10 Worst issues affecting instruments in

Oil & Gas facilities - Part 1: Pressure

Transmitters
Published on November 28, 2015

Tahar Alloui Eng, MIET Follow

403 69 66
Senior Control and Instrument Engineer at Petrofac

In this series of posts, I am sharing with you my personal list of the 10 worst issues Sign in Join now
affecting different types and technologies of field instruments in oil and gas facilities
and which are experienced by plant operators, technicians and engineers all around the
world.

No matter how small or big your project is, I believe that it is essential to keep all these
issues in perspective during instrument design and selection and recognising their
detrimental impact on the instrument function whether in a process control loop, alarm
or a safety instrumented system.

This particular post deals with issues affecting pressure

transmitters whether they are used for pressure, flow, level or
density measurement. The list is certainly not exhaustive but it aims
to highlight the worst issues in terms of: recurrence, severity of the
consequences and the difficulty to identify and address those issues
during engineering and operation of the instrument.

To put it in a nutshell, the issues listed below can either:

Affect the instrument performance and reliability

Cause a partial or a total failure of the instrument

 Be the direct cause of an unsafe act intended to circumvent the problem during
operation (inhibition, alarm masking, uncontrolled modifications, Etc.)

Whilst some of the listed issues might stem from bad installation and maintenance
practices, a significant number of problems come from inadequate or misinformed
decisions taken during instrument design and selection phase.

1. Instrument/Impulse Line plugging

Plugging of pressure transmitters or the associated

impulse lines are recurrent issues particularly when
measuring pressure on fluids loaded with
suspended solids or on high viscosity liquids.
Plugging can also occur by freezing or by hydrate
formation which are generally experienced at low
ambient/process temperatures.

The impact of a partially or totally blocked impulse line is the loss of measurement
accuracy and a slower instrument response to pressure variations. At worst, the pressure
instrument can become completely isolated from the process and would be therefore
unable to provide a pressure measurement representative of the actual fluid pressure.

Plugged impulse lines can also be the cause of accidents during attempts to clear a
blocked impulse line, particularly at high pressure/temperature conditions or on
hazardous fluids (as shown on the video below from Clearguard Pty Ltd).

UNSAFE - before the Clearguard Autorodder

Typically, there are two approaches to address impulse line/instrument plugging:

Elimination: Simply Getting rid of the impulse line by implementing an alternative

solution for pressure measurement (described below)

Mitigation: Specify an impulse line and take specific measures intended to reduce
the risk of plugging during operation

Elimination measures:
 Specify pressure transmitters with remote diaphragm seals which allow pressure
propagation from the tapping point to the instrument through enclosed silicone-
filled capillaries. As those capillaries are isolated from the process by diagram seals,
this solution eliminates plugging risk and is therefore an excellent alternative to
impulse lines for dirty services providing that a good selection of the diaphragm
seals and the capillary filling liquid is made.

Specify close-coupled pressure transmitters: the instrument is in this case mounted

very close to the tapping point as shown below. This arrangement reduces
dramatically the volume between the instrument and the tapping point which
therefore reduces plugging risks particularly those related to freezing and hydrate
formation. Nevertheless, fouling/plugging due to derbies and suspected solids might
still be an issue if instrument manifolds are used as they incorporate needle valves
which are prone to clogging due to their relatively small orifice.

Electronic Remote transmitters (Level and DP

Measurement): This solution relies on instrument close-
coupling principle. It is generally used for level and DP measurement and can be
considered as a better alternative to capillary seals as it eliminates temperature
induced density effect and Seal effect errors associated with capillary seals. The
idea is to use an electronic pressure transmitter on each pressure tapping (HP and
LP) and ensure that one of the transmitters receives the measurement from the other
instrument and computes, transmits and displays the measured DP or Level. Here is
an excellent article from Rosemont covering the topic in more details.

Mitigation measures
if impulse lines can't be eliminated or if their advantages outweigh their disadvantages,
the following measures should be implemented to mitigate the risk of plugging:

Proper tapping location: For dirty liquids, the designer should avoid tapping
locations below the horizontal centre line and near the bottom section of the pipe
where derbies/dirts tend to accumulate. Tapping location should be ideally at the
horizontal centre line. For measurement on gases, pressure tappings are generally
above the horizontal centre line of the pipe which helps keeping the suspended
solids out of the impulse line

Right tubing diameter: ISO/CD 2186 standard recommends larger impulse line
tubing diameter for viscous or dirty fluid applications (can range from 13 to 25 mm)

Heat tracing: to avoid icing and hydrate formation

Impulse line with clean filled fluid with a sufficiently low freezing point to prevent
icing

Consider an intermittent or continuous impulse line purging system which ensures

that derbies are kept out the impulse line by continuously or intermittently injecting
a clean fluid through the impulse line at a sufficient flow rate. Nevertheless, the
induced measurement error due to the purging fluid flow rate and pressure should be
carefully assessed to evaluate the suitability of this solution

Use a mechanical cleaning system such as the ''autorodder'' designed by Clearguard

Pty Ltd

Selecting transmitters with plugging detection function: Although considered as a

passive measure, this function allows pressure transmitters to detect impulse line
plugging conditions based on a statistical noise monitoring algorithm. Early
corrective actions can be therefore taken by the operators when plugging is detected

For more details, here's an excellent paper published by NEL UK and which provides
useful recommendations for impulse line design and installation

2. Leaks:

Impulse lines, manifolds and valves are widely used to connect pressure instruments to
the process. The connections made (threaded, compression type, flanged type, etc.) can
deteriorate due to vibration, temperature change or wear resulting in process leaks.

Process fluid leaks result in product/energy loss, measurement errors and can be a
serious threat to personnel safety and environment.
The following measures can dramatically eliminate/reduce process leaks and the
associated impacts:

Limit the number of connections on pressure measurement systems. Use of close-

coupled pressure transmitters should be encouraged

Reduce strain on fittings due to thermal expansion by providing sufficient expansion

loops and bends on the tubing

Securely support the instrument, impulse lines and the associated components

Strictly follow the manufacturer's instructions and best practices for installing and
tightening compression fittings, flanged and threaded joints particularly on systems
subject to temperature/pressure cycling. All joints shall be inspected and leak tested

Depending upon local regulatory requirements pertaining to environment protection,

specifying low emission manifolds and valves can be beneficial to reduce fugitive
process leaks from instrument valve packing

Smart Leak Detection: Some smart pressure transmitters have now a built-in leak
detection function such as Rosemount 3051S. The function relies on the same
principle as plugging detection (noise monitoring)

3. Trapped bubbles/gas pockets in liquid filled impulse lines (Wet legs)

Trapped gas bubbles is a concern in liquid pressure measurement applications where the
impulse lines are supposed to be only filled with liquid.

Gas bubbles affect the measurement accuracy as the gas are compressible and prevent
liquid pressure to be propagated without significant pressure loss.

Typical measures and practices to avoid gas bubbles in liquid filled legs are:

Proper pressure tapping location: For liquid pressure measurement, below pipe
horizontal centre line to avoid vapour/gas bubbles getting into the impulse line

Instrument location: For liquid pressure measurement, the instrument should be

installed below tapping point(s) to avoid gas bubble getting into the instrument body

Specifying capillary type pressure transmitters

Specifying close-coupled pressure transmitters

4. Trapped liquid in gas filled impulse lines (Dry legs)

Trapped liquid in a gas pressure measurement applications are known for

creating measurement errors due to the resulting liquid head which is not accounted for
in the instrument configuration.

The following measures are usually sufficient to prevent/limit liquid condensation in

pressure measurement applications involving dry legs:

Proper tapping location: For gas pressure measurement, above pipe horizontal centre
line to avoid liquid ingress into the impulse line

Self-draining impulse line: Allowing any condensed liquid to drain toward the
pipe/vessel and not into the instrument

Specifying capillary type pressure transmitters

Specifying close-coupled pressure transmitters

Heat tracing to avoid condensation inside the impulse line

Consider continuous impulse line purging using a clean and dry gas

5. Lightening and electrostatic discharges

Electronic instruments can be permanently damaged by power surges (transients) which

are generated by lightening strikes or electrostatic discharges.

Lightening strikes on steelwork, pipework or even the ground can generate intense
electric field which in turn can induce high transient voltages on instruments and
instrument cables located nearby.

Additionally, friction, wind, sand storms and similar phenomenons can raise the
electrostatic potential of the instrument, the adjacent equipment/structure or even the
technician working on the instrument! Electrostatic charge accumulation is particularly
favoured by low humidity conditions and when there are no sufficient means to
maintain the electrostatic potential at a safe level (through earthing/bonding connections
or by use of antistatic materials). Beyond a certain point, electrostatic discharges can
occur and damage the instrument permanently if its electronic circuits comes in contact
with surfaces which are at a different and excessively high electrostatic potential.
Instrument damage due to lightening or electrostatic discharges is usually difficult to
identify during operation and should be therefore addressed during instrument design
and selection.

For lightening strike issue, Isokeraunic charts are usually available to evaluate the
frequency of occurrence of lightening strikes in the location where electronic
instruments will be installed. The frequency of occurrence dictates the measures to be
implemented to protect the instrument.

For lightening strike issue, Emerson recommends the following measures to avoid
lightening strike damage on electronic instruments:

Diversion: Grounded metallic structures form a “cone of protection” to protect

equipment and cabling.

Attenuation: Judicious wiring practices, such as metallic raceways, cable shields,

twisted pairs, and extensive grounding and earthing reduce the magnitude of
transients.

Suppression: Add-on devices limit the magnitude of the transient appearing at the
instrument.

For electrostatic discharge issue, Emerson recommends the following measures:

Grounding: Technicians should wear grounded wrist straps. Simply touching an

equipment frame drains existing charges, but it does not drain regenerative charges.
Subsequent movement by a technician quickly regenerates static charge.

Education: Persons who handle electronic equipment should be educated about the
damage cause by static charges.

Static Shielding: Use true static shielding bags with a highly conducting layer to
prevent static build-up inside the bag and provide a shield to the external static
voltage field.

Humidity: High humidity reduces static levels but does not completely eliminate
static.

Antistatic sprays: Topical antistatic sprays also reduce static levels, but they are
subject to environmental changes and, since they are surface-applied, may wear out

6. Temperature induced measurement errors
Process and ambient temperatures are known for affecting instrument measurement
although modern transmitters are less sensitive to temperature variations compared to
older models thanks to their built-in temperature compensation functions which correct
the instrument response with respect to the instrument/sensor temperature.

Nevertheless, pressure measurement involving wet legs or capillary seals are still
significantly affected by process/ambient temperature variations.

Particularly on wet legs, temperature variations may significantly affect the density of
the impulse line liquid which leads to an increase/decrease of the liquid head pressure
sensed by the instrument. If this variation is not compensated, a significant
measurement error is induced (Called temperature induced density effect error).

Capillary seal type pressure transmitters are not only affected by Temperature
induced density effect but are also affected by the Seal effect which is due to the
expansion/contraction of the filling fluid inside the enclosed capillary volume which
creates an additional pressure in the system with the subsequent measurement error if
not compensated.

On DP measurement applications, the seal effect is usually compensated by having the

same length of capillaries for for both HP and LP ports of the instrument (Balanced
design).

There are certainly several ways to reduce temperature induced errors in pressure
measurement application involving wide temperature variations but the following are
the most effective solutions:

Specify close-coupled pressure transmitters: the instrument is in this case mounted

very close to the tapping point as shown below. This arrangement reduces
dramatically the volume between the instrument and the tapping point which
therefore reduces the errors due to liquid density change.

Electronic Remote transmitters (Level and DP Measurement): This solution relies

on instrument close-coupling principle. It is generally used for level and DP
measurement and can be considered as a better alternative to capillary seals as it
eliminates temperature induced density effect and Seal effect errors associated
with capillary seals. The idea is to use an electronic pressure transmitter on each
pressure tapping (HP and LP) and ensure that one of the transmitters receives the
measurement from the other instrument and computes, transmits and displays the
measured DP or Level.

Using an approach similar to the Tuned-system assemblies developed by Emerson

which makes the seal and density effects cancel out each other so that the overall
measurement error is significantly reduced

7. Damage due to process/ambient temperature

Exposure of an electronic pressure transmitter to excessively high ambient or process

temperatures can impair the instrument operation, affect its performance or even lead to
a partial or total failure of the instrument.

Many pressure transmitters available on the market are capable of withstanding the
most extreme ambient temperatures on earth. However, it is important to consider cases
where the instrument will be installed near or within heat sources such as boilers,
burners, ovens, Etc. where ambient temperatures can go beyond the instrument
capability.

To prevent exposure to excessively high ambient temperatures:

Consider installing the instrument at a safe distance from major heat sources

In extreme cases, cool down the instrument vicinity using compressed air or any
equivalent mean

Protect the instrument from direct solar radiation particularly in locations where
excessively black bulb temperatures are recorded

Avoid exposing the instrument LCD display to direct sunlight by properly orienting
the instrument or by installing a sunshade

To deal with relatively high process temperatures, the following guidelines should be
followed:

Select an instrument which can withstand the maximum process temperature by

ensuring that the instrument filling fluid, o-rings, gaskets and electronics are
suitable for the duty

Using sufficient lengths of impulse line to reduce the process fluid temperature. This
measure is effective on a wide range of applications

Using capillary seals to isolate the pressure transmitter from the excessively hot
process fluid. It is important that the diaphragm seal material and filling liquid are
properly selected for the duty

In extreme cases, use a cooler to reduce the process fluid temperature

In steam service: Installing a syphon with a suitable filling liquid to avoid

instrument exposure to hot steam

Ensure that the instrument LCD Display can withstand the instrument body
temperature as LCD displays usually limit the process temperature range of the
instrument. Installing a ''blind'' pressure transmitter with a remote loop indicator
might a suitable options for high temperature services

8. Corrosion

In Oil and Gas facilities, instruments are exposed to different process fluids and
temperature/pressure conditions which make them prone to different types of corrosion
mechanisms. These mechanisms lead to a gradual destruction of the instrument
materials resulting in:
 Loss/reduction of pressure containment capability leading to process leaks which
might be hazardous to personnel and environment

Impairing the instrument function and performanceTo avoid/mitigate the above

issues, the following guidelines should be followed to ensure an adequate material
selection:

Corrosion is certainly a wide topic but I think it is useful to recognise that there are
10 basic corrosion mechanisms which should be taken into consideration during
instrument material selection : Uniform corrosion, pitting, galvanic
corrosion, erosion-corrosion, stress corrosion cracking (SCC), crevice
corrosion, Hydrogen embrittlement, intergranular corrosion, hydrogen
permeation and sulphide stress cracking (SSC).

A conservative assessment of the corrosion mechanisms which can take place

during operation. The assessment should be based on realistic yet conservative
process data

Rely on approved chemical resistance charts to determine the suitability of steels

and polymers across the application pressure/temperature range

Seek manufacturer's advice for material suitability

To avoid/reduce galvanic corrosion, the instrument material selection should be

compatible with the pipe/vessel material. Additionally, the materials of the pressure
transmitter components such as the instrument body and bolts should be selected to
avoid galvanic corrosion within the instrument

Particularly for Hydrogen permeation: Gold plated diaphragms

Select/Require NACE approved materials when SSC and SCC corrosion is expected

For more details, here is a very comprehensive article from Emerson which covers this
important topic.

9. Inadequate measurement range

Selecting pressure instruments with inadequate measurement ranges happens when

process conditions are not properly defined/ forecast during the design stage. In certain
applications such as oil and gas wells, process conditions can significantly drift after a
certain period of time beyond the instrument capability. In such cases, the actual
process pressure might either go out of the instrument range or reaches levels where a
satisfactory measurement accuracy cannot be achieved.

As an example, I've seen DP based flow meters on gas wells becoming unreliable due to
a significant decrease in the well production flow rate and the resulting differential
pressure which dropped beyond what the installed pressure transmitters could
accurately measure.

Therefore, process conditions shall be carefully defined/evaluated by the process

engineers for the expected life span of the facility particularly for processes where a
significant process condition changes are expected. Furthermore, instrument design
engineers should consider the following options to address this issue:

Select instruments with measurement ranges which are wide enough to

accommodate future process condition changes

Consider splitting the measurement range between two or more pressure instruments
when it is not possible to have a single instrument to cover the entire pressure span
(Example: One instrument to cover the low part of the measurement range and a
second instrument to cover the high part)

Consider a staged approach: A suitable instrument is selected and installed to cover

the measurement range expected for a limited period of time. This instrument will
have to be replaced with a suitable instrument at a certain point where process
conditions change beyond the instrument capability.

10. Overpressure/Vacuum

Occasional, intermittent or continuous overpressure and vacuum conditions can damage

the instrument sensing element (diaphragm generally) if the instrument cannot
withstand such conditions. Additionally and beyond a certain point,
overpressure/vacuum conditions can lead to process leaks or reduce/impair the pressure
containment capability of the instrument which in turn can have implications on
personnel safety and environment.

Overpressure/vacuum can occur during equipment/process start-up or at during a

process shut-down (closure of a valve for example). Overpressure/ vacuum conditions
can also occur during equipment/system overhauls which may involve hydro testing,
leak testing and vacuum cleaning.

It is important to identify the existence of such scenarios and evaluate the expected
overpressure/vacuum conditions. The best approach is certainly to select pressure
instruments which inherently withstand the expected overpressure/vacuum conditions
but for certain applications accessories such as overpressure/vacuum protectors,
snubber, syphon and needle valves could be specified.

For hydro testing, leak testing and vacuum cleaning of equipment/systems, isolation or
temporary removal of pressure instruments should be clearly stated on procedures/forms
and communicated to the execution team to avoid damaging pressure instruments
during those operations.

That was my list of the worst issues affecting pressure transmitters and which I
personally like to keep in mind whenever I have to select or troubleshoot a pressure
instrument. I would love to hear your suggestions. Have you faced issues other than the
ones discussed in this post? Please share your thoughts in the comment section.
 I really hope that you will find this list useful. If you do, follow me for more insights
about field instrumentation in the oil and gas industry. Thank you!

Tagged in: pressure, oil & gas, instrumentation

Tahar Alloui Eng, MIET

Senior Control and Instrument Engineer at Petrofac Follow
1 article

69 comments Newest

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Gerardo Abelgas 3w
Prinicpal E&I QC Inspector at McDermott International Inc.
good informative write up, suggest you also include the effect of tubing pocket in pressure
measurement
Like Reply

Melquíades Delgado 1mo

Electronic Engineer
Excellent article with practical information about real-life problems in the field instrumentation. It
would be very useful to have access to the other articles.
Like Reply 1

There are 67 other comments. Show more.

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