Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
20.9.2018
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ASET / RSET assessment
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ASET / RSET calculation requirements
ASET RSET
• Fire scenario (HRR, yields • Detection time
of soot and toxic gases) • Alarm time
• Location of fire • Reaction time
• Smoke transport • Movement time
• Temperature • Distributions / single value
• Heat flux • Special considerations
• Dose and effect • people returning to burning
calculation building
• Comparison against • Pre-warnings / confirmation
critical values in large systems
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43
Tenability limit evaluation questions
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44
Toxic hazard in fires
Toxic hazard
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Toxic gases: Asphyxiants
• Some combustion products reduce the O2 concentration in blood
flow and in nervous system, causing unconsciousness and death.
• Effect depends on the concentrations and the duration of exposure.
• E.g.: CO. HCN. CO2 and O2 –reduction.
• CO is the most common asphyxiant – few thousand ppm will cause the
loss of activity in minutes.
• HCN is about 25 times more toxic than CO – 200 ppm is enough to stop
activity in minutes. (Knockdown –effect).
• O2 -reduction is not harmful if volume fraction (O2) > 13%.
• Usually CO2 does not have an asphyxiant effect in fires. But only 2%
concentration will cause hyperventilation amplifies the other
effects.
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Toxic gases: Irritants
• Irritation in sensory organs: eyes. nose. mouth. throat. respiratory
tract uncomfort, pain.
• Most effects are not permanent. and thus depend on
concentration rather than exposure time.
• E.g.: HCl
• 30 min LC50 = 1600…6000 ppm
• RD50 = 309 ppm (depression of respiratory rate to 50 % in short
exposure)
• Effects in eyes and upper respiratory tract can hamper or even
prevent self-imposed escape.
• Lung exposure can cause problems. even death. after the fire.
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Toxic potency
• Capability of a
substance to cause
toxic conditions as a
lethal concentration
(LC50) or irritanct
concentration for
incapacitation (RD50).
• Measured as lethal
mass concentration
(g/m3)
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Modelling the loss of activity due to the
Carbon Monoxide
• Assume that CO is the only affecting gas.
• Maximum time (min) that an average person is able to function
depends on the air CO concentration (ppm) as follows
36232
tCO (min) 1.036
CCO
• For time dependent CO concentration (it usually is), the time t
(min) can be calculated from integral
C (t ' )
t
1.036
CO dt ' 36232
0
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Fractional Effective Dose (FED)
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FED: CO2 and O2 effects
• For CO2 concentrations above 2%, the previous FED formula is
multiplied by the factor of respiratory increase
exp0.1930CCO 2 (%) 2.0004
HVCO2
7.1
• In addition, the lack of oxygen will add an extra term
t
dt '
FEDO2 (t )
0
exp8.13 0.5420.9 CO 2 (t ' )
• Total FED
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Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)
• Strong irritation symptoms start at 100 ppm.
• If HCl is the only toxic species, an average person can withstand
a short time at 1000 ppm (1 permill).
• If CHCl > 1000 ppm, escape may not be possible.
• Empirical observation: irritant smoke reduces the walking speed
in evacuation or escape situations.
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Fractional Irritant Concentration (FIC)
HBr 200
• FIC >> 1 Escape not possible. HF 120
• Note: Cirr. as well as other toxicity SO2 30
values have strong (even order of NO2 80 (5 min). 25 (30 min)
magnitude) differences between C3H4O 20
literature sources. CH2O 30
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Fractional Leathal Dose (FLD50)
9/20/2018
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Tenability limits summary
unpleasant severe
9/20/2018
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Yield of toxic species
m i Yi m
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Yields in fuel-controlled fires
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𝒎𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 /𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒓
Effect of ventilation 𝝓=
𝒎𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 /𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝒔𝒕
9/20/2018
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Effect of ventilation on HCN
Purser, D., Purser, J. 9th Int. Symposium of IAFSS, 2008, pp 1117-1128. 9/20/2018
62
http://www.iafss.org/publications/fss/9/1117/view
Thermal hazard in fires
Tolerance to convected heat
• Hyperthermia
• Skin burns (pain starts when
T ( =0.1 mm) = 44.8 C
• Damage to respitory trackt
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Radiative heat flux at skin
• Human skin can withstand radiative heat flux that is lower than
2.5 kW/m2.
• Heat fluxes above 2.5 kW/m2 cause burns. The time to the burn
formation, t (min), decreases quickly, when the heat flux
increases:
r
t 1,33
q
More:
http://www.hse.gov.uk/foi/internalops/hid_circs/technical 9/20/2018
65
_osd/spc_tech_osd_30/spctecosd30.pdf
More about effect of thermal radiation
9/20/2018
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Smoke visibility
Attenuation coefficient K
• Extinction coefficient K is proportional to
soot mass concentration:
K = Km C s
Km = specific extinc. coeff. (m2/kg)
Cs = soot concentration (kg/m3)
NASA
• 2
Flaming fire of wood and plastics: Km ~ 7600 m /kg
• Pyrolysis of wood and plastic (e.g. smoldering) Km ~ 4400 m2/kg
• The numbers above are for polychromatic light.
• For red light: Km = 8700 1140 m2/kg.
• Note: Km ~ 1/
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Visibility in smoke: Bouguer’s law
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Visibility in smoke: experimental
Visibility S (m)
Light-emitting signs: K S = 8
Reflecting signs: KS=3
Behaviour
• People turn back (in average)
when S = 3 m (OD = 0.33 1/m,
K = 0.73 1/m)
• Way finding constraint is 5 m visibility
in domestic enclosures, 10 m in large enclosures 9/20/2018
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Walking speed
Experimental parameters
• Known / unknown environment
• Irritant / non-irritant
• Light
VTT Technology 70
9/20/2018
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Smoke effects:
FDS+Evac implementation
Walking speed
v ( K ) max 0.1 m/s, v 0 1 0.0807 K
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Toxicity
9/20/2018
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Summary and future
prospects
Classical evacuation time calculation
NO INTERACTINO BETWEEN
EVACUATION AND FIRE
76
Modern evacuation simulations
0.15 ”Safety factor”
density
Todennäköisyystiheys
0.10
Ennen:
tevac < tsafe
Profability
0.05
0.00
0 15 30 45 60
Time (min)
Aika (min)
77
Future of evacuation simulations
0.15 Number
UHRIEN of fatalities
ARVIOITU LUKUMÄÄRÄ
Todennäköisyystiheys
VUOSITASOLLA
1E-03
of (n>N)
0.05
0.00
0 15 30 45 60
1E-04
Aika (min)
frequency
1E-05
TODENNÄKÖISYYS
Interactive fire and evacuation
simulaitons. 1E-06
Annual
1E-07
78