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Phenomenology has been and continues to be an integral field of inquiry that cuts across
philosophic, sociologic, and psychological disciplines. This rigorous, critical, systematic method
of investigation is a recognize qualitative research approach applicable to the study of
phenomena important to the discipline of nursing. Phenomenological inquiry brings to language
perceptions of human experience with all type of phenomena. As several authors have noted,
phenomenology, both as philosophy and research approach, allows nursing to explore and
describe phenomena important to the discipline (Arrigo & Cody, 2004; Beck, 1994; Caelli, 2000,
2001; Todres & Wheeler, 2001; Van der Zalm & Bergum, 2000). Because professional nursing
practice is enmeshed, in people’s life experience, phenomenology as a research approach is well
suited to the investigation of phenomena important to nursing
Phenomenological inquiry as a philosophy and explication in terms of its pragmatic use a nursing
research method. This chapter addresses the variety of methodological interpretations detailed
within the discipline of phenomenological inquiry. Phenomenology a philosophy and as method
is discussed, along with fundamental differences between descriptive and interpretive
phenomenology. Highlights of specific element and interpretations of phenomenology as a
research approach provide readers with a beginning understanding of common
phenomenological language and themes. This chapter also addresses methodological concern
specific to conducting a phenomenological investigation.
Phenomenology Defined
Phenomenology is the study of essences and according to it, all problems amount to finding
definitions of essences: the essence of perception, or the essence of consciousness, for
example. But phenomenology is also a philosophy, which puts essences back into existence,
and does not expect to arrive at an understanding of man and the world from any starting
point other than that of their “facticity” it is a transcendental philosophy which places in
abeyance the assertions arising out of the natural attitude, the better to understand them: but
it is also a philosophy for which the world is always “already there” before reflection
begins-as an inalienable presence; and all its efforts are concentrated upon re-achieving a
direct and primitive contact with the world, and endowing that contact with a philosophical
status. It is the search for a philosophy which shall be a “rigorous science,” but also offers an
account of space, time and the world as we “live” them. It tries to give a direct description of
our experience as the causal explanations which the scientist, the historian or the sociologist
may be able to provide. (p.vii)
The historian Herbert Spiegelberg (1975) explained phenomenology as a movement rather than a
uniform method or set of doctrines. The account provided by Spiegelberg emphasizes the fluid
nature of phenomenology and the fact that a list of steps to the approach would not reflect the
philosophic depth of the discipline. Spiegelberg defined phenomenology as “the name for a
philosophical movement whose primary objective is the direct investigation and description of
phenomena as consciously experienced, without theories about their causal explanation and as
free as possible from unexamined preconceptions and presuppositions”. (p.3)
Omery (1983) addressed the question. What is the phenomenological method? Although
researchers have interpreted this question in a variety of ways, the approach is inductive and
descriptive in its design. Phenomenological method is “the trick of making things whose
meanings seem clear, meaningless, and then, discovering what they mean” (Blumensteil, 1973,
p. 183).
Lived experience of the world of every day life is the central focus of phenomenological inquiry.
Schutz (1970) described the world of everyday life as the “total sphere of experiences of an
individual which is circumscribed by the objects, persons, and events encountered in the pursuit
of pragmatic objectives of living” (p. 320). In other words, it is the lived experience that presents
to the individual what is true or real in his or her life. Furthermore it is lived experience that
gives meaning to each individual’s perceptions of a particular phenomenon and is influenced by
everything internal and external to the individual. Perception is important in phenomenological
philosophy and method, as explained by Merleau-Ponty (1956):
Perception is not a science of the world, nor even an act, a deliberate taking up of a position.
It is the basis from which every act issues and it is presupposed by them. The world is not an
object the law of whose constitution I posses. It is the natural milicu and the field of all my
thoughts and of all my explicit perceptions. Truth does not “dwell” only in the “interior
man” for there is no interior man. Man is before himself in the world and it is in the world
that he knows himself. When I turn upon myself from the dogmatism of common sense or
the dogmatism of science, I find, not the dweling place of intrinsic truth, but a subject
committed to the world. (p. 62)
PHENOMENOLOGICAL ROOTS
The phenomenological movement began around the first decade of the 20th century. This
philosophic movement consisted of three phases: (1) preparatory (2) German (3) French. The
following text describes common themes of phenomenology within the context of these three
phases.
Preparatory Phase
The Preparatory Phase was dominated by Franz Brentano (1838-1917) and Carl Stumpf (1848-
1936). Stumpf was Brentano’s first prominent student and, through his work, demonstrated the
scientific rigor of phenomenology. Clarification of the concept of intentionality was the primary
focus during this time (Spiegelberg, 1965). Intentionality means that consciousness is always
consciousness of something. Merleau-Ponty (1956) explained “interior perception is impossible
without exterior perception, that the world as the connection of phenomena is anticipated in the
consciousness of my unity and is the way for me to realize my self in consciousness” (p. 67).
Therefore, one does not hear without hearing something or believe without believing something
(Cohen, 1987).
German Phase
Edmund Husserl (1857-1938) and Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) were the prominent leaders
during the German, or second, phase of the phenomenological movement. Husserl (1931, 1965_
believed that philosophy should become a rigorous science that would restore contact with
deeper human concern and that phenomenology should become the foundation for all philosophy
and science. According to Spiegelberg (1965), Heidegger followed so closely in th e steps of
Husserl that his work is probablya direct outcome of Husserl’s. the concepts of essences
intuiting, and phenomenological reduction were developed during the German phase
(Spiegelberg, 1965).
Essences are elements related to the ideal or true meaning of something, that is, those concepts
that give common understanding to the phenomenon under investigation. Essences emerge in
both isolation and in relationship to one another. According to Natanson (1973), “Essences are
unities of meaning intended by different individuals in the same acts or by the same individuals
in different acts” (p. 14). Essences, therefore, represent the basic units of common understanding
of any phenomenon. For example, Schwarz (2003) explored how nurses experience and respond
to patients’ requests for assistance in dying. Schwarz (2003) describes the continuum of
interventions provided by the nurses in her phenomenological study that includes “refusal
providing palliative care that might secondarily hasten dying respecting and not interfering with
patients’ or families’ plans to hasten dying, and providing varying types and degrees of direct
AID” (p. 377). In a study examining patient experiences living with rheumatoid arthritis,
Iaquinta and Larrabee (2003) describe the essences of this experiences as “grieving while
growing, persuading self and others of RA’s authenticity, cultivating resilience, confronting
negative feelings, navigating the healthcare system, and masterminding new lifeways” (p. 282).
Phenomenological reduction begins with a suspension of beliefs, assumptions and biases about
the phenomenon under investigation. Isolation of pure phenomenon, versus what is already
known about a particular phenomenon, is the goal of the reductive procedure. The only way to
really see the world clearly is to remain as free as possible from preconceived ideas or notions.
Complete reduction may never be possible because of the intimate relationship individuals have
with the world (Merleau-Ponty, 1956).
As part of the reductive process, phenomenological researchers must first identify any
preconceived notions or ideas about the phenomenon under investigation. Having identified
these ideas, the researchers must bracket or separate out of consciousness what they know or
believe about the topic under investigation. Bracketing requires researchers to remain neutral
with respect to belief or disbelief in the existence of the phenomenon. Bracketing begins the
reductive process and like that process, must continue throughout the investigation,. Essentially,
researchers set aside previous knowledge or personal belief about the phenomenon under
investigation to prevent this information from interfering with the recovery of a pure description
of the phenomenon. Bracketing must be constant and ongoing if descriptions are to achieve their
purest form. Haggman-Laitila (1999) holds the positions that the researcher cannot detach from
his or her own view and offers practical aspects to help in overcoming the researcher’s views
uring data gathering and analysis. Chapter 4 offers an overview of strategies to address this very
issue within the context of ethical standards.
French Phase
Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973), Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980), and Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1905-
1980) were the predominant leader of the French, or third phase, of the phenomenological
movement. The primary concepts developed during this phase were embodiment and being-in-
the-world. These concepts refer to the belief that all acts are constructed on foundations of
perception or original awareness of some phenomenon. Lived experiences, given in the
perceived world, must be described (Merleau-Ponty, 1956). Munhall (1989) explained these key
concept, originally described by Merleau-Ponty, as follows:
At this particular juncture, the following words of caution are offered: Imperative to gaining an
in-depth understanding of the method and philosophy of phenomenology is a return to the
original works. Readers should take the time to read the works of Husserl, Heidegger, Merleau-
Ponty, Spiegelberg, Ricoeur, Gadamer, and others to ensure a solid foundation and
understanding of the philosophy behind the method. It is also advised that beginning researcher
connect with a mentor who can guide their development in the area of phenomenology. Palley
(1997) suggested that “a problematic feature of the way in which phenomenology has been
imported into nursing is that sources tend to be second-hand and several ‘tiers’ in the literature
are apparent” (p. 187). Paley’s work addresses how original concepts can become distorted
when interpreted second-hand and emphasizes the point made earlier: researchers who are
embarking on a phenomenological investigation must return to the original works, secure a
mentor with expertise in the discipline, and recognize that there is no simplistic step-by-step
approach to phenomenological inquiry