayos puede establecer tan solo dos ecuaciones
todos los parámetros. La medida directa de la resistencia de las bobinas del estator eli-
mina una incógnita, pero todavía es necesaria una ecuación adicional. Considerar que
las reactancias de dispersión del estator y la del rotor referida al estator son iguales,
tud es necesario realizar alguna prueba adicional tal como el ensayo de la máquina en
ser incrementar los parámetros del modelo para representar este fenómeno. Otra solu-
ción consiste en obtener el conjunto de parámetros que minimiza una cierta función de
costo constituida por los errores entre las medidas reales y los valores calculados por el
máquina, por esta razón los ensayos en carga y los datos nominales de placa suministran
incluso puede ser posible que se cuente solamente con los datos de placa. Para deter-
minar en forma gruesa los parámetros de esta máquina cuando no es posible realizar
la corriente que circula por la rama rotórica del circuito equivalente. Esta corriente
tiene que transmitir la potencia al eje mecánico a través de la resistencia del rotor.
la bisectriz entre dos puntos del diagrama pasa por el centro del círculo. Como
magnetización también pasa por el centro del círculo. La intersección de estas dos
líneas es el centro.
En la gura 2.2 se muestra la determinación del diámetro del círculo por este procedi-
los parámetros del circuito equivalente del transformador. Con los ensayos de vacío y
mente. Además se realiza una medida directa de la resistencia del estator. Conocida la
resistencia del estator, sólo quedan por determinar cinco parámetros. Cada uno de los
ensayos permite establecer dos ecuaciones, una para la parte real y otra para la parte
derar una separación articial de las reactancias de dispersión. Este problema se puede
se obtiene un sistema con un mayor número de ecuaciones - dos por cada ensayo -
. Como los parámetros que se están determinando son siempre cinco, se tienen más
Las medidas realizadas en los ensayos incluyen errores de apreciación del observador
13
CAPÍTULO 3. MÉTODOS OPTIMIZADOS 14
donde:
jXm · Rm
Zm = Rm k jXm = (3.4)
Rm + jXm
Si se utiliza el modelo de impedancia de entrada de la máquina obtenido en la
expresión 3.1, realizando n ensayos independientes con una cierta precisión, para lo cual
se varía la velocidad del rotor ωm , el problema que se debe resolver para determinar los
Minimizar Ψ:
n ∗
X Zecal (si ) − Zemed (si ) Zecal (si ) − Zemed (si )
Ψ= (3.5)
i=1
σi Zemed (si ) σi Zemed (si )
donde:
Ψ = FT · F (3.6)
donde:
h i
FT = f1∗ (x,s1 ) f2∗ (x,s2 ) · · · · · · fn∗ (x,sn ) (3.7)
parciales de la función de costos Ψ con respecto a cada una de los parámetros del
T T
∂Ψ T ∂F(x) ∂F (x) ∂F (x)
= G(x) = F (x)· + ·F(x) = 2 ·F(x) = 2·J(x)·F(x)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
(3.10)
del modelo.
−1
4x = − J(xk )T · J(xk ) · J(xk )T · F(xk )
(3.11)
calcula como:
xk+1 = xk + 4x (3.12)
forma:
α:
Una vez obtenido el valor de las variables de estado que minimizan la función de
mediante la ecuación 3.11, y un nuevo proceso de búsqueda del mínimo con la expresión
3.14. Cuando el módulo del vector de dirección es inferior a la precisión requerida en los
parámetros del modelo. En la gura 3.1 se presenta el algoritmo básico de este proceso
de estimación paramétrica.
costos Ψ, puede tener múltiples mínimos locales. La mejor solución para el modelo es
aquella que produce el menor de los mínimos locales. Los valores de arranque pueden ser
generados mediante una estimación inicial de tipo determinístico que puede ser realizada
máxima α4x, para que ninguno de los parámetros de la máquina denidos en el vector
xk pueda aumentar o disminuir en más de un cincuenta por ciento en cada paso o
iteracción del proceso de optimización. Esto puede reducir la velocidad del algoritmo,
CAPÍTULO 3. MÉTODOS OPTIMIZADOS 17
pero asegura que los parámetros han de ser siempre positivos, y evita las posibles
tros cuando la función de costos se dene por mínimos cuadrados. Otros métodos de
optimización no lineal también pueden obtener soluciones con más o menos dicultad.
los parámetros del modelo de una máquina de inducción de rotor bobinado. Para vali-
dar la herramienta se denen los valores de las resistencias e inductancias del circuito
na para las condiciones de la prueba de vacío, carga y rotor bloqueado. Por el método
aproximado descrito en la sección anterior, se realiza una estimación inicial de los pará-
rentes se presentan en la tabla 3.1. Como se puede observar, el método es muy robusto
aun cuando no garantiza la determinación del mínimo global, pero puede obtener la
solución aun partiendo de parámetros iniciales muy alejados de los valores reales.
Re 0, 02 0, 02 0, 0 0, 02 0, 02
Xσe 0, 10 0, 1000 0, 0 0, 1000 0, 1
Rm 48, 0 50, 0012 1,0 50, 0012 50
Xm 3, 3 3, 0000 1, 0 3, 0000 3, 0
Rr 0, 0276 0, 0300 0, 0 0, 0300 0, 03
Xσr 0, 12 0, 1500 0, 0 0, 1500 0, 15
Ψ 0, 275 1, 466 × 10−12 2, 9395 1, 476 × 10−12 1,799 × 10−10
modelo circuital de la máquina de inducción con rotor de doble jaula, este modelo se
CAPÍTULO 3. MÉTODOS OPTIMIZADOS 19
%************************************************************
% Estimación de los parámetros de una máquina de inducción
% mediante la técnica de los mínimos cuadrados .
%************************************************************
% programa parámetros .
% Para este ejemplo se utilizó el circuito equivalente para
% determinar la impedancia de entrada para tres deslizamientos
% diferentes : vacío ( s =0) , carga ( s =0.03) y rotor bloqueado ( s =1)
% Los parámetros del circuito equivalente de esta máquina son :
% Re = .02 p . u . Xe = .10 p . u .
% Rm = 50. p . u . Xm = 3.0 p . u .
% Xr = .15 p . u . Rr = .03 p . u .
% Los ensayos realizados dieron los siguientes resultados :
% Zmedida ( s =0) = .199350+ j3 .0892 p . u .
% Zmedida ( s =0.03) = .833740+ j .49141 p . u .
% Zmedida ( s =1) = .047603+ j .24296 p . u .
% Re = .02 p . u . ( Medida directa )
% Utilizando el método aproximado se consiguen los siguientes
% valores de arranque .
% Xeo = .12 p.u. Rmo = 48.0 p . u .
% Xmo = 3.3 p.u. Xro =.12 p.u.
% Rro = .0276 p . u .
% Estos valores se cargan en el vector de arranque x0 :
x0 = [.10 48. 3.3 .0276 .12]
% Finalmente se llama a la rutina ' fminsearch ' que calcula los valores
% de los parámetros x que minimizan la función de costo .
% El error relativo especificado para la convergencia es 0.001
[x , Chi ] = fminsearch ( @costoMI , x0 )
% En el vector x se han cargado los parámetros óptimos de la
% estimación . La solución es :
Refin = 0.02
Xefin = x (1)
Rmfin = x (2)
Xmfin = x (3)
Rrfin = x (4)
Xrfin = x (5)
% Fin del cálculo paramétrico .
CAPÍTULO 3. MÉTODOS OPTIMIZADOS 20
%************************************************************
function Chi = costoMI ( x )
%************************************************************
% Evaluación de la función de costos por mínimos cuadrados .
% Fi = Sumatoria ( errores relativos )^2
% Deslizamientos correspondientes a los ensayos de vacío ,
% carga y rotor bloqueado .
s = [1 e -10 .03 1.];
Re = 0.02; % Medición directa de la resistencia estator
Xe = x (1); % Reactancia de dispersión del estator
Rm = x (2); % Resistencia de magnetización
Xm = x (3); % Reactancia de magnetización
Rr = x (4); % Resistencia del rotor referida al estator
Xr = x (5); % Reactancia dispersión rotor referida al estator
% Vector fila de las impedancias de entrada medidas en los
% ensayos .
Zmedida = [1.9935 e -01 -3.0892 e +00* i
8.3374 e -01 -4.9141 e -01* i
4.7603 e -02 -2.4296 e -01* i ] ';
% Evaluación de las impedancias calculadas mediante la estimación
% de los parámetros del modelo .
Ze = Re + j * Xe ; % Impedancia estator
Zm = ( Rm * j * Xm )/( Rm + j * Xm ); % Impedancia magnetización
Zth = Ze * Zm /( Ze + Zm )+ j * Xr ; % Impedancia de Thevenin
Ve = 1.00; % Tensión del estator
Vth = Zm * Ve /( Zm + Ze ); % Tensión de Thevenin
Ir = Vth ./( Zth + Rr ./ s ); % Corriente del rotor referida
Ee = Ir .*( Rr ./ s + j * Xr ); % Tensión rama magnetizante
Im = Ee ./ Zm ; % Corriente de magnetización
Ie = Im + Ir ; % Corriente del estator
Zcalculada = Ve ./ Ie ; % Impedancia de entrada calculada
% Cálculo del error relativo entre las medidas y el modelo
error = ( Zmedida - Zcalculada )./ Zmedida ;
% Cálculo de la función de costo por mínimos cuadrados
Chi = error * error ';
% Fin de la función ' costo '
end
CAPÍTULO 3. MÉTODOS OPTIMIZADOS 21
máquinas con rotor de jaula de ardilla con barras profundas [49, 52].
donde:
Ze = Re + jXσe (3.16)
Rr1
s
Zr2
Zσr = Rr1
+ jXσr1 (3.17)
s
+ Zr2
Rr2
Zr2 = + jXr2
s
jXm · Rm
Zm = Rm k jXm = (3.18)
Rm + jXm
Para determinar los ocho parámetros de este modelo son necesarios al menos cuatro
ensayos independientes. En estas pruebas las variables de control pueden ser el desli-
de ensayo.
%************************************************************
% Estimación de los parámetros de una máquina de inducción de
% doble jaula mediante la técnica de los mínimos cuadrados .
%************************************************************
%
% Para este ejemplo se utilizó el circuito equivalente para
% determinar la impedancia de entrada para cuatro
% deslizamientosdiferentes : vacío ( s =0) , carga ( s =0.03 y 0.06)
% y rotor bloqueado ( s =1)
%
% Los parámetros reales del circuito equivalente de esta máquina % son :
% Re = .02; Xe = .10; Rm = 50.; Xm = 3.0;
% Xr1 = .10; Rr1 =.08; Xr2 = .15; Rr2 = .04;
% Los deslizamientos de los cuatro ensayos son :
s =[0.001 .03 .06 1.0];
% Los cuatro ensayos realizados dieron los siguientes resultados :
%
% Zmedida =[.5218+3.0114* i .7531+.4558* i .4133+.3103* i .0747+.2217* i ]
%
% Utilizando el método aproximado se consiguieron los siguientes
% valores de arranque .
%
% Reo = 0.02 Xeo = .10 Xmo = 3.00 Rmo = 50.
% Rr1o = 0.08 Xr1o = .12 Rr2o = 0.03 Xr2o = .12
%
% Se puede suponer para simplificar el proceso de estimación que
% los parámetros del estator son conocidos con precisión . Si se
% cargan las estimaciones del resto de los valores en el vector
% de aranque xo :
%
x0 =[0.10 50 3.0 .08 .12 .03 .12];
%
% Finalmente se llama a la rutina fminsearch que calcula los valores
% de los parámetros x que minimizan la función de costo .
% El error relativo especificado para la convergencia es 0.001
%
[x , Chi ]= fminsearch ( @costoMI2 , x0 )
%
% Fin del algoritmo de estimación paramétrica
CAPÍTULO 3. MÉTODOS OPTIMIZADOS 23
%************************************************************
function Chi = costoMI2 ( x )
%************************************************************
% Evaluación de la función de costos por mínimos cuadrados .
% Fi = Sumatoria ( errores relativos )^2
% Deslizamientos correspondientes a los ennsayos de vacío ,
% carga y rotor bloqueado .
s = [.001 .03 .06 1.];
Re = 0.02; % Medición directa de la resistencia estator
Xe = x (1); % Reactancia de dispersión del estator
Rm = x (2); % Resistencia de magnetización
Xm = x (3); % Reactancia de magnetización
Rr1 = x (4); % Resistencia del rotor1 referida al estator
Xr1 = x (5); % Reactancia dispersión1 rotor referida al estator
Rr2 = x (6); % Resistencia del rotor2 referida al estator
Xr2 = x (7); % Reactancia dispersión2 rotor referida al estator
% Vector fila de las impedancias de entrada medidas en los ensayos .
Zmedida =[.5218+3.0114* i .7531+.4558* i .4133+.3103* i .0747+.2217* i ];
% Evaluación de las impedacias calculadas mediante la estimación
% de los parámetros del modelo .
Zr2 = Rr2 ./ s + i * Xr2 ;
Zr1 = ( Rr1 * Zr2 ./ s )./( Rr1 ./ s + Zr2 )+ i * Xr1 ;
Zm = i * Rm * Xm /( Rm + i * Xm );
Ze = Re + i * Xe ;
Zcal = Ze +( Zr1 * Zm )./( Zr1 + Zm );
% Cálculo del error relativo entre las medidas y el modelo
error = ( Zmedida - Zcal )./ Zmedida ;
% Cálculo de la función de costo por mínimos cuadrados
Chi = error * error ';
% Fin de la función ' costo2 '
CAPÍTULO 3. MÉTODOS OPTIMIZADOS 24
rentes se presentan en la tabla 3.2. Como se puede observar, el método es muy robusto
aun cuando no garantiza la determinación del mínimo global, pero puede obtener la
solución aun partiendo de parámetros iniciales muy alejados de los valores reales.
Re 0, 02 0, 02 0, 02 0, 02 0, 02
Xσe 0, 10 0, 0927 0, 1 0, 0927 0, 1000
Rm 50, 0 50, 2697 40,0 50, 2697 50, 00
Xm 3, 0 3, 0071 5, 0 3, 0071 3, 0000
Rr1 0, 03 0, 0801 0, 04 0, 0801 0, 0800
Xr1 0, 1 0, 1079 0, 1 0, 1079 0, 1000
Rr2 0, 03 0, 0403 0, 01 0, 0403 0, 0400
Xr2 0, 15 0, 1510 0, 1 0, 1510 0, 1500
Ψ 0, 0514 8, 7588 × 10−9 0, 9974 4, 9387 × 10−10 3, 1920 × 10−8
los parámetros del estator. Estos parámetros pueden ser obtenidos con mucha preci-
dispersión del estator-, y resistencia de las bobinas del estator. En este caso no se han
realizado ensayos a varias frecuencias, pero esto permite discernir con mayor precisión
entre los parámetros del rotor. Aun cuando la técnica de estimación no lineal conduce
lenta desde el punto de vista del tiempo de cálculo requerido. Sin embargo, cuando
tiempo real, fuera de línea se pueden determinar los parámetros de la máquina con
gran precisión, y posteriormente se ajustan a medida que estos varían de acuerdo con
cálculo de la impedancia de entrada puede ser efectuado en línea, a partir de las medidas
que no son accesibles directamente. Por esta razón el método de estimación desarro-
medibles. Esta idea no es nueva, y ha sido utilizada por la teoría de control automático
donde:
25
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 26
r n
2 2π 4π
o
x= xa + ej 3 xb + ej 3 xc (4.3)
3
Si la velocidad angular mecánica θ̇ = ωm , es constante, las ecuaciones diferenciales
L2er L2er
Rr e
ve = Re + j θ̇ ie + Le − pie + Ler j θ̇ − i (4.5)
Lr Lr Lr r
Derivando con respecto al tiempo la expresión 4.5, sustituyendo la derivada de la
corriente del rotor pier , obtenida a partir de la ecuación 4.4, y remplazando en la misma
e
expresión la corriente del rotor ir , obtenida a partir de la propia ecuación 4.5, resulta:
L2er L2er
2 Le Rr
pve = Le − p ie + Re + Rr − j θ̇ Le − pie + j θ̇ − (ve − Re ie )
Lr Lr Lr Lr
(4.6)
pve − j θve = k1 p ie − j θpie + k2 pie − k3 j θi˙ er − k4 ve + k5 ie
˙ 2 ˙ (4.7)
donde:
L2
Le Rr Rr
k1 = Le − er ; k2 = Re + Rr ; k3 = Re ; k4 = ; k5 = Re (4.8)
Lr Lr Lr Lr
las cinco funciones de variables que también pueden ser medidas directamente. Esta
der determinar por regresión lineal estos cinco coecientes. Para que las ecuaciones
Para determinar los cinco coecientes de la ecuación 4.6, se construye una función
de costo con la sumatoria de los errores cuadráticos, entre los valores medidos que
son independientes de los parámetros, y los valores calculados mediante una cierta
estimación. Los parámetros que minimizan la función de costo son la mejor solución
forma:
n
X
Ψ= [[fmed (ti , ωmi )] − [fcal (ti , ωmi )]]t · [[fmed (ti , ωmi )] − [fcal (ti , ωmi )]] (4.9)
i=1
donde:
˙ e = [hi ]
[fmed (ti , ωmi )] = pve − j θv (4.10)
k1
k2
h i
˙ e pie −j θi˙ e −ve ie
[fcal (ti , ωmi )] = p2 ie − j θpi r k3 = [wi ] [k]
(4.11)
k4
k5
Calculando las derivadas parciales de la función de costo Ψ con respecto a cada uno
de los parámetros [k], se obtiene:
n
X
Ψ= [[hi ] − [wi ] [k]]t · [[hi ] − [wi ] [k]] (4.12)
i=1
n n n
∂Ψ X X X
= −2 [[hi ] − [wi ] [k]] = [0] ⇒ [hi ] = [wi ] [k] ⇒
∂k i=1 i=1 i=1
n n
" n
#
X t
X t
X t
[wi ] [hi ] = [wi ] [wi ] [k] = [wi ] [wi ] [k] ⇒ (4.13)
i=1 i=1 i=1
" n
#−1 n
X X
[k] = [wi ]t [wi ] [wi ]t [hi ]
i=1 i=1
Una vez que el vector de los coecientes [k] ha sido obtenido mediante la expresión
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 28
deniciones 4.8:
k2 − k3 1 L2
Re = k3 ; Le = ; Tr = ; er = Le − k1 (4.14)
k4 k4 Lr
La técnica de estimación paramétrica por regresión lineal, se puede utilizar en tiempo
real para adaptar los parámetros del modelo, a medida que las condiciones de operación
para eliminar este problema [12, 58, 68]. Una posibilidad es la de utilizar el criterio
de igualdad entre las inductancias del estator y del rotor de la máquina. Esta idea
no es descabellada y viene siendo utilizada desde hace mucho tiempo para repartir la
reactancia de fuga del modelo en las dos ramas. Además, el modelo en coordenadas de
campo orientado utiliza solamente los parámetros calculados en la expresión 4.46. Esto
obtener derivando por segunda vez la ecuación del estator 4.6 [58]. Este procedimien-
inconveniente que el sistema de ecuaciones relaciona los coecientes [k] con los paráme-
tros del modelo mediante un sistema no lineal de ecuaciones algebraicas, cuya solución
numérica tiene una convergencia relativamente lenta cuando se compara con la solución
directa obtenida en la expresión 4.14, para el método con primeras y segundas deriva-
das. Lógicamente, esto puede ser más rápido desde el punto de vista de cálculos que la
con rotor de jaula de ardilla con los datos, valores nominales y bases seleccionadas se
Las tensiones y corrientes de las bobinas del estator, y la velocidad angular mecánica
del rotor se midieron en tres condiciones de operación diferentes. El par de carga fue
diferente en cada punto. Los registros numéricos fueron procesados para determinar las
valores independientes de la tabla 5.1, se obtienen los valores de los coecientes indeter-
Considerando que las inductancias propias del rotor y del estator son prácticamente
k1 k2 k3 k4 k5
0,1952 0,0986 0,0548 0,0121 6,6308 × 10−4
Ler 2
Re Le Tr Lr
0,0548 3,6200 82,645 3,4248
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 30
Re Le Ler Lr Rr
0,0548 3,6200 3, 5210 3,6200 0, 0438
Algunos autores [18, 27, 47] han utilizado las medidas directas de la potencia activa
de la constante de tiempo del rotor que anula el error entre la potencia medida en
control adaptivo [27], considera que el único parámetro del modelo que varía durante
Esta idea es útil e interesante, aun más cuando el error se establece utilizando como
base la potencia reactiva instantánea de la máquina, debido a que en este caso se elimi-
na la dependencia funcional con las resistencias de las bobinas del estator. Combinando
esto con los métodos de estimación paramétrica por regresión lineal de las ecuaciones
mación paramétrica. Este método utiliza la regresión lineal, las ecuaciones de potencia
Para solventar los problemas que se plantean en el método anterior que requieren
requiere derivadas.
ee = (ve − Re ie ):
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 31
ˆt
λe − Le ie
λe = Le ie + Ler ier = (ve − Re ie ) dt ⇒ ier = (4.15)
Ler
0
La ecuación del rotor obtenida del sistema de ecuaciones 4.1, determina la derivada
1 n
0 = Rr ier +Ler pie +Lr pier −j ˙ (Ler ie˙ + Lr ierθ) ⇒ pier =
o
(−Rr + j θ̇Lr )ier − Ler pie + j θ̇Ler ie
Lr
(4.16)
derivada de la corriente del estator pie , en función de las variables medibles o estima-
L2er
Le λe
pie = L̂−1
e ve − Re − (−Rr + j θ̇Lr ) + j θ̇ ie − (−Rr + j θ̇Lr ) (4.17)
Lr Lr Lr
L2er
ve − Le − Lr
pie − (− R
Lr
r
+ j θ̇)λe
ie = h i (4.18)
Le
Re + R − j θ̇L̂e
Lr r
L2er
donde L̂e = Le − Lr
.
Las expresiones 4.16 o 4.18, pueden utilizarse para realizar una estimación paramé-
De las corrientes del estator se pueden calcular numéricamente la primera derivada pie
establecer con todos los puntos medidos N, los errores cuadrático Ψpie ó Ψie , entre la
N ∗
X pie medida − pie calculada pie medida − pie calculada
Ψpie = (4.19)
i=1
pie medida pie medida
N ∗
X ie medida − ie calculada ie medida − ie calculada
Ψie = (4.20)
i=1
ie medida ie medida
En los listados 4.1 y 4.2 se plantea el modelo dinámico de una máquina de inducción
En la gura 4.1 se tienen los resultados del modelo presentado en los listados 4.1 y
4.2. Con los datos registrados se procede a realizar una estimación de los parámetros
la tabla con los resultados obtenidos cuando se utiliza la corriente del estator para el
cálculo del error tal como se muestra en la rutina mostrada en el listado 4.6.
Una mejor opción para estimar los parámetros se puede conseguir utilizando la
acuerdo con esto y recordando que el enlace de ujo de estator λe se puede determinar
1 ~
ir = λe − Le ie (4.21)
Ler
Reemplazando la ecuación 5.21 en 4.1 se obtiene:
pλe = ve − Re ie (4.22)
Rr Le
0= − jωm λe + pλe − Rr − jωm L̂e ie − L̂e pie (4.23)
Lr Lr
La impedancia de entrada zin se puede entonces determinar a partir de las ecuaciones
4.22 y 4.23 queda expresada como:
ve Le pie Rr λe
zi (t) = = Re + Rr − jωm L̂e + L̂e − − jωm (4.24)
ie Lr ie Lr ie
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 33
function px = MaqInd (t ,x )
Algoritmo 4.3 Rutina para la integración de las ecuaciones diferenciales por el método
Runge-Kutta de 4o. orden con paso jo
Re = Re ; %Medida directa
Lle = x (1); Llr = x (2); Ler = x (3); Rr = x (4);
Le = Lle + Ler ; Lr = Llr + Ler ;
error_Fi = er '* er ;
Te = λe × ie (4.25)
mecánico:
Algoritmo 4.6 Código para la estimación utilizando la corriente del estator ie como
variable de comparación
function si = Est_2 ( x )
l o a d ( ' datos_sim2 ' ) ;
Re = Re ; %Medida directa
Lle = x ( 1 ) ;
Llr = x ( 2 ) ;
Ler = x ( 3 ) ;
Rr = x(4);
Le = L l e + L e r ;
Lr = L l r + L e r ;
l o n g = l e n g t h ( Fe_est ) ;
% n = 6000:5:6900; %r o u n d ( l o n g )
% n = 55000:5000:150000;
n = 1 e4 : 1 0 0 0 : 1 5 e4 ;
ve_med = ve_pu ( n )
Fe_med = Fe_est ( n )
ie_med = ie_pu ( n )
pie_med = pie_pu ( n )
w_med = wm_pu( n )
D = Le−L e r ^2/ Lr ;
Num=ve_med−D* pie_med −(−Rr / Lr+j *w_med ) . * Fe_med ;
Den=Re+Le * Rr / Lr− j *w_med*D ;
i e _ c a l=Num. / Den ;
er = ( ie_med − i e _ c a l ) . / ie_med ;
si = er ' * e r ;
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 40
Algunos autores [18, 27, 47] han utilizado las medidas directas de la potencia activa
de la constante de tiempo del rotor que anula el error entre la potencia medida en
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 42
control adaptivo [27], considera que el único parámetro del modelo que varía durante
Esta idea es útil e interesante, aun más cuando el error se establece utilizando como
base la potencia reactiva instantánea de la máquina, debido a que en este caso se elimi-
na la dependencia funcional con las resistencias de las bobinas del estator. Combinando
esto con los métodos de estimación paramétrica por regresión lineal de las ecuaciones
mación paramétrica. Este método utiliza la regresión lineal, las ecuaciones de potencia
corrientes en cada uno de los puertos. Para la máquina de inducción trifásica, se tiene:
p(t) = va ia + vb ib + vc ic (4.27)
ia + ib + ic = 0 (4.28)
va + vb + vc = 0 (4.29)
del fasor espacial de la corriente i∗, esto con la nalidad de mantener la convención de
1
s = v · i∗ = p(t) + jq(t) = va ia + vb ib + vc ic + √ j [ia vbc + ib vca + ic vab ] (4.30)
3
esta denición, se puede recordar la relación que existe entre la fuerza electromotriz e,
y la intensidad de campo eléctrico E por una parte, y entre la intensidad de campo
dos componentes, una en la dirección axial que determina el ujo de potencia entre
el estator y rotor, y otra tangencial que mantiene el campo magnético interno. Como
embargo, es necesario recordar que la magnitud y fase del vector de Pointing P, depen-
de de la posición espacial y del tiempo, mientras que las potencias activas y reactivas
instantáneas solamente son funciones temporales. Esto es debido a que estas potencias
del tiempo. Para realizar la analogía completa con la tensión espacial v en lugar de la
magnético (S)[81]:
VA
S=E×H (4.31)
m2
El ujo de potencia electromagnética en una supercie cerrada se puede calcular
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 44
˛ ˛ ˆ
S·ds = (E × H)·da = ∇ · (E × H) · dv (4.32)
s s v
donde:
supercie.
dv Es el diferencial de volumen.
ds Es el diferencial de supercie.
obtiene [82]:
∇ · (E × H) = (∇ × E) · H − E · (∇ × H) (4.33)
∂H
∇ × E = −µ (4.34)
∂t
∂E
∇×H=J+ (4.35)
∂t
Y recordando las relaciones constitutivas de la materia [81]:
D = ·E
B = µ·H (4.36)
J = σ·E
se obtiene la densidad volumétrica de potencia, sustituyendo las leyes (4.34), (4.35)
∂H ∂E
∇ · (E × H) = −µ ·H−E· J+
∂t ∂t
(4.37)
∂H ∂E
= − B· +D· +E·J
∂t ∂t
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 45
en una región se debe a la disipación de potencia en forma de calor por efecto Joule
∂H ∂E
(E · J) y al ujo hacia el exterior del vector de Poynting (B·
∂t
+D· ∂t
).
∂ H·B E·D
∇ · (E × H) + + +E·J=0 (4.38)
∂t 2 2
Integrando la expresión (4.38) en un volumen v, correspondiente al teorema de
´ ´ ∂ H·B E·D
´
v
∇ · (E × H) · dv + v ∂t 2
+ 2
· dv + v
E · J·dv = 0
¸ ∂
´ H·B E·D
´
s
(E × H)·da + ∂t v 2
+ 2
· dv + v
E · J·dv = 0 (4.39)
¸ ∂
´ ´
s
S·da + ∂t v
U · dv + v
E · J·dv = 0
donde:
¸
s S·da Flujo neto de potencia aparente instantánea saliendo de la su-
percie s.
∂
´
∂t v U · dv Potencia reactiva debido a la variación instantánea de la ener-
supercie s.
´
v E · J·dv Potencia activa instantánea total disipada o generada dentro
tiempo.
H·B E·D
U Densidad volumétrica de energía electromagnética (
2
+ 2
)
→
− →
− → −
S = E × H∗ (4.40)
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 46
→
− → − ∗ − →
→ − →
− →
−
∇ · E × H = (∇ × E ) · H ∗ − E · (∇ × H ∗ ) (4.41)
expresar como:
→
− →
−
∇ × E = −jωµ H (4.42)
→
− →
−
∇ × H = J + jω E (4.43)
→
− →− ∗ h →
− → −∗ →− →
− ∗i
∇· E ×H = − (jωµ H) · H + E · (J + jω E )
(4.44)
→
− →
− 2
− 2 →
→ − ∗
∇ · S = − jωµ H + jω E + E · J
Agrupando parte real e imaginaria del Teorema de Poynting en cualquier punto del
espacio, queda:
→
→
− →
− 2 →
− 2 − →
−
∇ · S + j · ω µ H + E + E · J∗ = 0 (4.45)
ˆ ˆ ˆ
→
− →
− 2 →
− 2 →
− →
−
∇ · S · dv + j · ω µ H + E · dv + E · J∗ · dv = 0
v v v
(4.46)
˛ ˆ 2 ˆ 2
→
− →
− →
− 2 →
− →
−
S · da +j · ω · µ H + E · dv + σ E · dv = 0
| s {z } | v {z } | v {z }
−
→ q(t) p(t)
− S (t)
superponiendo la potencia activa instantánea en cada una de las fases del sistema [85].
como la relación entre la potencia aparente y la activa a través del Teorema de Pitá-
√
goras ( S 2 − P 2 ). Este concepto se utiliza en el diseño y evaluación de los sistemas de
armónicos en las tensiones o corrientes del sistema esta denición debe ser corregida,
de distorsión armónica total (T HD ) [88]. A nales de la década de los 90, Kazibwe [86]
Una denición mejor y más precisa de la potencia activa, reactiva y aparente ins-
los vectores espaciales [87]. La denición del fasor de potencia aparente es:
→
− →
−
s (t) = →
−
v (t) · i (t)∗ = (vx ix + vy iy ) + j (vy ix − vx iy ) = p(t) + j · q(t) (4.49)
→
−
s (t) = p(t) + jq(t) = (va (t) ia (t) + vb (t) ib (t) + vc (t) ic (t))
(4.50)
√
3
+j 3
(vbc (t) ia (t) + vca (t) ib (t) + vab (t) ic (t))
La expresión (4.50) es válida en cualquier condición de operación, para sistemas de
potencia de tres o cuatro hilos, para régimen transitorio y estado estacionario, condi-
potencia trifásica instantánea (4.47). Por otra parte, la parte imaginaria de la ecuación
(4.50) dene el concepto de la potencia reactiva instantánea que coincide con la deni-
en el tiempo. Esto se debe a que los vectores espaciales de tensión y corriente poseen una
clásica de potencia activa y reactiva coincide con la expresión (4.50) mientras que para
p(t)
f p(t) = →− (4.51)
| s (t)|
La expresión (4.51) al igual que la (4.50) es válida en cualquier condición de opera-
cada punto del espacio y del tiempo tiene dos componentes, una en sentido axial y otra
y el rotor, mientras que la tangencial representa la potencia que uye en el entre hierro
eléctrico.
Algunos autores [18, 27, 47] han utilizado las medidas directas de la potencia activa
de la constante de tiempo del rotor que anula el error entre la potencia medida en
control adaptivo [27], considera que el único parámetro del modelo que varía durante
necesaria para eliminar el propio error. Esta idea es útil e interesante, aun más cuando
debido a que en este caso se elimina la dependencia funcional con las resistencias de las
bobinas del estator. Combinando esto con los métodos de estimación paramétrica por
a uno.
instantánea es:
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 50
s(t) = v(t) ∗ i(t)∗ = vdδ idd + vqδ idq + j vqδ idd − vdδ idq
(4.52)
de coordenadas de campo orientado todas las variables del rotor han sido eliminadas
L2er
did diq dim
p= Re i2e + L̂e id + iq + δ̇iq im + id (4.53)
dt dt Lr dt
L2er
diq did dim
q= δ̇ L̂e i2e + L̂e id − iq + δ̇id im + iq (4.54)
dt dt Lr dt
donde:
sistema de control. Sin embargo esta solución no es satisfactoria, debido a que existen
grados de libertad sucientes en las ecuaciones 4.54 y 4.55, para obtener un conjunto
Los métodos de estimación paramétrica que reducen las variables no medibles por
derivación de las ecuaciones originales, necesitan denir una relación adicional entre las
inductancias, para identicar el resto de los parámetros. Una de las relaciones utilizadas
con mayor frecuencia consiste en denir que las reactancias de fuga del estator y rotor
son iguales [6]. Otra posibilidad puede ser indicar que las bobinas del rotor no tienen
estatóricos. Esta última hipótesis, más o menos discutible, puede simplicar el proceso
die dim
ve = Re ie + L̂e + Ler ⇒ (4.56)
dt dt
ˆt
(ve − Re ie ) dτ − L̂e ie = Ler im = λm ejδ = λmr + j λmi
0
dirección δ:
ˆt
L2er
λmr = (ver − Re ier ) dτ − Le − ier (4.57)
Lr
0
ˆt
L2er
λmi = (vei − Re iei ) dτ − Le − iei (4.58)
Lr
0
q
λm = λ2mr + λ2mi (4.59)
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 52
sistema siguiente:
Re
L2er
id didtd
" #
p i2e + iq Lr
δ̇iq im
= L̂ (4.62)
e
id didtq − iq didtd + δ̇i2e
q 0 δ̇i2d
Ler
donde:
cuasi-estáticas:
iq 1 i 1
Tr = ≈ q (4.64)
im δ̇ − θ̇ id δ̇ − θ̇
realizar ensayos de rotor bloqueado o utilizar los datos nominales de la máquina para
rante la operación en régimen permanente pero con velocidad diferente. La técnica más
régimen permanente las derivadas de las corrientes id e iq , son nulas. De esta forma se
q q
q = δ̇ L̂e i2e ⇒ L̂e = 2
=
ωe ie ωm i2e
Re i2e − p
p = Re − δ̇Ler i2e ⇒ Ler = (4.65)
ωe i2e
bornes de la máquina, se pueden estimar con precisión los otros parámetros. Con una
medida realizada en una condición de carga, que mantenga la misma densidad de ujo
de tiempo del rotor de la expresión 4.64. En este caso la corriente del eje directo coincide
condición de vacío.
vacío. Incluso cuando esto es posible, las propias pérdidas mecánicas de la máquina,
hacen imposible el empleo de este método. Sin embargo, una extensión del mismo es
de la máquina:
2
q = δ̇ L̂ i2 + δ̇ i2 Ler 2
q1 − δ̇1 L̂e ie1 δ̇1 δ̇1 q2 − δ̇2 q1
1 1 e e1 1 d Lr
2 ⇒ 2
= ⇒ L̂e = 2 2
(4.66)
q = δ̇ L̂ i + δ̇ i2 Ler
2
q2 − δ̇2 L̂e ie2 δ̇2 δ̇1 δ̇2 ie2 − ie1
2 2 e e2 2 d Lr
CAPÍTULO 4. MÉTODOS DINÁMICOS 54
De las ecuaciones 4.53 y 4.54 se puede encontrar la relación siguiente para el pará-
2
Ler
metro :
Lr
v
2
2 2
u
Ler
=
1 u u1 + (p − Re ie ) (4.67)
2
Lr δ̇i2e t q − δ̇ L̂e i2e
carga nominal de la máquina, o se realiza una medida directa del parámetro, se puede
El procedimiento descrito anteriormente tiene una relación muy estrecha con el dia-
que es suciente con la información completa de dos puntos de este diagrama, para
de todos los parámetros del circuito equivalente. El principal problema de este proce-
los dos ensayos o medidas. Esta limitación no es demasiado rigurosa, debido a que du-
de campo posible para producir el máximo de par eléctrico con las menores corrientes
de armadura. Las fuentes electrónicas actuales son capaces de realizar este control con
mucha sencillez.
cuadratura:
iq 1 (p − Re i2e ) 1
Tr = = (4.68)
id δ̇ − θ̇ 2
q − δ̇ L̂e ie δ̇ − θ̇
Tiempo (pu) ωm ve ie im δ δ̇
reactivas instantáneas.
dientes a la primera y segunda la de la tabla anterior, se obtiene los resultados que se
la tabla 4.8 .
error se puede reducir a menos del 2.3 %, cuando se utiliza la información del punto de
estimación del primer caso se debe fundamentalmente a la diferencia existente entre las
nación del cálculo de las derivadas de las variables de estado medibles. Sin embargo,
mica del controlador de velocidad. Hay que recordar que el efecto pelicular tiene escasa
realizadas en bornes del motor. El modelo puede considerar los efectos de la operación
a sub o sobre tensión, carga reducida, desequilibrios de tensión y fuentes con presen-
cia de armónicas. Este modelo compara las pérdidas del convertidor con las obtenidas
las nominales. Esta información permite analizar los correctivos necesarios y evaluar
57
CAPÍTULO 5. EVALUACIÓN ENERGÉTICA DE MOTORES DE INDUCCIÓN 58
mir pérdidas en los devanados o jaula del rotor para poder entregar el par a la carga.
Este principio de funcionamiento hace que su rendimiento sea inferior al de las máqui-
nas sincrónicas o los motores de reluctancia y mantener este lo más alto posible es una
factores como los niveles de tensión aplicada en las bobinas estatóricas, los desequilibrios
analizadas utilizando modelos precisos de las máquinas de inducción [89, 90, 91]. Estos
modelos, por otra parte, necesitan la determinación de sus parámetros que no siempre
son fáciles de realizar en condiciones de campo [92, 93, 94, 95, 96].
que utiliza los datos nominales de la placa y algunos valores frecuentes de estos equipos.
Estos datos son procesados mediante un algoritmo iterativo cuya convergencia garantiza
la condición de operación de la máquina una vez que se han medido los valores efectivos
de las tres tensiones línea-línea y las corrientes de línea, así como la potencia activa
posible con esta herramienta evaluar el ahorro de energía que tendría la empresa cuando
se corrige la condición de operación a una más favorable. Con esta información los
rotor muy cercanas a la velocidad sincrónica. Fuera de esta zona el efecto de las barras
profundas del rotor afectan los resultados de este modelo. En la gura 5.2a se presenta el
determinar directamente la corriente del rotor que es necesaria para evaluar el par
3 2 Rr 3 Vth2 Rr 3 Vth2 s
Te = I = ≈ si s → 0 (5.1)
ωe r s
h 2 i
ωe s Rr
+ R + X 2 ωe Rr
s th th
nominal y la tensión de la máquina son datos de placa y por este motivo la resistencia
mediante una prueba de vacío, donde se midan las tensiones, corrientes y potencia en
esta condición. Sin embargo, en muchos casos no es posible parar el proceso productivo
accionada. Por este motivo es preferible utilizar datos típicos para los parámetros Rm
CAPÍTULO 5. EVALUACIÓN ENERGÉTICA DE MOTORES DE INDUCCIÓN 61
parámetros Rth y Xth se determinan para ajustar el resto de los datos típicos de placa:
rotor Ir :
Vth Vth
Im = Ien − Im = In ] − cos (f p) − = (5.2)
jXm R
Rth + sn + jXth
r
La ecuación 5.2 es una expresión compleja con dos incógnitas y Rth , Xth y de ella
valores iniciales a un algoritmo de optimización que utiliza los datos nominales para
quinas de inducción sometidas a sobre carga, sub cargadas o con tensiones trifásicas
balanceadas fuera de rango por encima o por debajo de los valores nominales. Sin
ωe − ωm ωe + ωm
s1 = ; s2 = ; s1 + s2 = 2 (5.5)
ωe ωe
CAPÍTULO 5. EVALUACIÓN ENERGÉTICA DE MOTORES DE INDUCCIÓN 62
En el modelo descrito por las ecuaciones 5.3, 5.4 y 5.5, los subíndices 1 y 2 se reeren
a las componentes de secuencia positiva y negativa respectivamente. La reactancia de
magnetización jωe Mer del modelo coincide con la reactancia de magnetización jXm , la
reactancia de dispersión del estator j Xσe es equivalente a jωe (Le − Mer ) y la reactancia
de dispersión del rotor j Xσr a jωe (Lr − Mer ). La resistencia e inductancia del rotor en
secuencia negativa debe ajustarse por efecto pelicular de acuerdo con la expresión [97]:
magnitudes de las tensiones entre fases (Vab , Vbc , Vca ) tal como se muestra en el triángulo
de la gura 3. Utilizando los teoremas del seno y del coseno es posible determinar los
ángulos internos del triángulo α, β y γ , con los cuales se pueden obtener los desfasajes
de las tensiones al neutro Va ,Vb y Vc , que se obtienen a partir del Teorema de Apolonio
[95]. Con estos tres datos es posible encontrar las expresiones fasoriales de las tensiones
1
q
Va = 2 (Vca2 + Vab2 ) − Vbc2 (5.12)
3
1
q
Vb = 2 (Vbc2 + Vab2 ) − Vca2 (5.13)
3
1
q
Vc = 2 (Vbc2 + Vca2 ) − Vab2 (5.14)
3
CAPÍTULO 5. EVALUACIÓN ENERGÉTICA DE MOTORES DE INDUCCIÓN 64
V0 1 1 1 Va 1 1 1 Va 0
1 1 α+β
j 2π
V1 = 1 a a2 Vb = 1 a a2 Vb ej ( 2 −π) = V1 ejζ1 ; a = e 3
3 3 α+γ
V2 1 a2 a Vc 1 a2 a Vc ej (α+ 2 −2π) V2 ejζ2
(5.15)
5.5. El cálculo del par eléctrico se realiza mediante superposición de los pares armónicos.
Las armónicas pueden ser de secuencia negativa, positiva de acuerdo con la expresión
[1]:
h± ωe − ωm h± ∓ (1 − s1 ) h = 6m + 1, m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
+
sh± = = ; donde :
h± ωe h± h = 6m − 1, m = 0, 1, 2, . . .
−
(5.16)
n
X
Te = ±Teh± = T1 − T5 + T7 − T11 + T13 − · · · (5.17)
h=0
v
u n q
uX
Ie = t I2h−1 = I12 + I32 + I52 + I72 + I92 + I11
2 2 2
+ I13 (5.18)
h=1
resistencia del estator. En la gura 5.5b se muestra el modelo para todas las armónicas
múltiplos de tres.
CAPÍTULO 5. EVALUACIÓN ENERGÉTICA DE MOTORES DE INDUCCIÓN 65
rativa. Se leen los datos de placa y las medidas realizadas en el estator de la máquina de
inducción durante su operación. Con los datos de placa se realiza un cálculo inicial de
vergencia cuadrático de todos los errores entre los parámetros calculados en la iteración
Vm Vm (n)
I0 (n) = = (5.20)
Zm Rm (n − 1) k jXm
Tn sn
Rr (n) = (5.22)
|Ir (n)|2
|Vm (n)|2
Pn − Rr (n)
sn
|Ir (n)|2 − Rm (n)
Rth (n) = (5.23)
|Ien |2
p
2
|Vm (n)|2
Q(n) = 1 − f pn − (5.24)
Xm
2Q(n)
Xth (n) ≈ (5.25)
|Ir (n)|2 + |Ien |2
2 Xth (n) Rth (n) Rm (n)
ε = k1 − 1 + k2 − 1 + k1 −1 (5.27)
Xth (n − 1) Rth (n − 1) Rm (n − 1)
CAPÍTULO 5. EVALUACIÓN ENERGÉTICA DE MOTORES DE INDUCCIÓN 67
Figura 5.6: Algoritmo para la estimación paramétrica iterativa y evaluación del motor
donde k1 , k2 y k3 son valores arbitrarios para ajustar la precisión deseada para cada
algoritmo utiliza los parámetros obtenidos para identicar las características operativas
En la Tabla 5.1 se presentan los datos de placa y las medidas realizadas en una
operación. En la Tabla 5.2 se presentan los parámetros del motor, obtenidos después
% Datos de placa
%Vn ( linea − linea V) % In ( fase − A) % Pn ( eje − HP) % fpn % nn ( velocinad nominal − rpm)
clear
disp ( 'En c a s o de f a l t a r In o fpn c o l o q u e 0 ' ) ;
f r e c=input ( ' f r e c u e n c i a ( Hz)= ' ) ;
Vn=input ( 'Vn(V−LL) = ' ) ; In=input ( ' In (A) = ' ) ;
Pn=input ( 'Pn (HP) = ' ) * 7 4 6 ; % Cambio en watios
fpn=input ( ' fpn = ' ) ; nn=input ( ' n ( rpm ) = ' ) * 2 * pi / 6 0 ; % Cambio a r/s ;
% En caso de f a l t a de datos
i f fpn==0
fpn = 0 . 8 7 ;
end
i f In==0
e f i c n =0.85;
In=Pn/ ( e f i c n * fpn * sqrt ( 3 ) *Vn ) ;
end
e f i c n=Pn/ ( sqrt ( 3 ) *Vn* In * fpn ) ;
% Corriente de vacio
i f Pn>=1e5
k=4;
else
i f Pn>=3e3
k=3;
else
k=2;
end
end
% Corriente nominal f a s o r i a l
Inom=In * exp(− j * acos ( fpn ) ) ;
% número de pares de polos
p=f l o o r ( 2 * pi * f r e c /nn ) ;
% deslizamiento nominal
sn=1−(nn*p ) / ( 2 * pi * f r e c ) ;
Tn=Pn/nn ;% Par mecanico nominal
%Sb=Pn;Vb=Vn; Zb=Vb Vb/Sb ; Ib=Sb/( sqrt (3) Vb); wb=2 pi frec /p ;Tb=Sb/wb ;
* * * *
Sb=sqrt ( 3 ) *Vn* In ; Vb=Vn ; Zb=Vb*Vb/Sb ; Ib=In ; wb=2* pi * f r e c /p ; Tb=Sb/wb ;
% Cambio a modelo pu
a =1;b=1; c =1;h=0;
Xth = 0 . 2 ; Rth = 0 . 0 1 ;Rm=30;
Perd_n=sqrt ( 3 ) *Vn* In * fpn −Pn ; % Perdidas en W nominales
Perd_n_pu=Perd_n/Sb ;
Inpu=Inom/ Ib ; Tnpu=Tn/Tb ; Pnpu=fpn ;
while sqrt ( a^2+b^2+c ^2)>1e −3
h=h+1
Vm=1−(Rth+j *Xth / 2 ) * Inpu ;
Zm=Rm* j *k / (Rm+j *k ) ;
Iopu=Vm/Zm; %Io/Ib ;
I r p u=Inpu −Iopu ;
I r 2 =( I r p u * Irpu ' ) ;
Rr=Tnpu* sn / I r 2 ;
Rth_n=(Pnpu−Rr/ sn * I r 2 −abs (Vm)^2/Rm) / abs ( Inpu ) ^ 2 ;
i f Rth<=0
Rth=Rr ;
disp ( ' Rth < 0 , problema con fpn , s e asume Rth=Rr ' )
end
Q=sqrt (1 − fpn ^2) − abs (Vm)^2/ k ;
Xth_n=Q* 2 / ( I r 2+abs ( Inpu ) ^ 2 ) ;
Xm=j *k ;
PRm=Perd_n_pu−Rth* abs ( Inpu)^2 − Rr* I r 2 ;
Rm_n=abs (Vm)^2/PRm;
a=abs ( Xth/Xth_n − 1); b=abs ( Rth/Rth_n − 1); c=abs (Rm/Rm_n− 1);
Xth=Xth_n ; Rth=Rth_n ;Rm=Rm_n;
end
Xth=j *Xth ;
disp ( ' P é r d i d a s n o m i n a l e s en W ' ) ;
% Pérdidas en pu en el hierro
Pfe=Perd_n_pu −(Rth+Rr ) * abs ( I r 2 ) ;
P_fe=Pfe *Sb% Pérdias en el hierro
%Rm=Vth^2/Pfe ;
CAPÍTULO 5. EVALUACIÓN ENERGÉTICA DE MOTORES DE INDUCCIÓN 69
% Operación de la máquina
C o r r i e n t e s 1=inv ( [ Rth +0.5* Xth+Zm, −Zm; −Zm,Zm+0.5* Xth+Rr/ sn ] ) * [ Ve ; 0 ] ;
I1n=C o r r i e n t e s 1 ( 1 , 1 ) ;
I2n=C o r r i e n t e s 1 ( 2 , 1 ) ;
Psaln=Rr*(1 − sn ) * abs ( I2n )^2/ sn ;
Pentn=real ( Ve* conj ( I1n ) ) ;
e f i c n=Psaln / Pentn ;
%Ze=Rth+Xth/2;
%Zth_n=Ze *Xm/(Ze+Xm)+Xth/2;
Vthop=Vop*Xm/ ( Ze+Xm)
I r o p=Vthop / ( Zth_n+Rr/ sop ) ;
Teop=abs ( I r o p )^2* Rr/ sop ;
I e o p=I r+Vth/Xm;
P e r d i d a s o p=abs ( Vthop )^2/Rm+Rth* abs ( I e o p )^2+Rr* abs ( I r o p ) ^ 2 ;
C o r r i e n t e s 2=inv ( [ Rth +0.5* Xth+Zm, −Zm; −Zm,Zm+0.5* Xth+Rr/ sop ] ) * [ Vop ; 0 ] ;
I1op=C o r r i e n t e s 2 ( 1 , 1 ) ; I2op=C o r r i e n t e s 2 ( 2 , 1 ) ;
Psalop=Rr*(1 − sop ) * abs ( I2op )^2/ sop % según modelo
Pentop=real ( Ve* conj ( I1op ) ) ;
disp ( ' P é r d i d a s en o p e r a c i ó n en W ' ) ;
P e r d i d a s o p =(Pentop −Psalop ) * Sb
disp ( ' E f i c i e n c i a en o p e r a c i ó n en pu ' ) ;
%eficop=Psalop/Pentop
e f i c o p =1− P e r d i d a s o p / ( Pop*Sb )
i f Psalop *Sb>Pn
disp ( ' Máquina s o b r e c a r g a d a en ( %) ' )
Psalop *Sb/Pn*100 − 100
else
disp ( ' Máquina su b ca r ga da en ( %) ' )
100 − Psalop *Sb/Pn*100
end
figure ( 1 ) % Curva de par
plot ( s , Te*Tb , sn , Tn , ' r o ' , sop , Psalop /(1 − sop ) * ( Tb ) , ' rx ' ) ; grid
xlabel ( ' D e s l i z a m i e n t o ' ) ;
ylabel ( ' Par en N.m' ) ;
legend ( ' Curva C a r a c t e r í s t i c a ' , ' Pto . nominal ' , ' Pto . o p e r a c i ó n ' , ' l o c a t i o n ' , ' s o u t h e a s t ' ) ;
figure ( 2 ) % Rendimiento
plot ( s , e f i c , sn , e f i c n , ' r o ' , sop , e f i c o p , ' rx ' ) ; grid
xlabel ( ' D e s l i z a m i e n t o ' ) ;
ylabel ( ' E f i c i e n c i a ' ) ;
legend ( ' Curva C a r a c t e r í s t i c a ' , ' Pto . nominal ' , ' Pto . o p e r a c i ó n ' , ' l o c a t i o n ' , ' s o u t h e a s t ' ) ;
Pn=Psalop *Sb ;
In=Pn/ ( sqrt ( 3 ) *Vn* e f i c n * fpn ) ;
% Cambio a modelo pu
Perd_n=sqrt ( 3 ) *Vn* In * fpn −Pn % Pérdidas en W nominales
P e r d i d a s _ i n c r e m e n t a l e s=Perdidasop −Perd_n
CAPÍTULO 5. EVALUACIÓN ENERGÉTICA DE MOTORES DE INDUCCIÓN 70
(a) Par-deslizamiento
(b) Eciencia-deslizamiento
Cuadro 5.2: Parámetros estimados del modelo de la máquina de inducción en por unidad
Rth Rr Rm Xth Xm
0,0330 0,0167 19,12 0,3608 3,0
los posibles ahorros si se corrigen los problemas de calidad de servicio o niveles de carga
de los motores.
inducción en línea, mediante las medidas de las variables eléctricas (tensiones efectivas
de línea a línea, corrientes efectivas de línea y potencia trifásica) y los datos de placa
tema calcula desbalances de tensión y corriente, los parámetros del circuito equivalente
bién puede comparar el punto de operación con el de una máquina que opere en valores
74
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 18, NO. 2, JUNE 2003 271
case of an induction machine, rotor flux oriented (RFO) control flux contains both - and -axis component, leading to a loss
requires an accurate value of at least some of the motor of decoupled flux and torque control. Performance of the drive
parameters in order to yield robust control. Which parameters therefore deteriorates from the desired. In order to avoid such
are required depends on the applied RFO control scheme. If a situation, it is necessary to provide the vector controller with
the applied parameter values within the control system do accurate induction motor parameter values. These parameters
not match the actual values in the motor, detuned operation have to be obtained somehow from measurements, during ini-
results. Impact of parameter variations on various vector control tialization of the drive. Since any vector controlled induction
schemes has been studied in detail in the past and extensive motor drive is inverter fed, numerous tests based on an inverter
discussions are available in many books [1]–[5]. supply have been developed in recent past for determination
A vector controlled induction motor can be used within a of the required parameter values [4]–[7]. Such methods are
torque drive, a speed drive, or a position drive. The type of the further on called “offline parameter identification methods.”
drive that exhibits the highest sensitivity to the incorrect param- In addition, numerous possibilities exist nowadays to update
eter values is the torque drive. Although the motor parameter the parameter values during the drive operation [3]–[7]. The
variations affect the speed control applications too, existence techniques that enable parameter adaptation during the drive
of the PI speed controller considerably reduces negative con- operation are further on termed “online parameter estimation
sequences of the parameter detuning. methods.”
Induction motor parameters change with temperature, fre- The aim of this paper is to provide a review of the major tech-
quency, and saturation. The consequence of any mismatch niques used for the induction motor offline and online parameter
between the parameter values used in the controller and those identification and estimation, respectively.
in the motor is that the actual rotor flux position does not coin-
cide with the position assumed by the controller. The situation II. INDUCTION MOTOR PARAMETERS
is illustrated in Fig. 1, [4]. This means that the actual rotor
The parameters that may need to be identified offline or
tracked online depend on the vector control scheme under
Manuscript received January 21, 2002.
H. A. Toliyat and M. Raina are with the Department of Electrical En- consideration. If the drive operates with the constant rated
gineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-3128 USA flux reference, the required parameters will be some or all of
(e-mail: toliyat@ee.tamu.edu; Mona@ee.tamu.edu). the following: rated magnetizing inductance, stator resistance,
E. Levi is with the School of Engineering, Liverpool John Moores University,
Liverpool, L3 3AF, U.K. (e-mail: e.levi@livjm.ac.uk). rotor resistance, and stator/rotor leakage inductance or transient
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2003.811719 stator inductance. If the drive operates with a variable flux
0885-8969/03$17.00 © 2003 IEEE
272 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 18, NO. 2, JUNE 2003
reference (optimal efficiency drives, operation in the field single-phase ac excitation is the rotor time constant identifica-
weakening region, etc.), magnetizing curve will usually be tion method of [25]. It is based on trial-and-error and essentially
required as well. Finally, if the drive controller includes some does not require any computations.
kind of compensation of the iron losses (that may be especially Some of the offline identification procedures surveyed so far
important for torque drives in electric or hybrid vehicles), one enable identification of the machine’s magnetizing curve in ad-
will need to know the variation of the equivalent iron loss resis- dition to other rated parameter values. Such is the case for the
tance with operating frequency [8]. The most important offline methods described in [13], [15], [21]–[23]. It should be noted
identification and online parameter estimation techniques are that the requirement for magnetizing curve identification often
reviewed in the remainder of this paper. adds to the complexity of the commissioning procedure since
more than one test needs to be performed. A significant step
forward in this sense is the method of [26], where magnetizing
III. OFFLINE PARAMETER IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
curve is identified at standstill using only one test with single-
It is often the case in practice that one manufacturer supplies phase ac supply. Other possibilities of the magnetizing curve
the inverter with a vector controller, while the machine comes identification for self-commissioning purposes have been ex-
from another manufacturer. It is then not possible to set the pa- plored in [27]–[30].
rameters of the controller in advance and these have to be set If the conditions of the commissioning are less stringent, the
onsite, once when the inverter is connected to the machine. Such drive may be allowed to rotate for the purposes of parameter
a situation has led to the development of the so-called self-com- identification. A whole array of additional parameter determi-
missioning procedures for vector controlled induction machines nation methods opens up in this case. For example, an extremely
[9], [10]. The main idea behind this concept is that the controller simple procedure for rotor time constant tuning [31] is based on
automatically determines all of the parameters of an induction the tests performed while the machine is rotating. The drive is
machine, required for vector control. The automated procedure operated in the torque mode for the purposes of the rotor time
of testing and calculation is done following the first enabling of constant tuning, with rated rotor flux reference. An alternating
the controller. As the induction machine may already be cou- square-wave torque reference is applied at certain speed of rota-
pled to a load, the tests aimed at self-commissioning have to tion. If the rotor time constant value used in the controller is cor-
identify the required parameters at standstill. The identification rect, the actual torque is an alternating square-wave as well, so
is therefore performed with single-phase supply to the machine. that the speed response follows a triangular function. If the rotor
In principle, two types of excitation may be applied—dc or ac. time constant setting is not correct, situation of Fig. 1 results
The one ideal for true self-commissioning is dc. From applied and the actual torque response is not the same as the torque ref-
dc voltage and resulting dc steady state current, one finds the erence. Speed response then deviates from triangular. An exper-
value of the stator resistance. Determination of the remaining imental illustration of this trial-and-error method of rotor time
parameters is then based most frequently on transient current re- constant tuning is given in Fig. 2.
sponse that follows application of the dc voltage. Self-commis- Standard no-load test and locked rotor test may be performed
sioning schemes that rely on this approach are those described with a PWM inverter supply if the commissioning situation al-
in [11]–[16]. lows for such testing. Parameters that are calculated are the same
The methods regarded as suitable for commissioning but as those obtained with sinusoidal supply, provided that the cal-
inappropriate for self-commissioning are those that either culations are based on the fundamental components [32]. This
require some special conditions to be satisfied during the feature is exploited in [33], where the parameters are identi-
commissioning (for example, the machine is allowed to rotate) fied using the dc, no-load and the pseudo-locked rotor tests. A
or they require substantially more complicated mathematical method for pseudo-locked rotor test is presented since the me-
processing of the measurement results, when compared to chanical locking of the rotor is undesirable in any onsite com-
the self-commissioning methods. For example, procedures missioning scenario.
described in [17]–[19] are all based on some tests with Identification of the machine’s magnetizing curve becomes
single-phase supply to the machine. However, the method a simple and straightforward task if the machine is allowed
described in [17] involves application of pseudo-random to rotate under no-load conditions during the onsite commis-
binary-sequence voltage excitation and requires an adaptive sioning. By defining the magnetizing curve’s analytical approx-
observer. The procedure of [18] relies on maximum likelihood imation in a suitable functional form and by performing a series
method to obtain transfer function parameters. A step voltage is of steady state fundamental harmonic voltage measurements in
applied at the stator terminals and the stator voltage and stator the field weakening region, it becomes possible to determine
current responses are recorded. The Laplace transformation the correct magnetizing curve approximation purely by visual
is used to get the transfer function along with the maximum inspection of the measurement results [34]. An experimental
likelihood estimation. The method of [19] requires application illustration of this method is given in Fig. 3, where measured
of the recursive least squares algorithm, this being the same as line-to-line fundamental voltage component is shown, together
for the procedure of [20]. with the reconstructed magnetizing curve.
The second possible excitation for parameter identification Another magnetizing curve identification procedure is
at standstill is single-phase ac. Standstill frequency response described in [35]. It relies on the signals that are already
test forms in this case the basis for the parameter identifica- present within the drive controller (stator currents and the dc
tion [21]–[24]. A particularly interesting procedure based on link voltage), so that additional measurements are not required.
TOLIYAT et al.: A REVIEW OF RFO INDUCTION MOTOR PARAMETER ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES 273
In [58], an attempt to create online tests similar to the no-load An extended Luenberger observer (ELO) for joint state and
and full-load tests is made. In [59], a pseudo-random binary se- parameter estimation was developed in [77]–[79]. In [78] and
quence signal is used for perturbation of the system by injecting [79], the authors have provided a comparison of the operation
it into the -axis and correlating with -axis stator current re- of the ELO and the EKF. In [78], a deterministic approach to
sponse. The sign of correlation gives the direction for rotor time designing the ELO with joint online estimation of motor states
constant updating. This method however does not work satisfac- and parameters is presented. In [79], Du and Brdys implemented
torily under light loads. In [60], a sinusoidal perturbation is in- the scheme using three different full-order ELOs. The first ELO
jected into the flux producing stator current component channel. was used for rotor time constant and rotor flux estimation. The
Though rotor resistance can be estimated under any load and second one was used for shaft speed and rotor flux estima-
speed condition, the cost is high due to the installation of two tion and the third for shaft speed, load torque, and rotor flux
flux search coils. estimation.
Solutions described in [61]–[63] all belong to the same In the case of joint state and parameter estimation, ELO turns
category. A very different approach is the one described in out to be the advantageous solution. Since the induction motor is
[64]–[66], where rotor slot harmonics in stator current are a nonlinear system, the observations from the EKF at individual
tracked and used for online updating of the rotor time constant. time instants do not lead to an overall optimal observation. For
the ELO, there is a great deal of flexibility in choosing the gain,
B. Observer-Based Techniques unlike the EKF and the rate of convergence can be tuned without
In [67], Loron and Laliberté describe the motor model and adversely affecting the steady state accuracy of the observer.
the development and tuning of an extended Kalman filter (EKF) The main advantage of the ELO over the EKF is that the ob-
for parameter estimation during normal operating conditions server performance can be greatly enhanced by simply adjusting
without introducing any test signals. The proposed method re- the gain matrix for rapid convergence of the estimates, which
quires terminal and rotor speed measurements and is useful for gives an unbiased estimation in the case of the ELO.
autotuning an indirect field-oriented controller or an adaptive The major problems related to EKF and ELO applications are
direct field-oriented controller. In [68], Zai, DeMarco, and Lipo computational intensity and the fact that all the inductances are
propose a method for detection of the inverse rotor time con- treated as constants in the motor equations. In order to improve
stant using the EKF by treating the rotor time constant as the the accuracy of the EKF-based rotor resistance identification, it
fifth state variable along with the stator and rotor currents. This is suggested in [68], [70], and [73] to simultaneously identify
is similar to a previously mentioned method that injected per- the magnetizing inductance. Another possibility of improving
turbation in the system, except that in this case, the perturbation the accuracy is the inclusion of the iron loss into the model [72].
is not provided externally. Instead, the wide-band harmonics
contained in a PWM inverter output voltage serve as an excita- C. Model Reference Adaptive System-Based Techniques
tion. This method works on the assumption that when the motor
The third major group of online rotor resistance adaptation
speed changes, the machine model becomes a two-input/two- methods is based on principles of model reference adaptive
output time-varying system with superimposed noise input. The control. This is the approach that has attracted most of the
drawbacks are that this method assumes that all other parame- attention due to its relatively simple implementation require-
ters are known and the variation in the magnetizing inductance ments. The basic idea is that one quantity can be calculated in
can introduce large errors into the rotor time constant estima- two different ways. The first value is calculated from references
tion. The application of the EKF for slip calculation for tuning inside the control system. The second value is calculated from
an indirect field oriented drive is proposed in [69]. Using the measured signals. One of the two values is independent of the
property that in the steady state the Kalman gains are asymptot- rotor resistance (rotor time constant). The difference between
ically constant for constant speeds, the Riccati difference equa- the two is an error signal, whose existence is assigned entirely
tion is replaced by a look-up table that makes the system much to the error in rotor resistance used in the control system. The
simpler. The disadvantage is that, although the complexity of error signal is used to drive an adaptive mechanism (PI or I
the Riccati equation is reduced, the full-order EKF is computa- controller) which provides correction of the rotor resistance.
tionally very intensive as compared to the reduced order-based Any method that belongs to this group is based on utilization
systems. of the machine’s model and its accuracy is therefore heavily
In [70], an online estimation of rotor resistance and the mag- dependent on the accuracy of the applied model. The number
netizing inductance, using continuous form of the Kalman filter of methods that belong to this group is vast [80]–[100] and
is proposed, though the actual estimation is done offline using they primarily differ with respect to which quantity is selected
the discrete form of the KF. For using the KF online, it is im- for adaptation purposes. Reactive power-based method is not
portant to estimate the magnetizing inductance accurately as an dependent on stator resistance at all and is probably the most
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flux level, the magnetizing inductance can be estimated along power can be selected as the quantity on which adaptation
with the rotor resistance and the rotor time constant using the is based [87], [88]. The reference air gap power is calcu-
KF. Other solutions, based on the Kalman filter, are those de- lated from reference torque and frequency values, while the
scribed in [71]–[76]. actual one has to be calculated from measured input power
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TOLIYAT et al.: A REVIEW OF RFO INDUCTION MOTOR PARAMETER ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES 283
[195] S. D. Wee, M. H. Shin, and D. S. Hyun, “Stator-flux-oriented control of Hamid A. Toliyat (S’87–M’91–SM’96) received the
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64–75, 2001. University, College Station. Dr. Toliyat is an Editor
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tion into consideration,” Elect. Mach. Power Syst., vol. 27, no. 6, pp. a member of the Editorial Board of Electric Power
581–599, 1999. Components and Systems Journal. His main research
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scheme considering iron loss for electric vehicle induction motors,” in speed drives, fault diagnosis of electric machinery, analysis and design of
electrical machines, and sensorless variable speed drives. He has published
Proc. IEEE Ind. Applicat. Soc. Annu. Meeting, 1997, pp. 439–444.
over 150 technical papers in these fields. He is actively involved in presenting
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short courses and consulting in his area of expertise to various industries.
induction machine considering iron losses,” in Proc. IEEE Appl. Power
He has received the Texas A&M Select Young Investigator Award in 1999,
Electron. Conf., 1996, pp. 375–379. Eugene Webb Faculty Fellow Award in 2000, NASA Space Act Award in 1999,
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oriented induction motor incorporating robust parameter identification,” Vice-Chairman of IEEE-IAS Electric Machines Committee, and is a member
in Proc. IEEE Ind. Electron. Soc. Annu. Meeting, 1999, pp. 1409–1414. of Sigma Xi. He is the recipient of the 1996 IEEE Power Eng. Society Prize
[201] S. Shinnaka, “Proposition of new mathematical models with core loss Paper Award for his paper on the Analysis of Concentrated Winding Induction
factor for controlling AC motors,” in Proc. IEEE Ind. Electron. Soc. Machines for Adjustable Speed Drive Applications—Experimental Results.
Annu. Meeting, 1998, pp. 297–302.
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control of induction motor with on-line parameter identification in con-
sideration of core loss,” in Proc. Power Conversion Conf., 1997, pp. Emil Levi (S’89–M’92–SM’99) was born in 1958 in
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automatic tools for an identification and a field-oriented control design and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engi-
of an induction machine: A no linear decoupling structure,” in Proc. neering from the University of Belgrade, Yugoslavia,
in 1982, 1986, and 1990, respectively.
IEEE Power Electron. Specialists Conf., 1997, pp. 1486–1492.
Currently, he is Professor of Electric Machines
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and Drives in the School of Engineering at Liverpool
stator iron loss of vector-controlled induction motor using robust flux
John Moores University, Liverpool, U.K. In 1982,
observer,” Elect. Eng. Japan, vol. 137, no. 3, pp. 59–66, 2001. he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering
[205] V. Valouch, “Induction motor field-oriented controller, respecting iron at the University of Novi Sad, where he became
losses,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Ind. Electron., 1995, pp. 668–673. Assistant Professor in 1991. He joined Liverpool John Moores University,
[206] H. Rasmussen, P. Vadstrup, and H. Borsting, “Rotor field oriented con- U.K., in May 1992 as a Senior Lecturer. From 1995 till 2000, he was a Reader
trol with adaptive iron loss identification,” in Proc. IEEE Ind. Applicat. in Electrical Power Engineering. His main areas of research interest are
Soc. Annu. Meeting, 1999, pp. 1253–1258. modeling and simulation of electric machines, control of high performance
[207] A. Dittrich, “Model based identification of the iron loss resistance of drives, and power electronic converters. He has published over 130 papers,
an induction machine,” in Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng. Conf. Power Electron. including more than 30 papers in major international journals.
Variable Speed Drives, 1998, pp. 500–503.
Bastiaensen, C., Deprez, W., Symens, W., Driesen, J.: Parameter Sensitivity and
88
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 89
Contrary to classical schemes for induction motor control, this is an open-loop scheme;
however, the model still requires dierent machine parameters. Therefore, the parameter
sensitivity of the model is performed. For validation, the model is implemented in the
real-time environment dSPACE, and a test induction machine is subjected to dierent
combinations of speed and torque proles. The identied model can be used to replace
mechanical torque-measurement devices or as a backup for a low-cost torque sensor.
Bolognani, S., Peretti, L., Zigliotto, M.: Parameter Sensitivity Analysis of an Im-
proved Open-Loop Speed Estimate for Induction Motor Drives, Power Electronics,
Abstract: In the last decades, several schemes have been proposed for speed-sensorless
control of induction motor drives. Promising approaches are closed-loop observers, as
model reference adaptive systems (MRAS) and Kalman lters, and open-loop estima-
tors, which have recently aroused lively interest because of their simplicity and low-cost
prole. As known, open-loop algorithms use only motor equations to derive the speed
estimation, whose accuracy turns out to be strictly related to the motor model and
its parameters. This paper presents an improved open-loop speed estimation algorithm,
which uses reference voltages and measured currents, after that a state-of-the-art dead
time compensation has been performed. The often undervalued topic of parameter sen-
sitivity is handled by an accurate mathematical investigation, conrmed by a complete
set of both simulated and experimental results. The estimated speed is then used as feed-
back signal in a closed loop speed control, and a performance evaluation is accomplished
as well.
techniques for the estimation of the induction motor parameters, Industry Appli-
Abstract: This paper deals with a new experimental approach to the parameter esti-
mation of induction motors with least-squares techniques. In particular, it exploits the
robustness of total least-squares (TLS) techniques in noisy environments by using a new
neuron, the TLS EXIN, which is easily implemented online. After showing that ordinary
least-squares (OLS) algorithms, classically employed in the literature, are quite unre-
liable in the presence of noisy measurements, which is not the case for TLS, the TLS
EXIN neuron is applied numerically and experimentally for retrieving the parameters
of an induction motor by means of a test bench. Additionally, for the case of very noisy
data, a renement of the TLS estimation has been obtained by the application of a
constrained optimization algorithm which explicitly takes into account the relationships
among the K-parameters. The strength of this approach and the enhancement obtained
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 90
Cirrincione, M., Pucci, M., et al: Constrained minimization for parameter estima-
Abstract : This paper presents the analytical solution of the application of the cons-
trained least-squares (LS) minimization to the online parameter estimation of induction
machines. This constrained minimization is derived from the classical linear dynamical
model of the induction machine, and therefore it is able to estimated the steady-state
value of the electrical parameters of the induction motor under dierent magnetization
levels. The methodology has been veried in simulation with a dynamical model which
takes into account iron path saturation eects. After a description of the experimen-
tal setup and its signal processing systems, the methodology is veried experimentally
under saturated and unsaturated working conditions, and the results are discussed and
compared to those obtained with a classical unconstrained ordinary LS technique.
Duran, M.J., Duran, J.L., Perez, F., Fernandez, J.: Induction-motor sensorless
vector control with online parameter estimation and overcurrent protection, In-
Abstract: Sensorless drive control has been widely studied in recent years due to the
numerous advantages regarding potential failures of position sensors, especially in ap-
plications such as automotive or aerospace. Among vector-control drives, indirect rotor-
ux-oriented control (IRFOC) type is one of the most popular and tested options. Ho-
wever, it is still a challenging eld since several aspects can be improved, such as the
low-speed behavior, parameter detuning, and current control. The present scheme in-
cludes temperature estimation to correct the deviation in steady state, a new control
scheme with skin-eect estimation to improve the transient accuracy, and overcurrent
protection to be able to control the stator currents while allowing a good performance.
The parameter estimation is carried out using lumped-parameter models, the control
scheme is modied and is able to account for static friction, and the overcurrent pro-
tection improves the performance allowing transient currents over the rated value. The
validity and usefulness of the proposed scheme is experimentally tested on a TMS320C31
digital signal processor (DSP) from the Simulink/Matlab environment.
Kang, Gubae, Kim, Junha, Nam, Kwanghee: Parameter estimation scheme for
Abstract: Linear induction motors (LIMs) are characterized by a large air gap and,
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 91
as a result, large leakage inductances. Moreover, due to its unslotted structure and the
absence of end rings in the secondary part, the primary leakage inductance is much
larger than the secondary leakage inductance. Such dierences prevent us from using
parameter estimation methods developed for the rotary motors. We propose a parameter
estimation scheme for a LIM that utilizes a pulsewidth-modulation inverter. It yields
mutual inductance by numerically solving a third-order polynomial. Direct estimation
of mutual inductance enables us to calculate the leakage inductances separately. The
proposed estimation scheme is tested with various example models and with a real 20-
kW single-sided LIM.
Kenné, G., Simo, R.S., Lamnabhi-Lagarrigue, F., et al: An Online Simplied Ro-
Abstract: This brief presents an adaptive variable structure identier that provides
nite time convergent estimate of the induction motor rotor resistance under feasible
persistent of excitation condition. The proposed rotor resistance scheme is based on the
standard dynamic model of induction motor expressed in a xed reference frame atta-
ched to the stator. The available variables are the rotor speed, the stator currents and
voltages. Experiments show that the proposed method achieved very good estimation
of the rotor resistance which is subjected to online large variation during operation of
the induction motor. Also, the proposed online simplied rotor resistance estimator is
robust with respect to the variation of the stator resistance, measurement noise, mo-
deling errors, discretization eects and parameter uncertainties. Important advantages
of the proposed algorithm include that it is an online method (the value of Rr can
be continuously updated) and it is very simple to implement in real-time (this feature
distinguishes the proposed identier from the known ones).
Khang, H.V., Arkkio, A.: Parameter estimation for a deep-bar induction motor,
Kim, Jong-Wook, Kim, Taegyu, Park, Youngsu, et al: On-Load Motor Parame-
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 92
Abstract: Parameter identication of an induction motor has long been studied either
for vector control or fault diagnosis. This paper addresses parameter identication of
an induction motor under on-load operation. For estimating electrical and mechanical
parameters in the motor model from the on-load data, unmeasured initial states and
load torque prole have to be also estimated for state evaluation. Since gradient of cost
function for the auxiliary variables are hard to be derived, direct optimization methods
that rely on computational capability should be employed. In this paper, the univariate
dynamic encoding algorithm for searches (uDEAS), recently developed by the authors, is
applied to the identication of whole unknown variables with measured voltage, current,
and velocity data. Proles of motor parameters estimated with uDEAS are reasonable,
and estimation time is 2 s on average, which is quite fast as compared with other direct
optimization methods.
Kral, C., Habetler, T.G., Harley, R.G., Pirker, F., et al: Rotor temperature es-
Abstract: This paper deals with a rotor temperature estimation scheme for fan-cooled
mains-fed squirrel-cage induction motors. The proposed technique combines a rotor re-
sistance estimation method with a thermal equivalent circuit. Usually, rotor resistance
estimation works quite well under rated load conditions. By contrast, if the motor is
slightly loaded, rotor resistance estimation becomes inaccurate due to the small slip.
Therefore, rotor temperature estimation under low-load conditions may be estimated
by a thermal equivalent model. In order to determine the rotor resistance and, thus,
rotor temperature accurately, several machine parameters have to be obtained in advan-
ce. Load tests provide the leakage reactance and the iron losses of the induct machine.
The stator resistance has to be measured separately. The parameters of the thermal
equivalent model are a thermal resistance and a thermal capacitance. These parameters
are derived from a heating test, where the reference temperature is provided from the
parameter model in the time domain. This lumped thermal parameter model is based
on the assumption that the total rotor temperature increase is caused by the total sum
of the losses in the induction machine. Measuring results of a 1.5-kW and an 18.5-kW
four-pole low-voltage motor and a 210-kW four-pole high-voltage motor are presented
and compared.
Laroche, E., Sedda, E., Durieu, C.: Methodological Insights for Online Estima-
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 93
Abstract: This paper presents contributions for online estimation of states and para-
meters of an induction motor with Kalman lter. In order to ensure a good level of
condence of the estimation, a suitable methodology is proposed and two of its main
points are investigated. First, an original method is used for tuning the covariance ma-
trices, relying on the evaluation of the state noise due to modeling errors. Second, an
observability analysis is developed, allowing to validate the model and the proposed
excitation trajectory. Experimental results show that, with the chosen input signal, the
parameters can be estimated with good accuracy in less than two seconds.
Laroche, E., Boutayeb, M.: Identication of the Induction Motor in Sinusoidal Mo-
Abstract: This paper presents an original method for estimation of the induction motor
parameters, including iron loss, with measurements in the sinusoidal steady-state mode.
Based on a change of parameter yielding a model that is linear with respect to the new
set of parameters, this method allows parameter estimation with low computation cost
and without being concerned by local minima problems. This method is evaluated and
compared with two other methods from the literature, which are also based on sinusoi-
dal steady-state measurements: a standard method based on two elementary tests and a
method where parameters are estimated through minimization of a nonconvex distance
criterion with a nonlinear programming algorithm. For the considered methods, sensiti-
vities to measurement and modeling errors are evaluated, emphasizing the performances
of the original method. Experimental results, obtained on a setup of 1.5 kW rated power,
are provided.
march 2008
Abstract: Field aligned starting (FAS) is a new technique for starting three-phase cage
induction motors on single-phase supply lines with minimal inrush currents. It uses a
simple energy storage system to generate a very high impulsive torque by which the
motor is started before being connected to the mains supply. The spinning motor can
then be connected to the mains to operate in a standard Steinmetz connection without
incurring high inrush currents, if the moment of mains connection is properly timed. This
paper presents a transient model and an accompanying parameter estimation method
through which the transient behavior of three-phase induction motors operated with FAS
can be analyzed. The proposed model is based on instantaneous symmetrical components
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 94
and is used to investigate a 3 kW motor started under various operating conditions. The
proposed parameter estimation method and the developed transient model are both
validated by experimental results.
Pedra, J., Corcoles, F.: Estimation of induction motor double-cage model parame-
Abstract: This paper presents a numerical method for the estimation of induction
motor double-cage model parameters from standard manufacturer data: full load me-
chanical power (rated power), full load reactive electrical power, breakdown torque, and
starting current and torque. A model sensitivity analysis for the various electrical pa-
rameters shows that stator resistance is the least signicant parameter. The nonlinear
equations to be solved for the parameters determination are formulated as a minimi-
zation problem with restrictions. The method has been tested with 223 motors from
dierent manufacturers, with an average value of the normalized residual error of 1.39
middot;10-2. The estimated parameters of these motors are graphically represented as
a function of the rated power.
Pedra, J.: Estimation of typical squirrel-cage induction motor parameters for dy-
Abstract: In this paper, an inaccuracy of the method for induction motor parameter
determination used in EMTP type simulation programs (ATP, EMTP96, EMTDC) is
discussed. The paper presents a numerical method for the estimation of induction motor
double-cage model parameters from standard manufacturer data, i.e., full load mecha-
nical power (rated power), full load power factor, maximum torque, starting torque,
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 95
starting current and full load eciency. The nonlinear equations to obtain the motor
parameters have been solved with a modied Newton method that always converges
if the problem is well dened (that is, a solution exists). The method has been tested
with 608 motors from dierent manufacturers. The manufacturer parameters that have
a greater inuence on convergence are the maximum torque and the starting current.
The cases where the method does not converge have been studied and the range of
variation of the maximum torque or starting current which determines where the data
are well dened (that is, a solution exists) has been calculated.
Pellegrino, G., Guglielmi, P., Armando, E., Bojoi, R.I.: Self-Commissioning Al-
2010
Abstract: In many sensorless eld-oriented control schemes for induction motor (IM)
drives, ux is estimated by means of measured motor currents and control reference
voltages. In most cases, ux estimation is based on the integral of back-electromotive-
force (EMF) voltages. Inverter nonlinear errors (dead-time and on-state voltage drops)
introduce a distortion in the estimated voltage that reduces the accuracy of the ux
estimation, particularly at low speed. In the literature, most of the compensation tech-
niques of such errors require the oine identication of the inverter model and oine
postprocessing. This paper presents a simple and accurate method for the identication
of inverter parameters at the drive startup. The method is integrated into the control
code of the IM drive, and it is based on the information contained in the feedback signal
of the ux observer. The procedure applies, more in general, to all those sensorless ac
drives where the ux is estimated using the back-EMF integration, not only for IM drives
but also for permanent-magnet synchronous motor drives (surface-mounted permanent
magnet and interior permanent magnet). A self-commissioning algorithm is presented
and tested for the sensorless control of an IM drive, implemented on a xed-point DSP.
The feasibility and eectiveness of the method are demonstrated by experimental results.
Peretti, L., Zigliotto, M.: Automatic procedure for induction motor parameter es-
timation at standstill, Electric Power Applications, IET 6(4), 214224, april 2012
Abstract: The study presents a self-commissioning procedure for the automatic pa-
rameter estimation of three-phase induction motor drives. The procedure consists of a
step-by-step approach with dierent test signals to obtain the parameter values while
maintaining the motor at standstill. The actual implementation is capable of mapping
both inverter and motor parameters non-linearities, providing accurate data for the tu-
ning of common current regulators and for advanced sensorless drives as well. Theoretical
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 96
and experimental results are provided, proving the eectiveness of the procedure.
Proca, A.B., Keyhani, A.: Sliding-Mode Flux Observer With Online Rotor Para-
Abstract: Field orientation techniques without ux measurements depend on the para-
meters of the motor, particularly on the rotor resistance or rotor time constant (for rotor
eld orientation). Since these parameters change continuously as a function of tempera-
ture, it is important that the value of rotor resistance is continuously estimated online. A
fourth-order sliding-mode ux observer is developed in this paper. Two sliding surfaces
representing combinations of estimated ux and current errors are used to enforce the
ux and current estimates to their real values. Switching functions are used to drive the
sliding surfaces to zero. The equivalent values of the switching functions (low-frequency
components) are proven to be the rotor resistance and the inverse of the rotor time
constant. This property is used to simultaneously estimate the rotor resistance and the
inverse of the time constant without prior knowledge of either the rotor resistance or
the magnetizing inductance. Simulations and experimental results prove the validity of
the proposed approach.
Rao, S., Buss, M., Utkin, V.: Simultaneous State and Parameter Estimation in In-
duction Motors Using First- and Second-Order Sliding Modes, Industrial Electro-
Abstract: We address the problem of meeting the requirements of controllers for the
control of speed of induction motors, but under the constraint of not using speed and ux
sensors: the so-called ldquosensorlessrdquo control problem. We oer an observer-based
solution and present the design of two observers which provide motor speed, ux, and
rotor resistance estimates simultaneously. Both observers, based on the rotor ux model
in the stationary reference frame, are designed with inputs that enforce rst- (conven-
tional) and second-order sliding modes, respectively, on appropriately chosen switching
surfaces. We present experimental results of the estimation procedure to demonstrate
that only current and input voltage measurements are needed for accurate speed and
ux estimation even in the presence of unknown parameters.
Raptis, D.S., Kladas, A.G., Tegopoulos, J.A.: Accurate Induction Motor Esti-
Abstract: Accurate induction motor parameter estimation is crucial for electrical dri-
ves. This paper presents a methodology enabling accurate estimation for induction mo-
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 97
tors response on pulse-width modulation inverter supply based on magnetic eld analy-
sis. Consideration of variations of magnetizing and iron loss parameters with loading in
conjunction with harmonic iron loss associated to leakage inductances is essential for
the estimator precision.
Salmasi, F.R., Najafabadi, T.A., Maralani, P.J.: An Adaptive Flux Observer With
Online Estimation of DC-Link Voltage and Rotor Resistance For VSI-Based In-
2010
Salmasi, F.R., Najafabadi, T.A.: An Adaptive Observer With Online Rotor and
Stator Resistance Estimation for Induction Motors With One Phase Current Sen-
Abstract: An adaptive observer with online estimation of rotor and stator resistances is
considered for induction motors,while only one phase current ismeasured. Generally, an
induction motor drive controller needs at least two phase-current sensors. Nevertheless,
failure of one current sensor results in degradation of motor drive performance and re-
liability, and also state and parameter estimation errors. Furthermore, any controller or
observer in induction motor drives should be robust to rotor and stator resistance varia-
tions. The proposed observer is capable of concurrent estimation of stator currents and
rotor uxes with online tuning of rotor and stator resistances, while rotor speed and only
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 98
one phase current are available. Stability and convergence of the observer are analytica-
lly veried based on the partial stability theory. The observer equations and adaptation
laws can be easily implemented, which makes it attractive for industrial development
of fault tolerant drives. A complex programmable logic device is implemented for the
experimental setup that controls an intelligent power module including insulated gate
bipolar transistors . Extensive simulation and experimental tests verify the asymptotic
convergence of the proposed observer.
Sonnaillon, M.O., Bisheimer, G., et al: Online Sensorless Induction Motor Tem-
june 2010
Vaclavek, P., Blaha, P.: Lyapunov-function-based ux and speed observer for AC
Abstract: AC induction motors have become very popular for motion-control appli-
cations due to their simple and reliable construction. Control of drives based on ac
induction motors is a quite complex task. Provided the vector-control algorithm is used,
not only the rotor speed but also the position of the magnetic ux inside the motor
during the control process should be known. In most applications, the ux sensors are
omitted and the magnetic-ux phasor position has to be calculated. However, there are
also applications in which even speed sensors should be omitted. In such a situation, the
task of state reconstruction can be solved only from voltage and current measurements.
In the current paper, a method based on deterministic evaluation of measurement using
the state observer based on the Lyapunov function is presented. The method has been
proven in testing on a real ac induction machine.
Valenzuela, M.A., Reyes, P.: Simple and Reliable Model for the Thermal Protec-
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 99
Abstract: The goal of this paper is to use articial neural networks (ANNs) for online
identication of induction-motor parameters. ANNs such as feedforward and recurrent
networks will be used to develop an ANN as a memory for remembering the estimated
parameters and for computing the parameters during transients. Simulations and expe-
rimental results will be presented for a nonlinear control system of induction motors. A
digital signal processor will be used for the experimental investigation.
Abstract: Recently, the development of speed estimation methods for sensorless control
of induction motor drives has found great interest in the research community. Parame-
ter adaptation schemes play an important role for better speed estimation over a wide
range from zero to high levels beyond the rated speed. Therefore, parallel identication
schemes for both speed and stator resistance of sensorless induction motor drives are
proposed for a wide range of speed estimation. These estimation algorithms combine a
sliding-mode current observer with Popov's hyperstability theory. Low- and zero-speed
operations of the proposed sliding-mode-observer (SMO)-based speed estimation com-
bined with an online stator resistance adaptation scheme are investigated. A modied
APÉNDICE B. REFERENCIAS RECIENTES 100
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