Operational amplifier is usually Called Op Amps.

An amplifier is a device that accepts a

varying input signal and produces a similar output signal with a larger amplitude.
An operational amplifier is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with
a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. An op-amp produces an output
voltage that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the
voltage difference between its input terminals
. Op amps are high gain amplifiers, and are used almost invariably with overall loop
feedback. The principle of the feedback amplifier has to rank as one of the more notable
developments 20th century— right up there with the automobile or airplane for breadth of
utility , and general value to engineering. And, most importantly, such feedback systems,
although originally conceived as a solution to a communications problem, operate today in
more diverse situations. This is a clear tribute to the concept’s fundamental value.

Circuit Notation of OP-AMP:-

AN IDEAL OP-AMP:-
 Ideal op-amp
+ AVin
Vin ~ Vout
 Zout=0

Op-amps are one of the basic building blocks of Analogue Electronic Circuits. Operational
amplifiers are linear devices that have all the properties required for nearly ideal DC
amplification and are therefore used extensively in signal conditioning. filtering or to perform
mathematical operations such as add, subtract, integration and differentiation.
An ideal Operational Amplifier is basically a three-terminal device which consists of two
high impedance inputs, one called the Inverting Input, marked with a negative or "minus"
sign, ( "-" ) and the other one called the Non-inverting Input, marked with a positive or "plus"
sign ( "+" ).

Chapter-2 BASIC THEORY:

A final major transitional phase of op amp history began with the

development of the first IC op amp, in the mid 1960’s. Once IC technology became widely
established, things moved quickly through the latter of the 20th century years, with milestone
after milestone of progress being made in device performance. The Operational Amplifier
(Op Amp) can be used in many different ways. The Op-amp has two inputs an inverting input
(-) and a non-inverting input (+) and one output. A signal applied to the inverting input will
have its polarity reversed on the output. A signal applied to the non-inverting input will retain
its polarity on the output. The gain or amplification of the signal is determined by a feedback
resistor that feeds some of the output signal back to the inverting input .The smaller the
resistor, the lower the gain.. The most common is the 741.

1. IC 741
The most commonly used op-amp is IC741. The 741 op-amp is a voltage amplifier, it inverts
the input voltage at the output, can be found almost everywhere in electronic circuits.

Pin Configuration:

Let’s see the pin configuration and testing of 741 op-amps. Usually, this is a numbered
counter clockwise around the chip. It is an 8 pin IC. They provide superior performance in
integrator, summing amplifier and general feedback applications. These are high gain op-
amp; the voltage on the inverting input can be maintained almost equal to Vin.

It is a 8-pin dual-in-line package with a pinout shown above.

Pin 1: Offset null.

Pin 2: Inverting input terminal.

Pin 3: Non-inverting input terminal.

Pin 4: –VCC (negative voltage supply).

Pin 5: Offset null.

Pin 6: Output voltage.

Pin 7: +VCC (positive voltage supply).

Pin 8: No Connection.

The main pins in the 741 op-amp are pin2, pin3 and pin6. In inverting amplifier, a positive
voltage is applied to pin2 of the op-amp; we get output as negative voltage through pin 6. The
polarity has been inverted. In a non-inverting amplifier, a positive voltage is applied to pin3
of the op-amp; we get output as positive voltage through pin 6. Polarity remains the same in
non-inverting amplifier. Vcc is usually in the range from 12 to 15 volts. When two supplies
(+Vcc/-Vcc) are used, they are the same voltage and of opposite sign in almost all cases.
Remember that the operational amplifier is a high gain, differential voltage amplifier. For a
741 operational amplifier, the gain is at least 100,000 and can be more than a million
(1,000,000). That’s an important fact you’ll need to remember as you put the 741 into a
circuit.

There are many common application circuits using IC741 op-amp, they are adder,
comparator, subtractor, integrator, differentiator and voltage follower.

Below is some example of 741 IC based circuits. However, the 741 is used as a comparator
and not an amplifier. The difference between the two is small but significant. Even if used as
a comparator the 741 still detects weak signals so that they can be recognized more easily. A
comparator is a circuit that compares two input voltages. One voltage is called the reference
voltage and the other is called the input voltage. It is a circuit which compares a signal
voltage applied at one input of an op-amp with a known reference voltage at the other input.
The 741 op-amp has ideal transfer characteristics (output ±Vsat); and the output is changed
by increment in the input voltage of 2mV.

The operational amplifier is arguably the most useful single device in analog electronic
circuitry. With only a handful of external components, it can be made to perform a wide
variety of analog signal processing tasks. It is also quite affordable, most general-purpose
amplifiers selling for under a dollar apiece. Modern designs have been engineered with
durability in mind as well: several "op-amps" are manufactured that can sustain direct short-
circuits on their outputs without damage.
One key to the usefulness of these little circuits is in the engineering principle of feedback,
particularly negative feedback, which constitutes the foundation of almost all automatic
control processes. The principles presented here in operational amplifier circuits, therefore,
extend well beyond the immediate scope of electronics. It is well worth the electronics
student's time to learn these principles and learn them well.

Pin Diagram of an OP-AMP:-

3.1 Block Diagram of op-amp:
3.2 Description of Block Diagram:
An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high-gain
amplifier usually consisting of one or more differential amplifiers and usually followed by a
level translator and an output stage. The output stage is generally a push-pull symmetry pair.
An op-amp is available as a single integrated ckt package.
An op-amp is a high quality amplifier. It contains four stages, which are connected in
cascaded manner.

The first stage of an op.amp is a double ended differential amplifier. This stage provides
maximum voltage gain. This stage should employ a current source at the common emitter
node for good common mode rejection.

This second stage is an intermediate gain stage called single ended differential amplifier. It
does not require a current source in the emitter. Normally the second stage is needed only to
provide some additional gain. Its input resistance should be relatively high to prevent
excessive loading of the first stage.

The third stage is an emitter follower, which produces unity gain. It has high input resistance
and also low output resistance. It matches the output of amplifier stage and the input of
output stage.

The fourth stage is a level translator and output driver. This stage is used for preventing any
undesired dc current in the load and increasing the permissible output voltage swing. Hence it
supplies large output voltage or current

3.3 Op-amp Applications is -

• Inverting amplifier
• Non-inverting amplifier
• Summing amplifier
• Comparator
• Integrator
• Differentiator
Inverting amplifier:

An inverting amplifier inverts and scales the input signal. As long as the
op-amp gain is very large.

The amplifier gain is determined by two stable external resistors (the feedback resistor Rf and
the input resistor Rin) and not by op-amp parameters which are highly temperature dependent

As with the non-inverting amplifier, we start with the gain equation of the op-amp:

This time, – is a function of both and due to the voltage divider formed by a

and . Again, the op-amp input does not apply an appreciable load, so:

Substituting this into the gain equation and solving for :

If is very large, this simplifies to

In particular, the Rin–Rf resistor network acts as an electronics) where the inverting (i.e., −)
input of the operational amplifier is like a fulcrum about which the seesaw pivots. That is,
because the operational amplifier is in a negative-feedback configuration, its internal high
gain effectively fixes the inverting (i.e., −) input at the same 0 V (ground) voltage of the non-
inverting (i.e., +) input, which is similar to the stiff mechanical support provided by the
fulcrum of the seesaw. Continuing the analogy.

Non-inverting amplifier:

The gain equation for the op-amp is:

However, in this circuit – is a function of because of the negative feedback through

the network. and form a voltage divider, and as – is a high-impedance input,

it does not load it appreciably. Consequently:
where

Substituting this into the gain equation, we obtain:

Solving for :

If is very large, this simplifies to

Non-inverting amplifier Amplifies a voltage (multiplies by a constant greater than 1). The
input impedance is at least the impedance between non-inverting ( + ) and inverting ( − )
inputs, which is typically 1 MΩ to 10 TΩ, plus the
impedance of the path from the inverting ( − ) input to ground (i.e., R1 in
parallel with Rf). Because negative feedback ensures that the non-inverting and inverting
inputs match, the input impedance is actually much higher.
The non-inverting ( + ) and inverting ( − ) inputs draw small leakage currents into the
operational amplifier. These input currents generate voltages that act like unmodeled input
offsets. These unmodeled effects can lead to noise on the output.

Summing amplifier:
 The summing amplifier is a handy circuit enabling you to add several signals
together. What are some examples? If you're measuring temperature, you can add a negative
offset to make the display read "0" at the freezing point. On a precision amplifier, you may
need to add a small voltage to cancel the offset error of the op amp itself. An audio mixer is
another good example of adding waveforms (sounds) from different channels (vocals,
instruments) together before sending the combined signal to a recorder.
Although, there are many ways to make a summer, this one is nice because it keeps the
interaction between inputs at a minimum. What does that mean for you the designer? You can
change the gain or add another input without messing with the gains of the other inputs. Just
remember that the circuit also inverts the input signals. Not a big deal. If you need the
opposite polarity, put an inverting stage before or after the summer.

Comparator:
 In electronics, a comparator is a device that compares two voltages or currents
and switches its output to indicate which is larger. They are commonly used in devices such
as Analog-to-digital converters.
A comparator is designed to produce well limited output voltages that easily interface with
digital logic. Compatibility with digital logic must be verified while using an op-amp as a
comparator. An operational amplifier (op-amp) has a well balanced difference input and a
very high gain. This parallels the characteristics of comparators and can be substituted in
applications with low-performance requirements. Many op-amps have back to back diodes
between their inputs. Op-amp inputs usually follow each other so this is fine. But comparator
inputs are not usually the same. The diodes can cause unexpected current through inputs.

Differentiator:

The differentiator as its name implies, the circuit performs the mathematical
operation of differentiation ; that is the output waveform is the derivative of the input
waveform. The differentiator may be constructed from basic inverting amplifier if an input
resistor R1 is replaced by a capacitor C.
The output V0 is equal to the RfC times the negative instantaneous rate of change of the input
voltage Vin with time. Since the differentiator performs the reverse of the integrator’s
function, a cosine wave input will produce a sine wave output, or a triangular input will
produce a square wave output.

A differentiator circuit consists of an operational amplifier, resistors are used at

feedback side and capacitors are used at the input side. The circuit is based on the
capacitors current to voltage relationship:

where I is the current through the capacitor, C is the capacitance of the capacitor, and V is
the voltage across the capacitor. The current flowing through the capacitor is then
proportional to the derivative of the voltage across the capacitor. This current can then be
connected to a resistor, which has the current to voltage relationship:

where R is the resistance of the resistor.

If Vout is the voltage across the resistor and Vin is the voltage across the capacitor, we can
rearrange these two equations to obtain the following equation.

Integrator:

The integrator is a circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of
the input voltage waveform . such a circuit is obtained by using a basic inverting amplifier
configuration if the feedback resistor Rf is replaced by a capacitor Cf.

Output equation indicates that the output voltage is directly proportional to the negative
integral of the input voltage and inversely proportional to the time constant R1Cf. For example
,if the input is a sine wave, the output will be a cosine wave; or if the input is a square wave,
the output will be a triangular wave.

3.4 Circuit Components:

3.5 Power supply:

The objective here is to build a dual power supply that generates regulated +12
volts and -12 volts from 230VAC mains. Such a supply is a very common requirement in all
those circuits that use op-amps. Since op-amps are very widely used in a variety of circuits of
hobbyists’ interests, construction of this project could serve as a very useful tool in testing all
those circuits that need a dual supply. Each of the outputs in the circuit shown in Fig.8.1 has a
current delivering capability of 250mA. You would also discover this circuit to be an integral
part of the more complex circuits that are mains operable.

Chapter-4 CONCLUSION

4.1 Advantages:-

Op-amps are made of transistors. The advantages of using op-amps as gain

blocks instead of simpler transistor circuits is usually simpler design made with fewer
mounted parts (even though the total device count is higher, considering the complexity
inside the op-amps) and more ideal and predictable performance, often at lower supply
current. There are exceptions, where individual transistors are more suited to the desired
functions, when higher frequencies, larger currents, voltages or higher power are involved.
Also, if cost is more important than ideal performance, transistor designs can often beat op-
amp ones, even though there are some very low cost op-amps available.

4.2 Limitations of op-amp:-

The primary limitation of op-amp is that they are not especially fast: The typical performance
degrades rapidly for frequencies greater than about 1 MHz, although some models are
designed specially to handle higher frequencies.