The International Journal of Human Resource Management,

Vol. 20, No. 3, March 2009, 528–543

Concepts of e-HRM consequences: a categorisation, review

and suggestion
Stefan Strohmeier*

Chair for Management Information Systems, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, Germany

Electronic Human Resource Management (e-HRM) constitutes a commonly adopted
management practice in the interim. This is obviously founded on the expectation of
diverse positive consequences of e-HRM, such as reducing costs, speeding up processes,
improving quality, and even gaining a more strategic role for HR within the organisation.
Given the crucial importance of actual consequences for practice, research is asked to
provide a general understanding of e-HRM consequences that supports practice in its
decisions. This paper therefore addresses the question of how to adequately
conceptualise e-HRM consequences. To do so, first a categorisation scheme is presented
that allows a systematic categorisation of consequence concepts. Second, based on the
categorisation the paper aims to identify the often implicit concepts in previous research.
Third, a specific concept of consequences, as used information system potentials, is
suggested and the implications for practice and research of e-HRM are discussed.
Keywords: e-HRM consequences; e-HRM; electronic human resource management;
HRIS; technology assessment

Introduction
The rapid development of the Internet during the last decade has enhanced the adoption of
electronic Human Resource Management (e-HRM). e-HRM can be understood as the
(planning, implementation, and) application of information systems (IS) for both
networking and supporting actors in their shared performing of HR activities (Strohmeier
2007). Surveys of HR consultants suggest that both the number of organisations adopting
e-HRM and the depth of application within the organisations are continually increasing
(e.g. Cedar Crestone 2007). In addition, numerous practitioner reports provide anecdotal
evidence that e-HRM has meanwhile become a common organisational practice (e.g.
Clark 2006). This common adoption is obviously founded on the expectation of diverse
positive consequences of e-HRM, such as reducing costs, speeding up processes,
improving quality, and even gaining a more strategic role for HR within the organisation
(e.g. Lengnick-Hall and Moritz 2003). Generally, consequences of e-HRM are all
phenomena that accompany and/or follow the application of IS in HRM, whether desired
or undesired and whether expected or unexpected. Given the crucial importance of
consequences for practice, research is asked to investigate actual consequences of e-HRM
to support practice in its manifold implementation and application decisions. In the past,
research conceptualised consequences based on orthodoxies that were taken for granted
and self evident. Consequently, the consequence concepts in use were usually not a subject

*Email: s.strohmeier@mis.uni-saarland.de

ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online

q 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/09585190802707292
http://www.informaworld.com
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 529

of deeper analysis. However, lasting problems in general IS consequences research – for

instance the notoriously contradictory empirical findings (e.g. Attewell and Rule 1984;
Ang and Pavri 1994) – challenge plain common sense concepts of consequences. Hence,
rather than relying on unexamined orthodoxies, future research into the consequences of
e-HRM should have a deeper look at its assumptions and develop an explicit and
viable concept of consequences. This paper therefore addresses the question of how to
adequately conceptualise e-HRM consequences. Developing and refining previous work,
first a categorisation scheme is presented that allows a systematic categorisation of
consequence concepts. In addition, major concept categories are discussed. Second, based
on this categorisation the paper aims to reconstruct the often implicit concepts in previous
research into consequences of IS in HRM. Yet, a conventional review of findings
concerning e-HRM consequences (e.g. Strohmeier 2007) is not intended. Third, a specific
concept of consequences is suggested and the implications for research and practice of
e-HRM are discussed.

Categorisation
Given half a century of research into IS consequences, various concepts of consequences
exist. However, rather than entirely enumerating numerous detailed concepts, a general
categorisation of concepts promises orientation and guidance for research into e-HRM
consequences. This section therefore derives a categorisation and subsequently discusses
its major categories.

Derivation of a categorisation
Based on previous general reviews (e.g. Attewell and Rule 1984; Ang and Pavri 1994),
theoretical and conceptual work (e.g. Eason 1988, Markus and Robey 1988; Orlikowski
1991; Orlikowski 1992; Robey 1995; Eason 1997, 2001; Robey and Boudreau 1999,
2000) and further deliberations concerning IS consequences, initially different crucial
aspects of concepts of consequences can be worked out. In particular, the origin,
explanation, divergence, dynamic change, (un)expectedness, (un)desirability, manage-
ability, and researchability of consequences prove to be appropriate to distinguish
different categories of concepts of consequences. Hence, these eight interrelated aspects
are briefly introduced. As a first aspect, the origin of consequences refers to the actual
originator(s) of change. This is relevant for a categorisation of concepts, since there are
differing viewpoints. For instance some concepts refer to technology as the exclusive
source while others rather stress organisational action as the main originator (e.g. Markus
and Robey 1988). Closely related to the supposed origins, the explanation of
consequences refers to the basic kind of provided explanation. Some concepts are
based on causal explanations while others employ rather teleological approaches. Given
the sustained and blatant discrepancies of empirical findings concerning IS consequences
(e.g. Attewell and Rule 1984; Markus and Robey 1988; Ang and Pavri 1994; Robey and
Boudreau 1999; Eason 2001) a third major aspect is whether or not the concept allows
for and explains divergent consequences, as for instance decreasing costs in one
organisation and increasing costs in another. While some concepts are able to provide
basic explanations of such divergences, others are not and view divergent consequences as
contradictory and paradoxical. Tightly aligned to divergent consequences, concepts can
be distinguished regarding whether or not they consider dynamic change of consequences
over time (e.g. Eason 1997). While some concepts refer to instabilities over time, others
530 S. Strohmeier

imperatively entail stable and durable consequences. Furthermore, concepts can also be
distinguished on whether or not they admit and explain undesired consequences as well as
unexpected consequences (e.g. Eason 2001). Some concepts explicitly explain and even
expect such kinds of consequences, while others at least have some trouble in regarding
and explaining undesirability and unexpectedness. As a further aspect, the manageability
of consequences is of relevance. While some concepts show consequences as fixed and
hence uninfluenceable by managerial actions, other concepts explain how managerial
activities may exert at least some influence on the occurring consequences and hence offer
measures to cope with undesired results. As a final aspect, the researchability of
consequences refers to the feasibility of the concept in empirical research. While some
concepts allow straightforward empirical research designs, others are exposed to some
difficulties.
Based on the aspects delineated above, especially on the proposed origin and the
corresponding kind of explanation, a major categorisation possibility becomes obvious.
On the one hand, there are concepts that suggest that technology is the actual origin of
occurring consequences, thereby referring to traditional causal explanations. On the other
hand, there are concepts that declare human will and subsequent human action as the
actual root of occurring consequences thereby referring to some kind of teleological
explanation. This dichotomous nature of concepts evidently corresponds with the well-
established distinction of deterministic vs. voluntaristic approaches in organisational
analysis (Burrell and Morgan 1979). Deterministic approaches generally assume that
human will and action are not free since they are causally determined by preceding
external events. In contrast, voluntaristic approaches stress the free will of humans that
hence can act as self-directed agents. Transferred to concepts of consequences,
deterministic concepts claim that organisations are determined by the causal effects of
technology. Such approaches are termed ‘deterministic’ since they assume that technology
entirely determines consequences. In contrast, voluntarism claims that humans are the
actual origin of consequences. Such positions are labelled as ‘voluntaristic’ since they
postulate that consequences originate in human will and action. Hence, referring to these
well-established categories of organisational analysis, deterministic and voluntaristic
concepts of consequences can be distinguished as two main categories. Strict determinism
and strict voluntarism hence constitute antagonistic positions that propose that either
exclusively technology or exclusively man is responsible for occurring consequences.
However, there are also moderate approaches that mediate between these two extremes
and combine technological and human contributions. Distinguishing strict and moderate
versions of determinism and voluntarism, four major categories of concepts of
consequences become apparent, and these are discussed with reference to the above
delineated aspects.

Discussion of categories
Strict determinism
Strict technological determinism, occasionally also labelled as ‘technological imperative’
(e.g. Orlikowski 1992), is both the earliest and obviously (still) the most common concept
of IT consequences. As delineated above, strict determinism views technology as the
exclusive origin of consequences. Consequences are causal effects of the employed
information systems. Hence information systems and consequences constitute a cause –
effect chain. The explanation given by this conception is a customarily causal one that
reduces type and occurrence of consequences to technology as its single cause. However,
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 531

compulsively requiring that equal causes will lead to equal effects, strict determinism is
not able to cope with the notorious divergences of consequences. Based on strict
determinism, divergent consequences then have to be declared as contradictory and
paradoxical. In addition, consequences should be stable over time, since effects should
exist as long as the corresponding cause exists. Hence, according to strict determinism
there should be no dynamic changes of consequences. Undesirable consequences, such as
laborious and costly data maintenance, however, are compatible with strict determinism.
Also, consequences may be unexpected by the organisation, at least if occurring for the
first time. The ongoing application, however, should lead to expectedness of all
consequences. Since consequences are determined there is no possibility to
influence consequences – they are not ‘manageable’. Organisations then have to take
the consequences in total as they are, possibly mingling helpful with harmful aspects.
Finally, strict determinism constitutes an easily intelligible explanation that is compatible
with common sense and permits straightforward empirical research designs with
technology as the cause and consequences as its effects. However, it is questionable if this
easy researchability really constitutes an advantage for research. Given the persistent and
manifest divergences of consequence research, strict determinism rather should be seen as
a simplistic concept which is empirically massively questioned if not already refuted
(e.g. Robey and Boudreau 2000).

Moderate determinism
Moderate determinism, occasionally also labelled as ‘contingency model’ (e.g. Eason
1997), can be suggested as a more adequate category of consequence concepts. Basically,
moderate determinism accordingly states that technology determines consequences as the
main originator. However, it is assumed that there are additional contingent factors that are
moderating and alternating effects of IT (e.g. Attewell and Rule 1984). The kind of
explanation offered is still causal, however the mono-causal explanation of strict
determinism is enriched with contingent factors. Therefore, this kind of explanation may
be called ‘contingent –causal’. Since it is the main motivation for its development,
moderate determinism is able to allow for and to explain divergent consequences.
Referring to the kind of supposed contingent factors several subcategories can be
distinguished, while at the same time these subcategories can be combined.
A first subcategory focuses on contextual factors such as organisational size,
dependence on skilled workforce, industry type, or work routine, among many others (e.g.
Attewell and Rule 1984). Such factors are then made responsible for divergent
consequences of IT. To give a clear example, organisational size as a context factor may
be responsible for divergent cost consequences. Applied in large organisations, a certain
e-recruiting system may be able to realise economies of scale and hence to cut costs, while
the application of the same system in a small organisation cannot utilise economies of
scale and hence will increase costs.
A second subcategory stresses that technology itself may constitute the central
contingent factor that is accountable for divergent consequences (e.g. Eason 1997). This
explanation emphasises the variance of IT that is no longer seen as a monolithic set of
basically comparable information systems, but is broken down into various system types.
Technology as a cause then still determines the corresponding consequences as effects,
however with the central difference that there is a range of different systems that
determines a range of different consequences.
532 S. Strohmeier

As a third possible subcategory, human usage of technology could be seen as the main
contingent factor. Here, the actual kind of usage of a certain system is taken as the origin of
consequences. For instance, an adequate and well-versed usage of an employee self-
service system may decrease costs, while, on the contrary, stuporous kinds of usage will
increase costs. However, since human usage here is usually seen as free and purposeful,
this explanation evidently shows voluntaristic aspects, thereby softening the border
between moderate determinism and moderate voluntarism. Therefore, depending on the
weight that a certain concept of this subcategory puts on usage, a given concept is either
classified as moderate deterministic (if technological contributions prevail), or moderate
voluntaristic (if human contributions prevail), while there may also be concepts that
cannot be unambiguously classified. In any case, this third subcategory mediates between
determinism and voluntarism by combining technological and human contributions,
thereby substantiating that determinism and voluntarism can be seen as endpoints of a
continuum.
In addition to divergent consequences, unexpected and undesired consequences are
explainable based on moderate determinism, too. The question of consequence
manageability crucially depends on the kind of contingent factors supposed. While for
instance organisational size usually cannot be influenced in the short term, inadequate
usage of information systems may well be changed by corresponding training measures.
Hence, the manageability of consequences generally depends on the manageability of the
supposed contingent factors. Compared to strict determinism, research which is based on a
moderate deterministic concept becomes more complex, since numerous contingent
factors have to be tested regarding their additional moderating influences. In general,
moderate determinism offers a more complex but also more appropriate concept of
consequences, especially if diverse subcategories are combined.

Strict voluntarism
Strict voluntarism, occasionally also labelled as ‘organisational imperative’ (e.g.
Orlikowski 1992), refers to a third conceptual category that postulates that humans or –
on an aggregate level – organisations constitute the sole origin of consequences (Markus
and Robey 1988; Orlikowski 1992). This position is based on the view that technology is
entirely a product of ongoing human action that hence can be deliberately designed,
implemented, and applied in order to meet (almost) any organisational goal. Consequences
are then technology-mediated but, in fact, originate in organisational purposes and
subsequent organisational action. Since shown as being mere results of purposeful action,
the given explanation tends to be teleological. With respect to divergent consequences,
strict voluntarism offers a simple explanation: since purposes of organisations are
different, IS are differently developed, implemented, and applied in order to meet these
differing purposes. For instance, development, implementation, and application of IT in
organisations that aim at the decentralisation of HRM will be necessarily geared to
decentralisation, and vice versa. This also explains possible dynamic changes of
consequences within time. If organisational purposes change, consequences will change,
too. At this point it becomes obvious that strict voluntarism views IT as a multipurpose
measure or even a panacea. Strict voluntarism supposes an almost unlimited
manageability of consequences, which evidently results in difficulties to justify any
unintended and, all the more, any undesired consequence of IT. Concerning
researchability, empirical work first has to address motivational structures and then
relate them to development, implementation, application procedures, and the resulting
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 533

consequences. Hence, rather complex and extensive research designs are foreseeable.
Generally evaluating strict voluntarism, its naı̈ve view of technology constitutes a main
fault. Since IT is definitely not a universal measure which is able to produce any
consequence desired, strict voluntarism presents an overly simplistic as well as an overly
optimistic view of information technology and its consequences.

Moderate voluntarism
Referring to the above mentioned problems, moderate voluntarism constitutes a fourth
category of concepts of consequences that offers a refined voluntaristic approach.
Generally, moderate voluntarism still sees organisational choice and action as the main
origin of consequences. However, this is moderated and alternated by further factors.
Referring to the type of these factors two major subcategories of moderate voluntarism can
be distinguished. Both subcategories stand for divergent and dynamic consequences that in
addition may at least be partially undesired and unexpected.
A first subcategory sees a moderating and alternating factor in opposing interests.
Human intention cannot be easily enforced as supposed by strict voluntarism, since it is
often opposed to other human intentions. Hence, organisations do not show a ‘monolithic
will’ but dispose of numerous differing and likely conflicting intentions concerning the
goals of technology application. As a consequence, this subcategory holds human
interaction processes of different kinds responsible for actual consequences (e.g.
Orlikowski 1992; Robey and Boudreau 1999; Eason 2001). Conflicting interests between
management and users may serve as a simple example. Senior management may seek to
save costs by reducing HR headcount with the help of technology while HR professionals
have strong interests in maintaining their workplaces. The implementation of corresponding
technologies will then lead to complex interactions. Senior management will try to push
through downsizing while affected HR professionals will counteract in numerous
ways, such as sabotaging rationalisation possibilities or ‘inventing’ new urgent tasks such
as data maintenance. Dependent on individual courses of such processes, the actual
consequences for HR headcount will be diverse and may also change over time. Due to
the complexity of such processes this explanation also comprises undesired and unexpected
consequences. Moreover, dynamic changes over time are possible or even likely.
A second subcategory stresses capabilities and constraints of technology as an attenuation
of human will (e.g. Stewart 1971; Eason 2001). Hence, in order to explain consequences it is
necessary to consider technological possibilities and constraints as well as human purposes
and usage activities. Concerning the role of technology, it is assumed that there are certain
possibilities to use IT differently and to induce a range of possible changes. It is then the actual
kind of using these possibilities that evokes the concrete changes that occur. Since this range
of possible changes may be rather broad and may well encompass opposing changes, actual
consequences may be divergent. In addition, if the kind of usage changes over time, the
revealed consequences will change as well. Also, undesired and unexpected consequences
may occur due to undesired and unexpected kinds of usage. Evidently, this subcategory
corresponds with the delineated third subcategory of moderate determinism. Thus, depending
on the weight put on technology, there is a floating transition to moderate deterministic
concepts. Yet, the above mentioned approaches are referred to as moderate voluntarism, since
technology restricts the actual possible usage and the corresponding consequences, but still
leaves room for organisational choice.
To sum up, limited human choice is held responsible for occurring consequences
in moderate voluntarism. As they are still mainly based on purposeful action, the given
534 S. Strohmeier

explanation again shows teleological character. Concerning the manageability of

consequences the necessity to actively influence the consequences can be revealed.
Multifarious and dynamic purposes and usage may lead to unstable, undesired and unexpected
consequences. Since purposes and usage may be influenced – for instance via incentives and
training – one could suggest that management attempt to systematically influence
consequences. Concerning the researchability, complex and dynamic interactions of humans
and technology will necessarily lead to rather complex and intricate empirical research.

Summary
Figure 1 briefly summarises the main results of the above discussion.

determinism voluntarism
strict moderate moderate strict
technology and
origin technology and organisation
technology organisation
of consequences contingent factors (man)
(man)
explanation
causal contingent-causal teleological teleological
of consequences
divergence
impossible possible likely likely
of consequences
dynamic change if contingent if purposes and/or if purposes
impossible
of consequences factors change usage changes change
unexpectedness
initially possible possible possible not likely
of consequences
undesirability
possible possible possible impossible
of consequences
if contingent
manageability factors are
impossible limited possible entirely possible
of consequences manageable
researchability
rather simple rather complex rather complex rather complex
of consequences

Figure 1. Categories of consequence concepts.

To sum up, the determinism – voluntarism continuum offers a useful approach of

categorising concepts of consequences. However, since determinism and voluntarism
constitute endpoints of a continuum there are some intersections of the moderate
categories. Hence, though most concepts can unambiguously be classified as moderate
deterministic or moderate voluntaristic, there are also hybrid concepts that may be
associated with both moderate categories. In any case, the four presented categories are
able to map any existing as well as future concept of consequences. Generally evaluating
the categories, the strict versions represent simpler but also weaker concepts. Due
to the respective shortcomings they are less recommendable for e-HRM research. On the
contrary, the moderate categories offer more complex but also richer concepts of
consequences which show more potential for research in e-HRM.

Review
Despite the fact that HRM is a pioneer user of information technology, its consequences have
not, as yet, constituted a major research topic. Nevertheless, based on available general
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 535

reviews of the subject area (Strohmeier 2000; Anderson 2003; Lievens and Harris 2003;
Welsh, Wanberg, Brown and Simmering 2003; Strohmeier 2007) a certain body of
conceptual and empirical studies that explicitly address consequences can be identified.
Referring to the above categorisation, the following section intends to review how
consequences are conceptualised within these studies. This, however, constitutes a somewhat
intricate undertaking since the question of how to adequately conceptualise consequences is
usually not explicitly discussed. In particular, the specific aspects of concepts such as origin,
divergence, or change of consequences are regularly not pointed out. Past research into
consequences then usually does not rest on explicit concepts which can be easily ascertained.
Rather, there seem to be concealed ideas of consequences which implicitly underlie
the respective studies. However, based on an analysis of the examined topics, research
designs, and discussion of results, different aspects of concepts sometimes can be identified.
Initially, the proposed origin and the kind of explanation of consequences are
sometimes extractable, while in these cases there seems to be a certain tendency towards a
hidden determinism. First hints towards determinism are given by the terms used to depict
the research topics such as ‘impacts’ (e.g. Hussain, Wallace and Cornelius 2007 or Alleyne
et al. 2007) or ‘effects’ (e.g. Ensher, Nielson and Grant-Valone 2002 or Braddy,
Thompson, Wuensch and Grossnickle 2003) of technology. Such terms point at
technology as the origin of occurring consequences. This is reinforced by empirical
research designs that conceptualise technology as the independent variable and diverse
consequences as dependent variables, while employing data analysis methods like
correlation or regression analysis to test hypothesized connections (e.g. Baker, DeTienne
and Smart 1998 or Teo, Soon and Fredric 2001). These analysis methods are commonly
used to test deterministic connections. Usually, the most concrete hints towards
determinism can be found in the respective discussions of consequences. Quite often, IT is
depicted as the only or at least the major source of occurring consequences that may be
accompanied by additional contingent factors (e.g. Singh and Finn 2003 or Ngai and Wat
2006). However, besides such deterministic studies, there are also studies with ambiguous
and incongruous background concepts that cannot be reliably identified and classified.
Presumably as a concomitant of implicit determinism, the question of whether
divergent consequences are to be expected is usually not posed. Even if obviously
divergent consequences are found, this aspect is commonly not explicitly addressed.
Again, implicit divergences can sometimes be reconstructed. If, for instance, a study states
that one third of the respondents agreed that technology lowers the HR headcount (Teo
et al. 2001), the implicit divergence is that two thirds of respondents obviously did not
agree. Due to the scarcity of comparable empirical studies, a broader synopsis comprising
all examined consequences of e-HRM is not meaningful. However, an outline of two
rather frequently examined consequences – costs and headcount of the HR department –
again points to divergent findings both between and within studies (see Table 1).
Clearly, since other consequences are not sufficiently examined at present, there is no
justification for simply generalising this result. However, accepting the fact that IS
consequence research has for decades repeatedly revealed contradictory consequences
(e.g. Attewell and Rule 1984; Orlikowski 1991; Ang and Pavri 1994; Robey 1995; Eason
1997, 2001; Robey and Boudreau 1999, 2000), the hypothesis of unidirectional
consequences in e-HRM hardly appears realistic. The above example at least is fully
accordant with general consequence research. Divergent and even clearly opposite
consequences then are likely in e-HRM, too.
Accessible studies seem not to expect dynamic changes of consequences. It is rather
implicitly assumed that consequences will occur immediately after the application of
536 S. Strohmeier

Table 1. Divergent consequences of IS in HRM.

consequence
Study approach costs headcount
Bueschel 1969 survey/interview "0 –
Morrison 1969 survey "0# "0#
Tomeski and Lazarus 1974 survey # –
Ornati, Giblin and Floersch 1982 survey – "0#
Moore and Clavadetscher 1985 survey #0 –
Forrer and Leibowiz 1991 survey/interview # [0 " ] –
Kinnie and Arthurs 1993 survey – "0#
Teo, Soon and Fredric 2001 survey 0 # [ " 0]
Chapman and Webster 2003 survey # [0 " ] –
Buckley, Minette, Joy and Michaelis 2004 case study # –
Hawking, Stein and Foster 2004 case study – #
Ruël, Bondarouk and Looise 2004 case study # [0 " ] #
" ¼ increase # ¼ decrease 0 ¼ no change [] ¼ implicit result – ¼ not examined.

technology and then stay as they are. At least, there are no studies that explicitly account
for dynamic changes, for instance by using a longitudinal empirical design that tests for
changes of consequences over time. Since not explicitly addressed at present, there are
consequently no results that evince dynamic change of consequences.
However, occasionally unexpectedness and undesirability of consequences are
addressed. Especially, when empirical studies reveal unexpected and/or undesired
consequences these aspects are at least briefly outlined. Unexpected consequences refer,
for instance, to the fact that the aesthetic design of websites does not influence applicant
attraction in e-recruiting (Cober, Brown, Levy and Cober 2003). Undesired consequences
refer, for instance, to an increase of quantity but a decrease of quality of applicants in
e-recruiting (Pearce and Tuten 2001; Chapman and Webster 2003). Though scope and
type of unexpected as well as undesired consequences in e-HRM are far from being
comprehensively examined, both aspects are at least recognized in previous research.
Since the manageability of consequences is incompatible with implicit determinism,
the question of whether and how to influence occurring consequences, i.e. evoking desired
and avoiding undesired consequences, is not explicitly discussed. However, occasionally
different implementation measures are associated with general success of information
systems. For example, training measures for users are found to support general success of
IT in HRM (e.g. Haines and Petite 1997; Lin 1997). This implies that consequences are
‘manageable’, at least to a certain degree. Thus, a general, systematic, and comprehensive
examination of manageability is missing.
Since the concepts of consequences in use remain implicit, available research
accordingly does not expatiate on the aspect of researchability of consequences. However,
general aspects of research design and procedures are of course discussed, especially
within empirical work.
To sum up, since the concept of consequences is not explicitly considered, previous
work shows a low level of problem awareness. In sharp contrast, the concept of
consequences is of fundamental concern since it determines adequate questions, feasible
designs, and possible results of any research into consequences. To give a clear example,
since their concepts negate manageability, strict determinists will not investigate the
possibilities of actively managing occurring consequences and therewith probably ignore
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 537

highly relevant aspects for e-HRM practice. Thus, to avoid ambiguous and incongruous
background assumptions, an explicit concept of consequences is mandatory for research in
the future.

Suggestion
Based on the above categorisation and review the following section intends to elaborate a
plain and robust concept of consequences that may instruct future research efforts as well
as future practical considerations. To do so, this section revives, elaborates, and expands
earlier work on consequences that revealed that consequences are variable and depend on
the use made of the possibilities provided by information systems (Stewart 1971). The
suggested concept delineates technology as a potential for change that organisations can
employ differently. This leads to the view of consequences as used IS potentials.
Pertaining to the moderate voluntaristic category, the subsequently presented concept
necessarily shows the general explanation pattern of moderate voluntarism but offers some
specifications and refinements.

Origin of consequences
Basically, the concept combines technology’s potentials with organisation’s usage to
satisfactorily explain occurring consequences, thereby referring simultaneously to both
conceivable origins of consequences. Concretely, it is supposed that there is no single
way of using a given information system but a spectrum of usage possibilities that for
instance differ in intention, intensity, and skilfulness among a large range of other
aspects. Given these spectra of usage possibilities, it becomes obvious that consequences
are not fixed. Rather, for each consequence dimension there are usually spectra of
possible consequences. The contribution of organisations to occurring consequences then
is to choose a specific kind of usage within a spectrum of usage possibilities, therewith
inducing specific consequences out of a spectrum of generally possible consequences.
For instance, an ERP-system may be used to comprehensively automate operative HR
tasks. This may induce a decreasing headcount in the HR department. On the contrary, if
used as an infrastructure to establish a comprehensive strategic HRM (e.g. Derry and
Wailes 2005), the headcount may remain constant or even increase. Hence, concerning
the consequences for the headcount, the ERP system under consideration offers a broader
spectrum ranging from decreased to increased headcount of the HR department. Such
spectra then are valid for all conceivable consequences of an information system. Thus, a
certain way of using a system usually produces a large bundle of consequences.
Moreover, within such bundles different consequences can be interrelated. For instance,
a certain e-learning system may have the potential to influence costs and quality of
learning among others. If regarded separately, the system in question may have both the
potential to reduce training costs and the potential to raise training quality, if properly
used. However, if regarded together, both consequence dimensions may be interrelated
and there may be a certain trade-off between costs and quality of training. Therefore, the
full exploitation of cost reduction potentials may hinder the full exploitation of quality
improvement potentials and vice versa. In addition to interrelated consequences,
consequence spectra differ within or in between different information system categories.
Hence, the consequence spectra offered by a certain ERP system may differ from the
spectra of other ERP systems. All the more, the consequence spectra of ERP systems
category of course differs from spectra of other information system categories, e.g.
538 S. Strohmeier

e-learning systems. In summary, it then is the specific organisational usage of offered

technological potentials that explains the occurrence of a specific bundle of e-HRM
consequences. Since this entails limited human choice, the concept has to be classified as
moderate voluntaristic.

Explanation of consequences
Following the above statements, individuals and organisations use information systems as
an attempt to reach some of their goals. Hence, information systems are rather seen as a
means which is designed towards some final result. In addition, individuals and
organisations have limited choice, first concerning the kind of information system
and subsequently concerning the kind of usage. Consequences then are not causally
evoked but rather ‘produced’. This indicates that the explanation given by the concept is
obviously rather teleological than causal.

Divergence of consequences
The concept of used IS potentials admits and explains divergences of consequences within
the frame of moderate voluntarism. Hence, as already depicted above, it is the possibility
to choose from a usually broad spectrum of offered usage possibilities that is generally
made responsible for divergent consequences. However, beyond this general explanation,
the concept of used IT potentials allows a refined elucidation of divergences. First, it
permits pointing at differences in the offered potentials for change both within and
between different information system categories. Such differences offer a first explanation
of divergent outcomes. Second, it is possible to specify the usage possibilities that
additionally lead to divergent consequences. The fact that usage potentials are usually
rather broad implies that depending on the specific kind of usage even clearly opposing
consequences such as increased and decreased costs, centralised and decentralised
organisation, etc. are possible and normal results. However, the potential concept avoids
arbitrariness by referring to clear boundaries. Even information systems with very broad
usage and subsequent consequence spectra can, of course, not induce any conceivable
consequence. For instance, a pay roll system may have the potential to reduce
administrative HR costs if properly used, however there will be a fixed lower limit that
cannot be transcended by whatever kind of usage. Additionally, not all consequence
spectra of a given information system have to be very broad. Hence, within a bundle of
consequences there may also be rather narrow potentials for change that restrict
divergences. In this way, the concept of used IT potentials allows for divergent, yet not
arbitrary consequences.

Dynamic change of consequences

Further, the proposed concept is able to explain dynamic changes of consequences over a
period of time. While the technological contribution to consequences remains constant
over a period of time, i.e. as long as the corresponding information system is not modified,
the organisational contribution of occurring consequences, i.e. the kind of usage, of course
can change. And since it is the specific usage of the potential that evokes consequences,
changes in usage will necessarily lead to changing consequences. To give a plain example,
shortly after the introduction of an employee self-service system, the quality and
timeliness of HR data may improve because employees carefully maintain their own data
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 539

due to training measures. However, if employees’ interest in the system decreases in the
course of time, data quality and timeliness may decrease and even be worse than before.
While the usage potential of a certain unmodified information system is invariant in the
course of time, its usage and hence the consequences may be not.

(Un-)expectedness and (un-)desirability of consequences

When combining the (un-)expectedness and the (un-)desirability of consequences several
conceivable combinations emerge – each combination can be explained based on the
concept of used IS potentials. Often, actual occurring consequences are desired and
expected. For instance, the desired consequences of cheapening and accelerating payroll
processing can be anticipated in the run-up to using a certain payroll system. Such
expected and desired consequences constitute the central reason for using information
systems. However, unexpected and undesired consequences may also occur.
A first explanation of unexpected consequences refers to the possible complexity of
consequence bundles. While some obvious consequences of a given bundle may be
expected, further unobvious consequences may not be easily foreseeable. In particular,
trade-off relations of connected consequences, such as the quality and costs of training
mentioned above, may evoke unexpected consequences. Depending on the respective
consequence, these unexpected consequences may comprise desirable as well as
undesirable results.
A second explanation of unexpected consequences refers to unexpected kinds of usage
with three major varieties. A first kind of unexpected usage refers to unintended misuse of the
information system, stemming generally from a lack of necessary usage qualification. Such
misuse may range from individual operational usage mistakes to strategic organisational
misjudgements of the real usage potentials. This leads to unexpected and undesired
consequences of various kinds. Additionally, intended misuse of individual users may
constitute a serious variety of unexpected usage. Intended misuse can range from smaller
fraudulences such as fudging one’s own attendance data within a self-service system to
malicious sabotages such as launching viruses that attack the information system. This kind
of usage will also yield unexpected and undesired results. Third, intended re-use –
occasionally also labelled ‘reinvention of systems’ (e.g. Robey and Boudreau 2000) – refers
to the phenomenon that users can ‘invent’ new and unforeseen usage possibilities that were
neither intended nor anticipated by developers and that hence broaden the spectrum of
possible consequences. Intended re-use may comprise undesired usage and consequences,
such as illicitly using the forum function of an employee portal for private vending.
However, unexpected re-use may just as well lead to ex post desired results. If, for instance,
line managers and HR professionals use empty arrays of employee records to communicate
with each other this may constitute an unexpected but finally desirable way of using a given
information system.
Hence, though being a deliberate measure in organisations, besides expected and
desired consequences e-HRM will also yield unexpected and undesired results.

Manageability of consequences
While broaching the issue of manageability of consequences, simultaneously the question
of implications of the presented concept for practice is addressed. Given the crucial
importance of actual consequences for practice, the fact that occurring positive
consequences may be unstable in time and may turn into and/or be accompanied by
540 S. Strohmeier

negative consequences constitutes a critical finding. Hence, the proposed concept initially
justifies the necessity of ‘managing consequences’, while it cannot validate the practical
feasibility and success of such an approach.
However, some basic measures can be suggested. As a basis of any e-HRM project,
possible desired as well as possible undesired consequences should be explicitly
elaborated. Organisations should be aware that there may be substantial changes due to
e-HRM implementation and initial vigilance will reduce the risk of stumbling into
accidental changes. Based on this, influencing the potentials of information systems and
influencing the kind of usage of information systems evidently can be suggested as the
two general starting points of managing consequences. Considering the first aspect,
the development or purchase of information systems should be closely related to
consequences by estimating the spectra and interdependencies of possible consequences
and evaluating the degree of conformance with desired consequences. Also, technical
implementation measures should be directed towards eliciting desired consequences by,
for instance, excluding misuse opportunities as far as possible. All the more, it is
necessary to consider the second aspect and influence the specific usage of systems. Since,
based on the above consequences concept, ‘just using the system’ is clearly insufficient, it
is necessary that organisations apply information systems consciously and in a results-
oriented way and recognise that certain consequences have to be persistently and
strenuously worked for. Initial user training should strongly emphasise the desired aims of
an information system. Doing this, the training should illustrate how, in particular, (not) to
use the corresponding information system so as to achieve these aims, rather than merely
presenting functionalities and operating instructions. Subsequently an ongoing
monitoring of usage and resulting consequences and corresponding real-time
interventions are mandatory to support the achievement of desired consequences. Such
measures may be suggested to support the achievement of desired and the avoidance of
undesired consequences.
To sum up, the presented consequence concept proposes a persistent consequence-
oriented management of e-HRM projects and suggests two general starting points.
However, future research should test feasibility and success of these suggestions.

Researchability of consequences
Finally, discussing the researchability of the presented concept unfolds implications for
future research. Compared to previous implicit approaches, consequence research based
on the above suggested concept doubtlessly implies several complications.
Initially, the concept of consequences, as used IS potentials, adds complexity in
explaining the occurrence. Instead of simple causal effects, larger bundles of partially
interrelated, volatile, organisationally produced consequences should constitute the focus
of future research. This not only increases the number of necessary items of explanation,
but also refers to elusive items such as ‘technological potentials’ and difficult predictable
items such as ‘organisational usage’. In addition, the kind of explanation given is an
‘explanation of the principle’ (Hayek 1955) that is able to clarify basic principles of
consequence occurrence as delineated above, but that is not, however, able to predict
specific consequence bundles of specific information systems used in specific
organisations.
Such specifications have to be generated based on empirical consequence research,
which is also confronted with some complications. At the outset, rather than ascertaining
mere consequences, future research should map the whole process of consequence
 The International Journal of Human Resource Management 541

occurrence. Thus, actual potential – usage – consequence sequences should constitute the
major topic of empirical research, while the elusiveness especially of the potential
construct predictably will constitute an empirical challenge. Of course, rather than
investigating a single selected consequence, research should also strive for whole bundles
of consequences, while subsequent data analysis should test for possible correlations
between different consequences. In addition, the dynamic character of consequences
needs consideration. Thus, once more, there are reasons for longitudinal approaches that
explicitly address possibly changing usage patterns over time that lead to changing
consequence patterns.
In addition, in regard to possible findings of research there may be concerns regarding
mere tautological results: e.g. the usage of web-based training will decrease, increase or
not change training costs. Admittedly, such statements are tautological and cannot
be transferred in any meaningful recommendation for practitioners. In fact, it is the
consideration and examination of potential – usage – consequences sequences that can
avoid tautology. Future research therefore should and can strive for findings such as ‘If
organisations use a certain specified kind of web-based training persistently in a certain
specified way, then training costs will decrease compared to not using the specified
information system’. Obviously, such findings are non-tautological and can be transferred
into meaningful recommendations for practice.
To sum up, the proposed concept of viewing consequences as used IS potentials,
doubtlessly adds complexity to consequences research. It would, however, be odd to
refuse the concept for its complications and to maintain simpler concepts that admittedly
are more easily researched but that actually constitute misconceptions.

Conclusions
This article aimed to provide a categorisation, a review, and a concrete suggestion
regarding the concept of information systems consequences in HRM. First, based on a
description model a robust categorisation of existing as well as conceivable consequence
concepts could be derived, while the respective categories could be described, compared,
and roughly evaluated. This should offer a basic orientation concerning concepts of
consequences. Besides recognising and classifying concepts in previous consequence
research the categorisation also offers general guidance for choosing a conceptualisation
in future projects. Second, based on the attempt to review previous research, a general
lack of explicit concepts of consequences in prior research is identified and, hence, a low
level of problem awareness revealed. Partially ambiguous and incongruous background
concepts seem to be employed. Partially, also, a certain tendency towards a hidden
determinism could be seen. This should sensitise future research and hence raise the level
of awareness concerning an adequate concept of consequences. Third, the suggestion to
think of consequences as used IS potentials offers a specific concept of consequences
which is able to robustly explain the occurrence of consequences, thereby also elucidating
previously rather irritating empirical phenomena such as divergent or dynamically
changing consequences. As a major implication for practice, some initial suggestions of
systematically managing e-HRM consequences could be made. Also some implications
for future research could be derived.
Though undoubtedly complicating the respective tasks of practice and research,
hopefully these findings assist both research and practice in advocating simple implicit
conceptions and in developing a deeper understanding of consequences of e-HRM.
542 S. Strohmeier

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