Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Brown Book of
M P G Sioco
Comprehensive Lecture Guide
for Philosophical Analysis by
Students for Students
Cover Photo: Blue book used by students at the University of the Philippines. Retrieved December 26, 2012
from http://iskwiki.upd.edu.ph/index.php/Bluebook
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in
writing from the author. Soft copies may not be distributed to anyone, or posted online to be available for
download, without permission in writing from the author.
3
i Preface
This module has been created by the author in response to a dire need for a
comprehensive, organized and complete lecture material for Philosophy I (Philosophical
Analysis) taught by Associate Professor Ma. Paula G. Sioco at the University of the Philippines-
Manila. Philosophy I is a three (3)-unit GE (General Education) course under the SSP (Social
Sciences and Philosophy) cluster taught in all University of the Philippines campuses
nationwide. Like most other GE subjects, Philosophy I has a fixed syllabus, but the specific
methods of teaching, as well as any additional lecture material, are subject to the discretion of
the instructor handling the subject. Thus, he or she is free to slightly deviate from the said
syllabus, as long as the content remains relevant. Since this course module is tailored for
students of Prof. Sioco, it is expected that students of other Philosophy I instructors would not
be able to find this module of much use, although any student of Philosophy I should be able
to get the gist of what this module is talking about.
Why the title “The Blue and Brown Book of Ma. Paula G. Sioco?” A brief introduction
regarding the real “Blue and Brown Books”, by the eminent Ludwig Wittgenstein, will shed
more light on this matter. The following introduction has been copied and edited from various
Internet sources that are mentioned and acknowledged at the end of this preface.
4
The 'Blue Book' is a set of notes dictated to Ludwig Witgenstein's Cambridge students in
1933-1934, while the 'Brown Book' was a draft for what eventually became the growth of the
first part of Philosophical Investigations. They are an indication of the direction Wittgenstein's
thinking took during these years. Wittgenstein had only three copies of these notes made, and
circulated them only among close friends. However, interest in them was such that many
further copies were made and circulated. One set of notes were wrapped in blue paper, one
set in brown paper, which accounts for the names "Blue Book" and "Brown Book."
Simply put, we could formulate an analogy here: Blue and Brown Books: Wittgenstein ::
Blue and Brown Book of MPG Sioco: Sioco! Both are lecture notes, both originated from
professors, both discuss philosophy, and both were transcribed by their students. Perhaps one
exception that can be pointed out is that Wittgenstein’s lectures filled up two books (thus, the
‘Blue Book’ and ‘Brown Book’), while Prof. Sioco’s lectures on Philosophy I is enough to fill up
only one book. As a result, the author has decided to christen the module with two colors in its
title: Blue and Brown! (It also comes as a coincidence that blue books are UP “trademarks”.)
As the subtitle of the module suggests, it is a philosophy module written by students for
students. To be clear, the author of this module is a former Philosophy I student of Prof. Sioco
during the First Semester of Academic Year 2012-2013, and the target readers of this module
are also his fellow students. This module is actually a collection of lecture notes that the
author copied by hand during discussions, encoded on a laptop, and formatted for his studying
convenience. To overcome the challenges that note-taking during Prof. Sioco’s lectures
presented, the author has resorted to two important breakthroughs:
In a fit of generosity, the author has also distributed soft copies of these individual
lectures to his blockmates for their studying convenience as well. Now, in order to make this
treasure trove of knowledge more accessible to the general public (more accurately, University
of the Philippines-Manila students), the author has compiled all the aforementioned individual
lectures into one single PDF file, with all the proper formatting fit for a simple book included. A
printed hard copy version is also available upon request (See the end of the preface for
contact information). The sound recordings of Prof. Sioco’s lectures are obtainable as well,
although another special request and an additional fee is strictly required.
5
4. Almost all of the text presented in the module are either copied word-for-word from
Prof. Sioco’s PowerPoint presentations, or transcribed word-for-word from her
lecture recordings. Any Filipino words are translated into English, unless a direct
translation does not exist for the former;
5. Illustrations and diagrams faithfully reproduced from Prof. Sioco’s PowerPoint
Presentation or her board notes;
6. Outside references or sources, if found to be of major use as a supplement to the
lectures are included if possible;
7. Inspirational quotations from various authors can be found at the end of each
chapter of Units III, IV, V and VI;
8. Appendix which includes scanned reproductions of all the handouts that Prof. Sioco
provides (most of the content in the handouts are also encoded in the main body of
the text);
9. Listing of all the assignments, quizzes and other requirements are also included in
the appendix, thus enabling the student to prepare ahead of time. Insider tips and
suggestions on how to tackle these requirements and get at least a “check” (full
credit) can also be read.
How should the Blue and Brown Book of MPG Sioco be used, then? This module is
designed to be used as a textbook for Prof. Sioco’s Philosophy I classes. Students may write
annotations or notes on the sides or margins of the pages of this module during discussions.
The module is also comprehensive enough to be used as the sole material to be reviewed for
each of the three (3) long examinations that Prof. Sioco gives, since as said above, the
PowerPoint Presentations and handouts are the lone bases of her examinations (The textbook
by Acuña provides additional information, but need not be reread at all while preparing for the
tests.) Her objective examinations usually consist of these mainstay test types: true or false,
matching type, identification (which philosopher said what?), and enumeration. Other novel
test types may also appear at times, but continue to remain as objective as possible.
Memorization of terms and quotations is an absolute must, but fortunately, these are all
provided in this module. The prospect of getting a “1.00” or “1.25” under Prof. Sioco’s
Philosophy I is highly attainable should a student be armed with this module, composed by
students for students.
Unfortunately, since this module is not prepared by Prof. Sioco herself (who should be
the most competent authority to write a module for her subject anyway), this module is prone
to the slightest errors and oversights. Even if these mistakes are not grave and detrimental
enough to cause “5.00” failures or unnecessary embarrassments during her classes, any
inaccuracies committed are always meant to be rectified. However, since the author himself
has already passed Philosophy I (with flying colors guaranteed), it is up to you – the current
students of Prof. Sioco – to search and report any errors in this module to the author, for the
benefit of future generations. If the amassed corrections and additions to the content of the
text accumulate to a certain amount upon the discretion of the author, a second edition is in
order.
To summarize, shortcomings of the text which are up for future revision, if readers are
able to provide suggestions or inputs include:
1. The first chapter under the first unit (Introduction to Philosophy) is the only lecture
day which was not recorded. As a result, its content may not be as organized and
complete as compared to the other lectures. If someone would be able to record a
more comprehensive version of her lecture that day, it would be highly appreciated.
6
2. Some of the formatting, particularly the layout and spacing, may not be as
consistent or as neat as one wishes it to be, especially for those who expect a
professionally formatted book.
3. This module is already very comprehensive (as repeatedly stated above), however,
since philosophy is an inductive field, new knowledge is meant to be added to the
already existing framework of this module. Thus, any accurate and helpful addition
to the content is welcome. Any accepted additions will be included in the second
edition, if possible.
4. As said before, any revision of the existing content due to errors, misspellings,
misinformation or wrong formatting is also welcome. They will be addressed in the
second edition, if possible.
To contact the author for special requests, orders, suggestions, additions or revisions:
Note: Mobile number may change without prior notice. The e-mail address,
however, wouldn’t.
It is hoped by the author that no matter what grade the readers of this module would
get (“1.00” or “5.00”,) they would find Philosophy I an “empowering subject…(which will teach
you to) make your own choices (in life)” (Sioco, 2012)
Cheers!
Sources:
Biletzki, A., & Matar, A, "Ludwig Wittgenstein", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
Retrieved from <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2011/entries/wittgenstein/>.
Sparknotes. (n.d.) Blue and brown books. Retrieved December 17, 2012 from
http://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/blueandbrown/context.html
Wittgenstein, L. (1965). The blue and brown books. Harper Collins: New York.
7
ii Brief Contents
i Preface 4
ii Brief Contents 8
iii Table of Contents 9
iv Syllabus 10
v Appendices 78
vi Supplementary Material 106
8
iii Table of Contents
i Preface 4
ii Brief Contents 8
iii Table of Contents 9
iv Syllabus 10
I Introduction: The Nature of Philosophy 15
1 Introduction to Philosophy 16
2 The Pre-Socratics 17
II Philosophy of Language: Analysis of Concepts 22
1 Words and Concepts 23
2 Wittgenstein 25
3 Ambiguity 28
4 Vagueness; On Definitions 30
III Epistemological Analysis: Analysis of Knowledge Claims 33
1 Introduction to Epistemology 34
2 Sources of Knowledge; Rationalism 35
3 Empiricism; Kantian Synthesis; Epistemic Obligation 38
IV Ethics or Moral Reasoning: Analysis of Ethical Systems 40
1 Introduction to Ethics 41
2 Moral Values and Conduct 44
3 Classical Ethical Theories (Part I) 46
4 Classical Ethical Theories (Part II) 52
V Deductive Reasoning: Analysis of Deductive Arguments 57
1 Introduction to Deductive Logic 58
2 Truth Table Method of Validity 60
3 Rules of Inference; Formal Proof of Validity 65
VI Inductive Reasoning: Analysis of Natural Arguments 70
1 Introduction to Inductive Logic 71
2 Generalization; Evaluation of Arguments 75
v Appendices 78
1 Excerpts from the Philosophical Investigations 79
2 Notes on Ethics 82
3 Practice Examination on Epistemology and Ethics 84
4 Notes on Deductive Logic 97
5 Notes on Inductive Logic 101
6 Tips on Surviving Philosophy I Under Prof. Sioco 102
vi Supplementary Material 106
9
iv Syllabus
Course Code: Philosophy I
Course Title: Philosophical Analysis
Credit: 3 units lecture
Course Description: The course deals with important philosophical concepts, skills and
principles selected and collated from many areas in philosophy of
language, logic, philosophy of science, ethics and epistemology.
Course Requirements:
Three (3) Long Examinations 65%
Things-to-do (Skills Application) 15%
Seatwork (SAQs)
Assignments
Quizzes
Integration/Reaction Paper (10 full pages minimum)
Attendance 20%
TOTAL 100%
Course Objectives: At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
1. Apply the important concepts, skills and principles of philosophical
analysis in their everyday life;
2. Distinguish, evaluate and compose three basic types of arguments,
namely, deductive, inductive and evaluative;
3. Develop critical analysis and open-mindedness in applying the different
ethical principles in dealing with moral issues and dilemmas.
Course Outline:
10
II. Philosophy of Language – Analysis of Concepts
A. Words and Concepts – The Problem of Meaning
B. Intension and Extension of Concepts
C. Using the Same Language
D. Classification of Concepts
E. Ambiguity – Fallacies of Ambiguity
F. Vagueness
1. Linear Vagueness
2. Vagueness of Family Resemblance
G. Definitions
1. Rules of Definition
2. Analytic Definitions
- - - F I R S T L O N G E X A M I N A T I O N - - -
- - - S E C O N D L O N G E X A M I N A T I O N - - -
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V. Deductive Reasoning/Logic – Analysis of Deductive Arguments
A. The Subject Matter of Formal Logic
B. Logical Analysis of Statements
1. Representing Compound Statements
2. Truth Values of Compound Statements
C. Valid, Sound and Fallacious Arguments
D. Representing Arguments
E. Truth Table Method of Proving Validity
F. Rules of Inference - Basic and Complex Argument Forms
G. Formal Proof of Validity
- - - T H I R D L O N G E X A M I N A T I O N - - -
Textbook/Workbook:
Acuna, AE (2006). Philosophical Analysis (7th ed). Quezon City: UP Department of Philosophy.
Suggested Readings:
Handouts given to students as supplementary materials for the course are provided in this book.
12
Other References:
Things-to-Do Requirements:
First Set: Submission is set on the first regular meeting right after the first examination.
Unit I:
1. Module 3 -- A, C, D (a, b and c only) – Give at least three examples for each.
2. Module 5 – A and B only - Give at least three examples and explain your reason for these
examples.
3. Module 6 – Give two examples for each type of definition.
Second Set: Submission is set on the first regular meeting right after the second examination.
Third Set: Submission is set on the date of the third and last examination.
13
This list is the minimum Things-to-Do requirement for the course to ensure a passing grade for
this part. However, students are free to do more than what is specified above, but not to exceed 100%
of what is required in the book. For those who would opt to do more than the above mentioned
minimum TTD requirements, they will be given a maximum 5% additional bonus making the total
percentage of their grade for this part 105%.
1. Typewritten/computer encoded
2. Double-spaced
3. Font size: 12
4. Font style: Times New Roman
5. One inch margin on all sides
6. Short bond paper
7. Do not put a space to separate one paragraph from the next.
8. Allot only four spaces to separate your name and title from the content (the first page must
contain at least 18 lines of content)
9. The pages following should have at least 21-22 lines.
*
Maria Paula G. Sioco, PhD
Associate Professor in Philosophy
Department of Social Sciences
College of Arts and Sciences
University of the Philippines Manila
Revised as of October, 2011
* The signature you see on this page is adopted from the classcard signature of the professor
14
15
1 Introduction to Philosophy
Last edited: 7.23.12 20:05
o Psychologically and socially: “We need a
Philo – sophia (love of wisdom) God”
o Term invented by Pythagoras o Opium of the people -> religion (Marx)
o Mother of all disciplines o Hard to live a life without a greater
o Aristotle (Father of Biology) omnipotent God
o Thales (father of Western philosophy) o Cathartic effect (the mind can
Philosopher at every science compensate for whatever you lack
Phusis (still no distinction between science, physically)
religion and philosophy) Analytic philosophy:
Philosophy was revolutionary o Friedrich Waismann: “A philosophic
Curiosity, rationality -> offer explanation on question is not solved;; it dissolves.”
things in nature -> coherent universe -> cosmos o Which came first? Chicken or egg?
governed by laws, explained by man, plot Language is not clear -> clarify!
his/her own destiny (Language games)
Veering away from myths and legends o Examine the concepts we take for
Speculative and analytic philosophy granted in everyday life
Philosophy is a second-order inquiry (higher o Philosophy is vision – remove blindness;
than sciences) scrutinize and criticize your beliefs,
Source of knowledge is the faculty of reason biases, prejudices etc. (like hatred
o Tabula rasa: experience is the answer, towards Muslims and colonial mentality)
according to an empiricist The beginnings of Western philosophy were
Three characteristics of a philosophical question speculative in nature because they were the
by Isaiah Berlin: first ones who veered away from the old
o Very broad or general paradigm of myths and legends.
o No standard methodology Miletus, Turkey (ancient Greek city in
o It seems to have no practical utility (one present-day Turkey)
won’t get rich with it) o Turkey, Bulgaria (Macedonia), parts
Philosophy refines methods of other disciplines of Italy (including Naples or Elea
(like the sciences) and Akragas, Sicily)
Speculative philosophy:
o Metaphysical (nature of reality or
universe)
o One unifying substance to explain the
nature of reality and the things around
us
o Beyond the physical realm
Western philosophy:
o Search of knowledge for its own sake
o Scientific knowledge
o Because of man’s curiosity and
rationality; reasoning ability
o Not according to gods or goddesses
Eastern philosophy:
o Religion and philosophy
o Following a certain way of life
o Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism etc.
o Pain and suffering, justification and
explanation
o Karma, persecution of Jews, Messiah
o Zoroastrianism: Avatar will save the
world if evil dominates
16
2 The Pre-Socratics
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18
EMPEDOCLES (493-433 BC) in a mass of other atoms to
o Akragas in Sicily (gay magician) form consciousness or life
o Homosexuality was accepted in society Consciousness – quivering and
(the ideal relationship was between an dancing of the atoms of the
old and young man) soul, clustered with other
o A poet, one of the founders of the new atoms of the body, spreads
art of rhetorical and balanced prose; throughout the body, is
wrote poems for PAUSINIUS, his inhaled and exhaled, and as
lover long as its quantity remains
o An evolutionist: survival of the fittest constant, life and
theory consciousness continue.
o Earth is composed of four elements: Sleep – slight deficiency in
earth, fire, air and water (pluralist = soul atoms
not just one substance, unlike the Fainting or coma- serious
monoists mentioned above) deficiency
o Love and strife: two contrasting forces Death – complete loss; when
with which he attributes change, the soul atoms are dispersed
motion, development and dissolution and are lost in a crowd of soul
o With magical powers, he believed that atoms with which the universe
he can totally cure a person who had is suffused and the body
been nearly dead for 24 months deserted and disintegrates
through his magic into constituent atoms
o Believed he was immortal; thus he
jumped into the mouth of Mt. Etna, a
ZENO OF ELEA (490 BC)
volcano, and died
o Pupil of Parmenides
o Dialectics – method of taking up the
ANAXAGORAS (about 480 BC)
hypothesis of your opponent and
o Matter is infinitely divisible
deducing contradictory conclusions
“There are as many seeds or
from it (not Socrates)
elements as there are kinds of
o Arguments against motion (through
things, and however much of
logic chopping)
it is divided, each part will
o No motion, no empty space
contain elements of everything
o Against infinite divisibility
else.”
o Arguments against motion:
o Nous (mind): an external cause which
Achilles can never catch up
accounts for motion, growth and
with the tortoise in a race
change, infinite and self-ruled,
course.
greatest strength and power over all
The arrow in flight is at rest.
things (origin of the idea of God)
o If matter is neither infinitely divisible
Nous is infinite and self-ruled
nor composed of a finite number of
and mixed with nothing, but it
divisible, it must be a continuum.
is alone, itself by itself… It
Parmenides was right! Reality is being.
has knowledge about
everything and the greatest 2
Zeno's Paradox may be rephrased as follows.
strength; and Nous has power
Suppose I wish to cross the room. First, of course, I
over all things, both greater must cover half the distance. Then, I must cover
and smaller, that have life. half the remaining distance. Then, I must cover half
the remaining distance. Then I must cover half the
LEUCIPPUS & DEMOCRITUS (Leucippus = remaining distance . . . and so on forever. The
teacher) consequence is that I can never get to the other
o Atomic theory: reality is made up of side of the room.
atoms and the void
What this actually does is to make all motion
o Accepted Zeno’s arguments against
impossible, for before I can cover half the distance I
infinite divisibility and asserted the
must cover half of half the distance, and before I
existence of ultimate particles or can do that I must cover half of half of half of the
atoms distance, and so on, so that in reality I can never
o Atomic theory of the soul: move any distance at all, because doing so involves
Soul – made up of atomic moving an infinite number of small intermediate
particles like those of fire (soul distances first.
atoms). They cluster together
19
Now, since motion obviously is possible, the The problem with this paradox is its assumption
question arises, what is wrong with Zeno? What is of the properties of motion. Motion is intrinsically
the "flaw in the logic?" If you are giving the matter related with the passage of time so if you were to
your full attention, it should begin to make you reduce the amount of time that passes to zero—
squirm a bit, for on its face the logic of the situation such as a single point in time—in order to observe
seems unassailable. You shouldn't be able to cross the motion of the arrow you reduce it’s motion via
the room, and the Tortoise should win the race! Yet translation to zero as well. In fact, motion at a
we know better. Hmm. single point in time is not observable at all as a
difference in position. The only measure of motion
Rather than tackle Zeno head-on, let us pause at a point is it’s kinetic energy but Zeno’s arrow
to notice something remarkable. Suppose we take paradox does not take kinetic energy into account
Zeno's Paradox at face value for the moment, and resulting in a paradox.
agree with him that before I can walk a mile I must
first walk a half-mile. And before I can walk the
To answer the question ‘How does the arrow
remaining half-mile I must first cover half of it, that
move?’ you can think of it like this. The arrow
is, a quarter-mile, and then an eighth-mile, and
appears motionless at a single point in time but still
then a sixteenth-mile, and then a thirty-secondth-
has kinetic energy or velocity at that one point. If
mile, and so on. Well, suppose I could cover all
you were to go to the next point in time however
these infinite number of small distances, how far
infinitesimally small the next increment of time is
should I have walked? One mile! In other words,
you would then observe an incremental
displacement of the arrow as determined by its
kinetic energy. It is through the translation of time
and its kinetic energy that the arrow has
displacement at each point. Thus, motion is
achieved.
At first this may seem impossible: adding up an
infinite number of positive distances should give an Retrieved:
infinite distance for the sum. But it doesn't – in this 2
http://www.mathacademy.com/pr/prime/articles/zeno_tort/
case it gives a finite sum; indeed, all these 3
http://milesmathis.com/zeno.html
distances add up to 1! A little reflection will reveal 4
http://www.tumblr.com/tagged/zeno's-paradox
that this isn't so strange after all: if I can divide up
a finite distance into an infinite number of small
distances, then adding all those distances together TABLE OF TERMINOLOGIES:
should just give me back the finite distance I
Do you know ‘em all?
started with. (An infinite sum such as the one above
is known in mathematics as an infinite series, and Milesians Phusis Soul
when such a sum adds up to a finite number we say
that the series is summable.) Thales Hylozoist Consciousness
Anaximander Apeiron Sleep
Now the resolution to Zeno's Paradox is easy.
Obviously, it will take me some fixed time to cross Anaximenes Flux Fainting or coma
half the distance to the other side of the room, say
Pythagoras Plenum Death
2 seconds. How long will it take to cross half the
remaining distance? Half as long – only 1 second. Heraclitus Pluralist Logic chopping
Covering half of the remaining distance (an eighth
of the total) will take only half a second. And so one. Parmenides Nous Cross-cultural
And once I have covered all the infinitely many sub- fertilization
distances and added up all the time it took to
Empedocles Counterearth Center of trade
traverse them? Only 4 seconds, and here I am, on
and commerce
the other side of the room after all.
3
Another paradox of Zeno concerns an arrow Leucippus Lodestone Absence of a
flying through the air. Zeno states that at each priestly caste
instant the arrow must be imagined to be
Democritus Water Individualism
immobile—frozen in one spot. If it is frozen at each
instant it must be frozen at all instants. If it is Zeno of Elea Rarefaction Curiosity
frozen at all instants it must not be moving.
Therefore motion is an illusion. Protagoras Flying saucers Fire
4
Zeno’s Arrow Paradox attempts to prove that Pausinius Atomic theory Sharks
motion is impossible by using an arrow analogy. If
an arrow was shot but you only observed it at a
point in time the arrow would be still at this point, it
would be motionless. If the arrow is motionless at
any point in time how does the arrow move?
20
Simple Exercise (40 points)
Who believed in the following philosophies? Or
who do the descriptions below refer to? Choose
from among the names mentioned above.
/40
1. Founder of dialectics, not Socrates
2. Atomic theory
3. Infinite divisibility of matter
4. Survival of the fittest
5. Reality is being
6. Permanence of change
7. Philosophy and mathematics as purification for
the soul
8. Underlying substance is air
9. Apeiron
10. Fundamental substance is water
11. Hylozoist
12. Cylindrical Earth
13. Heavenly bodies are like flying saucers
14. Religious cult leader
15. The Dark
16. Continuous plenum or object
17. Homosexual
18. Nous
19. Soul, consciousness, sleep, coma, death
20. Logic chopping
21. Achilles, tortoise, arrow
22. Quivering and dancing of soul atoms is life
23. Origin of the idea of God
24. Founder of the new art of rhetorical and
balanced prose
25. We must depend on logical deduction and not
on experiment and observation
26. You can’t step twice into the same river
27. Dignity and sanctity of the contemplative life
28. Rarefaction and condensation of air
29. First cartographer
30. Believed that the Earth is flat
31. Magnetism is evidence of life
32. Seven sages of Greece
33. Man was originally from sharks
34. Transmigration of soul
35. 5, 10, odd, even, oblong, triangular, square
36. The world was, is and will be an ever living fire
37. No state of becoming, only being
38. First pluralist
39. Love and strife are two contrasting forces
40. Immortal magician
BONUS: 41. Phusis
21
22
1 Words and Concepts
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24
2 Wittgenstein
Last edited: 7.23.12/18:50
27
3 Ambiguity
Last edited: 7.22.12/17:15
29
4 Vagueness; On Definitions
Last edited: 7.22.12/18:36
31
o A fanatic is a man who cannot
change his mind and won’t change
the subject.
Avoid circular definition, arguing in circles
(and synonyms)
o Example: Happiness is the state of
being happy.
o Ginebra is the best team in the PBA.
Why? Because they won in the
championship. Why? Because they
are the best team in the PBA.
o Base means that which serves as a
base.
o The meaning of the word, according
to Wittgenstein, is what is explained
by the explanation of the meaning.
o We see that all men mean by justice,
according to Aristotle, that kind of
state of character which makes
people disposed to do what is just
and makes them act justly and wish
for what is just.
o The conscience forbids an act that is
wrong; an act that is wrong is
something that the conscience
forbids.
Avoid defining by giving only examples
(ostensive definitions)
o Example: Fruits are mangoes,
apples and pears.
32
1 Introduction to Epistemology
Last edited: 8.1.12/13:53 Lecture: 7.31.12
o Principle of Non-contradiction
A statement cannot be both
true and false at the same time
and in the same respect
P · ~ P (the conjunction of P
and not P is always false)
Whiteboard cannot be both
white and not white at the same
time.
34
2 Sources of Knowledge; Rationalism
Last edited: 8.19.12/00:14 Lecture: 8.10.12
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE (Analytic VS
Empirical)
Source of Type of Theory of Type of Source of Type of Type of
knowledge statement truth knowledge Theory of truth
knowledge statement knowledge
Formal
Empirical
sciences
EXPERIENCE sciences
REASON (logic,
Analytic Coherence Empirical Correspondence (biology,
(a priori) (a
geometry,
posteriori) physics,
mathematics)
sociology)
36
Thus, a perfect being (God) CRITICISMS
necessarily exists because you o SELF:
doubt. Descartes begged the question.
o MATERIAL OBJECTS Dubito cogito existo – he
He began his treatise: “Is he smuggled the conclusion
dreaming? Is this real?” “therefore I am”
We could not always rely on our There is already the I that does
senses. Senses may sometimes the doubting, the I that does the
deceive us (Example: moon moves thinking and therefore the I that
while we are in a speeding car, the exists in the conclusion.
pencil bends when placed in a It was a question begging
glass of water, railroad tracks argument.
seem to converge in the distance He used the model of mathematics
etc.) to prove his point (deductive)
But even so, we still have to o GOD:
consider that material objects exist Existence must be prior to essence.
as substances because God exists You must first exist!
as a perfect being. How do you know that the
When we perceive material objects, apple is red? Sweet?
they should be there. You must first see it or
Why? Because God could not will taste it before you’ll know!
that we would always be deceived Existence must be a prior
by our senses, and that this would condition before you could
is merely an illusion. enumerate its
If He is a perfect being, it is not characteristics.
included in his characteristics to be You must first exist so that
a deceiver. we could know what you
Therefore, when we perceive look like/ we would know
material objects, they must also your characteristics. You
necessarily exist because GOD IS must be there; you must
A NONDECEIVER. be seen by us!
Therefore, material objects exist
as substances.
“And although I have seen nothing but black crows in
But sometimes, there is a
my life, it doesn't mean that there's no such thing as a
malignant demon when we make
white crow. Both for a philosopher and for a scientist,
mistakes in judgment of the will.
it can be important not to reject the possibility of
It is either:
finding a white crow. You might almost say that
Making genuine mistakes
hunting for 'the white crow' is science's principal task.”
in the judgment of will/will
― Jostein Gaarder, Sophie's World
judges without fully
understanding
Or because of this
malignant demon who
always tries his best to
deceive us
37
3 Empiricism; Kantian Synthesis; Epistemic Obligation
Last edited: 8.19.12/22:19 Lecture: 8.14.12
EPISTEMIC DISTINCTION
o Known – empirical sciences; evidences in
fact and in principle
Evidence in fact: readily available;
provable
Evidence in principle:
hypothetically produced
o Knowable – an extrapolation from the
known
Ex. DNA, cloning, black holes
o Unknowable – unprovable claims; in
principle, no evidence can be produced to
support the claim
Ex. life after death, reincarnation,
parapsychology
39
40
1 Introduction to Ethics
Last edited: 8.20.12/00:12 Lecture: 8/17/12
41
Nicobar Islands in Melanesia –
Family pottery causes blindness (because
the first potter became blind)
Feng shui
Church Peers Honor crimes
Acid attacks in Pakistan and
Afghanistan
Media School
MORES – emerge from folkways
o Are the folkways themselves with the
Moral agent
connotation of what is right and true with
(FREE, MORAL RATIONAL BEING)
the element of societal welfare embodied
1 Factors that influence the values of a moral agent, a in them (to protect and preserve society as
free, rational being a whole)
o What ought to be done?
AN ESSAY OF SUMNER (anthropologist) o From the point of view of the individual:
Character and behavior that is expected of
you as a moral individual
o From the point of view of society: Social
rules which limit or govern our behavior
o Mores - form of control to govern our
behavior; no such thing as absolute
freedom
o Like folkways, they are unformulated and
undefined, not from rational reflection
o Involuntary and product of natural
necessity
o Initially, there were no police force or laws
to regulate them, but later the necessity
for enforcement develops as society grows
o HOW ARE FOLKWAYS FORMED?
Developed from experience LAWS
Handed down by tradition o From the mores, emerge laws and
Admit of no exception (you must institutions.
obey) o POSITIVE – formulated and defined,
Yet, they change to adapt to new product of rational reflection, verification
conditions over time. and criticism (permit to carry firearms,
o CHARACTERISTICS OF FOLKWAYS Penal Code of the Philippines, Constitution)
Universal in the group o CUSTOMARY – common law from their
Uniform customs and taboos (British Magna Carta
Imperative (like commands) in the hearts and minds of the people;
Invariable unwritten)
o SOURCES OF FOLKWAYS o Is what is legal, moral? It should be,
Tradition (it has been done in the because laws come from mores. But there
past) are so many exceptions, because laws
Imitation (from other cultures; K- have many loopholes.
Pop) o Is what is moral, legal? Not all the time,
Authority (what the elders say; since not all are positive laws. Some are
pseudo-knowledge) common/customary laws.
o Some folkways are based on pseudo-
knowledge or formed by accident:
Superstitions
Molembo tribe – white men cause
pestilence
42
INSTITUTIONS
o CRESCIVE – take shape in the mores
Ex. religion, property, marriage
o ENACTED – from rational reflections,
invented
Ex. banking system, land titling
system
o The morality of a group at a time is the
sum total of the taboos and prescriptions
in the folkways by which right conduct is
defined.
o What is immoral is something that is
contrary to the mores of the time and
place.
43
2 Moral Values and Conduct
Last edited: 8.31.12/9:56 Lecture: 8/28/12
QUOTE FROM SAKINI’S TEAHOUSE OF THE ETHNOCENTRISM – the view of things in which
AUGUST MOON: one’s group is the center of everything and all
“World filled with delightful variation others are scales and rated with reference to it.
o Regionalism/racism/biases (Ex: All Muslims
Illustration.
who wear turbans and veils are terrorists)
In Okinawa… no locks on doors.
o We impose our notion of what is right on
In America… lock and key big industry. others
Conclusion? When does a value become a moral value?
Bad manners good business. o Value experience – everything that you
choose (food you chose to eat, clothes you
In Okinawa… wash self in public bath with nude lady
chose to wear, hair style etc.)
quite proper
Side-taking part of our experience
Picture of nude lady in private room quite improper.
– priorities
In America… statue of nude lady in park win prize. o Values – as imperatives which are
But nude lady in flesh in park win penalty. priorities that make a claim upon our
Conclusion? actions; limited in their scope of relevance
in our lives
Pornography question of geography.”
Ex: food, life, friends, education,
ETHICAL RELATIVISM – refers to the diversity
heath, money, beauty
of moral standards and values in different cultures
o Moral value – imperatives with unlimited
and societies. The morals of an age are never
priorities in their scope of relevance in our
anything but the consonance between what is
lives
done and what the mores of the age requires.
“X ought to be promoted in so far
Values have no basis outside the minds of those
as purposive human action is
who prize them.
concerned”
Different practices in other cultures are different
They claim precedence over other
from our notion of what is right:
values because you are willing to
o In Lebanon, men are legally allowed to
set aside other values
have sex with animals, but the animals
Money as a value – as a
must be female. Having sexual relations
means to achieve an end
with a male animal is punishable by death.
Money as a moral value –
o In Bahrain, a male doctor may legally
endless pursuit of money,
examine a woman's genitals, but is
willing to set aside other
prohibited from looking directly at them
values like family, respect
during the examination. He may only see
for others etc.
their reflection in a mirror.
Could be attached to other values
o There are men in Guam whose full-time
job is to travel the countryside and
deflower young virgins, who pay them for
the privilege of having sex for the first
time. Reason: Under Guam law, it is
expressly forbidden for virgins to marry.
o In Cali, Colombia, a woman may only have
sex with her husband, and the first time
this happens, her mother must be in the
room to witness the act.
o Acid attacks in Pakistan and Afghanistan
o Music, dancing and education for women
against the beliefs of the Muslim
fundamentalists
CONDUCT o Based on our moral beliefs, moral
o Deliberate human action of some values and principles, we have the
decisive or active agency (involves tendency to make moral judgments on
rational reflection) how others should conduct themselves
o Only men are moral; we possess or behave. We are so quick to render
rationality moral judgments on others. (Ex: After
Typhoon Ondoy is not immoral the hostage taking: “Dapat kasi ito
when it brought about ginawa nila.”)
destruction. o MORAL JUDGMENT: with reference to
o Pre-reflective morality: with no explicit other people or groups
moral decision o MORAL DECISION: moral judgment
Morality that we bestow to with reference to the judge’s own
animals future action
Compromise term of scholars A choice reflects only our preference but a
who cannot agree on whether decision entails that we have the intent to do it
animals have morality or not actually in the future.
“Morality before reflection” Intellectual choice VS practical choice
If a dog steals food, then the o Intellectual: normative responses (Ex:
master shouts “Where is my in the examination, we say no to
food?” and the dog suddenly abortion)
hides in a corner, it is not the o Practical: but in real life, if the
product of rational reflection. situation calls for it, abortion might be
Rather, it is the product of taken into consideration.
conditioning, because the dog o We are a class of all classes which are
has learned to associate non-members of themselves (we
shouting with fear or anger. consider ourselves as exceptions to
The dog didn’t reflect on the moral rule or principle which we
whether the master has eaten impose on other people)
already or not (based on Russell: “We have in fact two kinds of
instincts) morality, side by side, one which we
o What do the choices that we make preach but do not practice, and another
signify? which we practice but do not preach.”
o What are the two necessary conditions o We are all hypocrites to a certain
for morality to occur? extent
In the process of budgeting o Best foot forward (Ex: Mr. Friendly)
our actions, we have to make o “The grass is greener on the other side
choices to be able to plan our of the fence.”
lives
FREEDOM – to be able to
make choices and to act on
“We keep on being told that religion, whatever its
them
imperfections, at least instills morality. On every side,
OBLIGATION – to be obliged
there is conclusive evidence that the contrary is the case
to make choices and budget and that faith causes people to be more mean, more
our own lives selfish, and perhaps above all, more stupid.”
- Christopher Hitchens
o WE ARE NOT FREE TO BE UNFREE.
You are obliged to exercise your
freedom.
45
3 Classical Ethical Theories (Part I)
Last edited: 9.1.12/22:53 Lecture: 8/31/12
I. PLATO
SOPHISTS
o Known as the wise ones because they o ‘The Republic’, ‘Crito’, ‘Euthypro’, ‘Meno’,
claimed that they could teach wisdom as a ‘Allegory of the Cave’, ‘Phaedo’,
“techne” or skill;; they were the first ‘Symposium’
professional teachers who exacted money o Absolutist and an idealist – there must be
for their services because they have some absolute basis of morality that lies in
mastered the art of rhetorics and the world of forms and ideas (Ed’s note:
persuasion abbreviated from this point on as WFI)
o Received a negative connotation when o The real objects of knowledge must be
Plato and Socrates debunked the Sophists’ something that is changeless and eternal.
teachings. They could only be found not in this world,
o GORGIAS: Virtue is not one but many; but in another world – the WFI.
virtue depends on one’s status in life. o Everything that you find in this world is
If that is the case, according to merely a secondary copy of the ideas that
Plato, how can there be any sense exist out there in the WFI.
in talking about morality or what is This chair is merely a secondary
good and right, if there are many copy of the idea of the chair that
virtues? There must be some exists out there.
absolute basis for it. o How do you recognize the “chairness of the
o PROTAGORAS: For things that are that chair?” Because you recognize its essence
they are, for things that are not that they or idea that participates in the particular
are not, man is the measure of all things. chair that you perceive in this world.
o What is the primary objective? We are after reality – the pure
To be nearer to the WFI knowledge of the WFI.
To recognize the perfect
knowledge
PLATO’S METAPHYSICAL SYSTEM
To have direct contact with it; not
to be going further away from it
o Because this world is only a secondary
copy, this is a world of appearances; aporia
or ignorance
“Plato’s Allegory of the Cave” – the
prisoner chained in the cave all his
life thought that the shadows in
the cave comprised reality
When he was set free and when
he went up, it represents the
enlightenment of the soul; the
o Before you were born, how did you have
ascent of the soul into the true,
knowledge?
the good and the beautiful.
You have perfect and direct
The source of all this is the sun – it
knowledge with the WFI because
represents the idea of the good
you were part of the world soul.
which is the highest idea and the
But the moment when you were
most difficult idea to be perceived.
born, the moment that your soul
The sun represents the good in
joins the body, the body has the
that allegory.
effect somehow of corrupting the
o Hierarchy:
soul. It makes the soul forget what
Easiest to be perceived – ideas
it knew before it joined the body.
about material objects
o Knowledge is remembrance. How?
Followed by mathematical and
You have to go through a life of
abstract ideas
contemplation.
Most difficult – the idea of the
The unexamined life is not worth
good
living (from Socrates)
Your soul must be enlightened!
o Root of idea of dualism between mind and
o "In the world of knowledge, the last thing
body:
to be perceived and only with great
Christianity and 12th century
difficulty is the essential Form of Goodness,
scholasticism: the body is evil and
which is the source of whatever is right
the soul is good.
and good for all things, it is sovereign in
St. Augustine incorporated the
the intelligible world and the parent of
ideas of Plato into Christianity.
intelligence and truth… Without a vision of
Later on, St. Augustine would
this Form, no one can act with wisdom,
pronounce that God is good; good
either in his life or in matters of the state."
is God – the highest idea.
o “The soul of every man possesses the
Then, St. Thomas Aquinas would
power of learning the truth and the organ
incorporate Aristotle’s idea of the
to see it with; and that, just as one would
prime mover as his proof of the
have to turn the whole body around in
existence of God (unmoved mover).
order that the eye should see light instead
o “Virtue is knowledge. Knowledge is wisdom.
of darkness, so the entire soul must be
Knowledge is remembrance.”
turned away from the changing world, until
Knowledge, because you forgot, is
its eye can bear to contemplate reality and
just a matter of remembering what
that supreme splendor called the Good.”
the soul knew before it joined the
o You must bear away from the changing
body (through the act of
world – what is that changing world?
contemplation).
This world! A world of appearances
and illusions. This could not be the
basis of knowledge. This is just
aporia or ignorance.
47
The moment that you know the o Stratified (no moving up and down among
good, you would immediately classes)
pursue it, because virtue is o Poets and artists must be banished from
knowledge. Knowledge is wisdom. the republic of Plato.
Therefore, virtue is wisdom. It is Things that you see in this world
not like a technique or “techne” are merely secondary copies from
that could be taught as claimed by the WFI.
the Sophists because there is an If an artist recreates the figure of a
absolute basis for you to become chair on canvas, then he or she is
wise. creating a tertiary copy of reality.
For Plato, to know the good is You are veering away further from
immediately to pursue it. No one the WFI instead of going nearer it.
does wrong knowingly. Why is it o In the republic of Plato, infanticide existed.
that you are not doing what is Regulation of the warrior class:
good? Because you have not yet Abolition of the family
remembered! But the moment that Abolition of the ownership
you know, you would automatically of property
become virtuous and therefore Equality of men and
wise! women
Cases of infanticide:
PLATO’S REPUBLIC The bravest and most
Myth of the three metals: courageous guardians will
o Bronze soul – slaves be given more chances of
o Silver soul – warriors intercourse with women
o Gold soul – philosopher-kings given them. If your union
o Gold soul (souls are born of gold): happens to have any
“Until philosophers are kings, then deformed offspring, they
will this our State have a possibility will be “put away in some
of life and behold the light of day.” mysterious unknown place
Why? Because their souls are born as they should be.”
of gold. They are pure and have Abnormal brave child
not been corrupted so badly by the Offspring of two cowards
body. brought together through
They are the best qualified persons the drawing of lots.
to lead the republic towards the “Community of pleasure and pain”
pursuit of the good life. Everyone will be grieved
They could easily remember, for the same incident or
through a life of contemplation, moment
the idea of the good. Everyone is your children,
o Silver soul: wife and husband.
Auxillaries or guardians of the state If there will be invaders,
o Bronze soul: you will do everything to
Slaves or the working class defend your republic.
o If each part of the state is doing the job You bear children for the
that is intended of it to do, then there will state.
be justice in the state because you are not o What is Plato’s version of platonic love?
trying to be what your nature is not. Love of the WFI always as the
o At the same time, there will justice in the main objective of our existence in
soul if the rational part of the soul rules this world. Not brotherly or sisterly
over the irrational part including the love.
appetites. o Plato died during a banquet.
o There will be injustice if the appetites
would try to rule the rational part.
o There will be injustice in the state if the
slaves would try to become a ruler because
that is not their nature.
48
II. ARISTOTLE THE SUPREME GOOD IS HAPPINESS. To
achieve excellence or “eudaemonia”.
o Macedonian; charged with rebellion or
Happiness 1. Self-sufficient: renders life
sedition because he was the tutor of
(eudaemonia) desirable and lacking in
Alexander the Great (who wanted to take
nothing.
down Athens); chose to be exiled.
o Died of stomach ailment at Chalsis 2. Final: an end in itself; final end.
o Brightest student of Plato
o Became disheartened when Plato’s 1. Intellectual virtue: an
Virtue
academy was passed on to a useless (achieve exercise in your rational
relative; he thought that as the brightest happiness principles from which right
student of Plato, the academy should be with behavior can proceed (What
passed on to him. virtue) to do?)
o He founded his own school called the 2. Moral virtue: an exercise of
“Lyceum.” the mean for feelings and
o They were called the peripathetics (From actions (How to do?)
the root word “peripathos” – the walk; GOLDEN MEAN
walking along the walk)
o Consciously veered away from the platonic
influence; thus, he became a naturalist and - excess mean deficiency --->
teleologist.
o He dropped everything about the o Midpoint of excess and deficiency (or two
absolutism and idealism of Plato. vices)
o He wrote about so many things: o It is a mark of virtue if you could only
‘Nicomachean Ethics’, ‘Politics’, ‘Psychology’, observe the mean or midpoint; not excess
‘Physics’ etc. or deficiency.
o St. Thomas Aquinas was able to o “Virtue is a settled disposition of the mind
incorporate Aristotle’s ideas into his as regards to the choice of actions and
Christian doctrines. emotions, consisting in the observance of
o Nicomachean ethics – named after his son the mean relative to us, this being
Nicomachus determined by principle… It is a mean
o He married the niece of the King of state between two vices.”
Macedonia for his second wife for financial Principle -> mark of our intellectual
purposes. He would be free to philosophize virtue
all day long! Observance of the mean relative to
us –> mark of our moral virtue
DOCTRINE OF POTENTIALITIES They go hand in hand. It is always
o Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that we relative - according to each
possess our own “telos” (purpose or goal) person’s capacity and need.
within us – because we have our own Ex: food: Schwarzenegger
“entelecheia” (having purpose within) and Liza Macuja will have
o Doctrine of Potentialities: We have our own different means.
potential. o What is the requirement for the attainment
Nutritive Sentient Rational of virtue?
Plants >>>>> “It is an activity that requires a
>>>>> >>>>> complete lifetime, for one swallow
Animals
does not make a summer, nor
Man >>>>> >>>>> >>>>> does one fine day. Similarly, one
day or a brief period of happiness
o “Man” refers to “male citizens of the polis”
does not make a man supremely
– those who have property; those who
blessed and happy.”
participate directly in the polis.
49
“…to feel these feelings (fright, o “Nothing can possibly be conceived in the
anger, desire, pity, pleasure, pain) world and even out of it, which can be
at the right time, on the right called good without qualification, except
occasion, towards the right people, good will.”
for the right purpose and in the o This goodwill is responsible for the
right manner, is to feel the best recognition of duty.
amount of them, which is the o “The will stands between its a priori
mean amount—and the best principle which is formal and its a posteriori
amount is of course the mark of incentive which is material.”
virtue.” o “Duty is the necessity of an action done
Will you consider Aristotle’s from respect for the law… To have moral
golden mean in the worth, an action must be done from duty.”
following situations?
Anger: “I will only throw CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE:
two chairs instead of four o “According to duty” – hypothetical
because I’m observing the imperative that is based on the effect
mean.” which is expected from the action;
Love: “I will only kiss you conditional statements; if P then Q; if I do
twice, not more than that, this, then I will get this; cause and effect
because that would be in Husband 1 admits that he is so in
excess.” love with his wife. Because of this,
Food: diet programs he gives her gifts every special
Life is not a boring, flat line! (like occasion.
what Aristotle believes.) It is If I make her happy, then I will
difficult to observe the mean in become happy also (based on his
your life all the time! emotions)
o We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, His actions do not have moral
then, is not an act, but a habit. worth.
How do you become moral? You He is doing it based on inclinations;
always have to cultivate or develop and he is not following an
the habit of always observing the objective law of morality.
mean. He is just following his own
hypothetical imperative based on
his emotions and feelings which
III. IMMANUEL KANT
could change later on!
o Strict parents; son of a saddle-maker After a while, he could his lose his
family feelings; then, he will not do
o Goes out for a walk at 3 PM every time in anything anymore to please his
his village wife because he does not love her
o Never got married anymore!
o University of Königsberg professor You should remove your emotions
o A deontologist (from the Greek word “dein” so that you could see if your action
which means “duty”) is correct or not!
o ‘Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals”, o “From duty” – categorical imperative
‘A Critique of Pure Reason.’ (black and white distinction)
Husband 2 admits that he has lost
KANT’S METAPHYSICS and KNOWLEDGE OF any emotions or feelings for his
MORALITY (see next page) wife. But still, because he is a
o Merging of pure reason and pure intuition husband, he recognizes that it is
of space and time. his duty to give her gifts every
o It is practical reason that is responsible for special occasion.
our recognition of the foundation of Husband 2 has moral worth!
morality. (following the objective law of
o It is practical reason that would give way morality)
to our recognition of the will – good in
itself.
50
Even if you don’t want to do it, you If you only focus on the effect, it is
do it because it is your categorical considered as a hypothetical
imperative! (Ex: Students that imperative.
study – we do things in life even if o “A maxim is the subjective principle of
we don’t want to do them because volition. The objective principle is the
we have to do them in life!) practical law, that I should follow such a
Michael Phelps should save Hitler, law even if it thwarts all my inclinations.”
if Phelps sees Hitler drowning, o “To test whether an act is consistent with
because he is still a member of the Duty: Can I will that my maxim become a
kingdom of ends. He should be universal law?”
considered an end in himself. This o Universalizability principle: “Act only on
act is universalizable – because that maxim through which you can at the
you are saving a human life! same time will that it should become a
Abortion is wrong – in no condition universal law.”
would abortion be right under Applicable to administrators –
deontological ethics, because you favoritism should not be
are using the fetus as a means to implemented; it can demoralize
your selfish end. You should others
consider the fetus as an end in Teachers and professors
itself – as belonging to a kingdom Parents with favorites
of ends. Thus, you should preserve
the life of the baby. KANT’S FORMULATIONS OF THE
Lying is not universalizable – CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE:
otherwise, we would become a o Act only on that maxim (intention)
society of liars. There are actions whereby you can, at the same time, will
that are wrong in themselves. But that it should become a universal law.
there are mitigating circumstances o Act as if the maxim of your action were to
why people lie sometimes! You become, by your will, a universal law of
can’t be honest always. nature.
Ex: A is chasing B with a o Always act so as to treat humanity,
knife. B hides in C’s house. whether in yourself or in others, as an end-
A asks C: “Where is B?” in-itself, never merely as a means.
o “To duty, every other motive must give o Always act as if to bring about, and as a
place, because duty is the condition of the member of a Kingdom of Ends (that is, an
will good-in-itself, whose worth transcends ideal community in which everyone is
everything.” always moral.)
o “Thus, the moral worth of an action does
not lie in the effect which is expected from
it.”
51
4 Classical Ethical Theories (Part II)
Last edited: 9.5.12/22:23 Lecture: 9/4/12
52
But for ordinary people, QUOTATIONS:
between reading ethics and o "I believe the good to be definable and
eating ice cream, it is not true. yet still say that good, itself, is
In real life, perhaps we are all indefinable."
fools and pigs to a certain As substantive (complex) – the
extent. things that are good
o "Each person's happiness counts the The good student; the
same as everyone else's." (rich vs poor good book; the horse as
have equal happiness) a complex entity
o JEREMY BENTHAM: "Everybody to count Analyze the “horse” by
for one, nobody for more than one." reducing it into its
o Mill's Loophole: All persons have a right simplest parts using
to equality of treatment except when definition
some recognized social expediency As an adjective or quality that
requires the reverse." you attach to a thing (simple)
Who would judge who is socially Indefinable
expedient? It is already a simple
If there are 11 people who are notion; it could not be
drowning, and the lifeboat could reduced further; it has
save only 10, who would you no parts
sacrifice so that the others could o "A definition states what are the parts
live? The oldest, the fattest, the which invariably compose a certain
thinnest? whole; and it is in this sense that 'good'
If for example, 6 or 7 of the 10 has no definition because it is simple
have already decided on the and has no parts."
person to die (majority), then Example: definition by example
you could trample on the rights or illustration; by synonym; by
of the others. description etc. deal only with
Notion of “tyranny of the things which are good.
majority” – who are you to BERTRAND RUSSELL:
judge who deserves to die? Knowledge by description:
Inverted pyramid (social justice Describe how this person looks
for the poor - utilitarianism) like (picture of the person in
mind)
Knowledge by acquaintance:
II. GEORGE EDWARD MOORE
Yellow color cannot be
o An intuitionist and analytic philosopher described to a color-blind
(Principia Ethica, 1903) person; it is already simple. You
o He believed that there is a third source have to be acquainted with
of knowledge called intuition: the direct “yellow” directly to be able to
or immediate apprehension of recognize “yellow”, just like
knowledge as self-evident truths; i.e., “good.”
intuition of moral goodness is objective No amount of description would
and self-evidently true suffice for you to have
o In Principia Ethica, he used the meta- knowledge of the “good,” just
ethical approach in criticizing the other like the color “yellow”.
philosophers when they asked “What is You must have the intuition of
good?” They may actually ask two what is “good” so that you could
questions: recognize goodness.
1. What things are good? Knowledge of moral goodness is
2. How is good to be defined? objective and self-evidently true.
o Employed analytic movement in ethics:
analysis in terms of simple and complex
(reduce a chair to simple parts)
53
o Good: Denotes a simple and Two Meaningful Types of Statements
unanalyzable property which is According to the Criterion of Verification:
indefinable.
You have to intuit the good; use
Theory of Theory of
your intuition as the direct or Statement Source
truth knowledge
immediate apprehension of
knowledge.
o Similar to Plato’s philosophy: Analytic Reason Coherence Formal
“The soul of every man Example: A bachelor is an unmarried male.
possesses the power of learning
the truth and the organ to see it Empirical Experience Correspondence Empirical
with; and that, just as one
would have to turn the whole Example: The cat is on the mat.
body around in order that the
eye should see light instead of o Statements (T/F) vs. sentences (merely
darkness, so the entire soul uttered; no truth value)
must be turned away from the o Cognitive meaning: Contains an
changing world, until its eye can assertion that is verifiable as either true
bear to contemplate reality and or false
that supreme splendor called If you are an anthropologist
the Good.” and you are trying to study
o Naturalistic fallacy: Any attempt to the behavior of the Ifugao
equate good with any other term. people, you would observe
To define a non-natural term that women who want to
like good with a natural term get married will go to a
like pleasure. house during a celebration.
The realm of good could be Men who want to marry can
bigger than the realm of go to that house and
pleasure. choose a woman, with a
They cannot be logically one-year “warranty and
equivalent with each other. guarantee on parts and
Not everything that is good is services.”
pleasurable. If the woman can’t bear a
child in a year, the man can
III. ALFRED JULES AYER exchange her for another
woman during the next
o An emotivist (Language Truth and Logic,
festival.
1936)
It is good for them because
o Logical positivism - The role of
they want to perpetuate
philosophy is the logical analysis of
their tribe.
language (scientific)
In this way, we are using
o Ordinary language philosophy –
descriptive ethical symbols.
contradicted logical positivism
Anyone else who would
Criterion of verification: How do
verify these facts can also
you verify the principle of
observe the same practices
verification? (became a
(thus, these facts are
metaphysical assumption)
verifiable.)
For logical positivists, they tried
o Emotive meaning: To express and
to limit the scope of knowledge
influence feelings and attitude; to evince
and human experience:
the same feeling in others
evaluative statements (religious
Normative ethical symbols
and aesthetic) are meaningless
and unverifiable!
54
QUOTATIONS: QUOTATIONS:
o "Ethical concepts are pseudo-concepts o "The truth of an idea is not a stagnant
and, therefore, unanalyzable." property inherent in it. Truth happens to
o "The presence of an ethical symbol in a an idea."
proposition adds nothing to its factual It is true now because you are
content." so in love with your girlfriend or
o “It is only normative ethical symbols and boyfriend at that moment. He or
not descriptive ethical symbols that are she is the most considerate, the
held by us to be indefinable in factual most generous, the prettiest etc.
terms." (at first.) It happens;; it’s not a
Because ethical concepts are stagnant property.
meaningless But when you break up, he will
o RUDOLF CARNAP: "A value statement is become false later on, since
nothing else than a command in a there is no more good and
misleading grammatical form." practical consequence in
"Cheating is wrong" may mean believing that your boyfriend is
the ff: a good man. He or she is now
1. Don't cheat. (Imperative) the ugliest, the most selfish etc.
2. I wish you wouldn't cheat. o "What do verification and validation
(Expletive) pragmatically mean? They again signify
3. I disapprove of you certain practical consequences of the
cheating; you should disapprove of verified and validated idea."
it, too. (Emotive) In short, its verification and
validation would again lead you
to the good or practical
IV. WILLIAM JAMES
consequence that you can get
o A pragmatist ("The Pragmatic Criterion from believing in that idea.
of Truth") o "The true, to put it briefly, is only the
expedient in the way of our thinking,
Truth -> Good/practical consequences -> just as the right is only the expedient in
Validation / verification -> Expediency -> the way of our behaving."
Cash value This is why, it is applicable to
o What is true, leads to good or practical ethics (with what we consider
consequences. as good or true -> our behavior)
o Therefore, the validity and the o “Grant an idea or belief to be true…
verification of an idea, grant an idea to what concrete difference will its being
be true, lies on its expediency or the true make in anyone's actual life? What
practical cash value that you could get in short, is the truth's cash value in
out of that experience. experiential terms?"
o Usage in everyday life: In other words, you’re always
o We are not doing something asking, “What good would it do
without us expecting something to me? What is in it for me?”
in return. We always do things for a
o What is in it for us? What good reason.
or practical consequence will o "Meanwhile, we have to live today by
our doing something bring to us? what truth we can get today and be
What is the practical cash value ready tomorrow to call it falsehood."
of that idea? Unfortunately, when you break
Examples: What is true? What is up with your boyfriend, he is
right? already false.
When we were five years old,
we believed in Santa Claus. But
now, we’re all grown up already.
We have outgrown this belief.
In the same manner, your
parents still stay together even
if they are fighting already.
55
Perhaps they see a good and o Problem: We are full of regrets. We are
practical consequence in staying not so forgiving of our mistakes. Get
together. over it and grow up!
o Criticism against pragmatism: o Avoid conditional statements (If-then: If
What is good and practical for I were pretty/rich/sexy etc. BUT YOU’RE
me may not be good and NOT! It’s a waste of time! Don’t dwell
practical for you. on the past!)
Who would judge what is good o It’s a counterfactual conditional – the
and practical for whom? For basis is a false statement!
whose benefit are you talking
about?
It would now lead to a cycle of “Have the courage to say no. Have the courage to
vicious relativism. face the truth. Do the right thing because it is right.
Parents fighting: Who would be These are the magic keys to living your life with
followed? The one who holds integrity.”
the money; or the one with a - W. Clement Stone
strong personality.
Relationship among nations: “Relativity applies to physics, not ethics.”
The USA would not - Albert Einstein
make us their satellite
without any apparent “Integrity is doing the right thing, even if nobody is
benefit. We are one of watching.”
their borderless markets
now (everything is
smuggled and imported;
local products do not
stand a chance)
Spratlys conflict
between Philippines and
China, and USA
intervention in the
Pacific
THRASYMACHUS:
Justice and
righteousness is in
accordance with the
interest of the stronger
party. Might makes
right!
CONCLUSION
The goal of ethics is to let us internalize that:
o We should know better.
o We are a free, moral rational being.
o We could make our own choices and
deliberate upon our actions.
o We could justify our actions.
o We should not allow anyone to call you
immoral or to render moral judgments
on you.
o Even if you say “I am a pig! I want
pleasure of the body,” so as long as you
could justify your actions, it’s alright!
That does not make you less of a
human being if you are just honest with
yourself.
56
57
1 Introduction to Deductive Logic
Last edited: 9.19.12/21:57 Lecture: 9/14/12
DEFINITION OF LOGIC AND A BRIEF HISTORY
o Study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning (structure or
logical form of the argument)
o A critical analysis and development of the structures of reliable inference
o A system of representing arguments so that we can do away with the ambiguity and vagueness
associated with ordinary language
o Russell and Whitehead’s Principia Mathematica which proved all known truths of mathematics from
very few premises.
o Critics wanted the Principia Mathematica to discover all possible truths but it was later proved to be
impossible.
REASONING
o The search for a statement or set of statements that can be made to yield a new statement
o Reasoning entails inference
INFERENCE
o Technical term that logicians use for this process (reasoning)
ARGUMENT
o An expression of this process of inference (or a product of this process)
WHY DO WE STUDY LOGIC?
o Examine mistakes in reasoning
o Logic is considered as an art as well as a science
As a science, we must be aware of the accepted rules that logicians would consider as
universal norms or standards – like mathematics!)
As an art, we must be able to apply logic in our everyday life.
o Prescriptive/normative science vs descriptive (it does not describe how facts stand)
o Develop techniques and methods for testing the correctness of the different kinds of reasoning
58
o IRVING KOPI: The logician is not the arbiter of facts but of the forms (correct structure of arguments)
in which inferences are made.
Therefore, we claim that the logician is concerned with the structure of the statement. The
logical structure of every deductive argument follows the form of an implication or a
conditional statement where the antecedent is a conjunction of the premises, and the
consequent is the conclusion of the argument. Thus, we say that in a valid arguemnt, the
premises must imply the conclusion.
VALID
o The premises imply the conclusion TRUTH TABLE OF VALIDITY:
SOUND P : Q : P -> Q
o Valid T T T
o Factually true
T F F (Invalid)
EFFECTIVE
F T T
o Valid
o Sound F F T
o Carries conviction
“Logic will get you from P to Q. Imagination will take you everywhere.”
― Albert Einstein
59
2 Truth Table Method of Validity
Last edited: 9.27.12/22:04 Lecture: 9/18/12
4. BICONDITIONAL OR EQUIVALENCE ( ≡ )
TYPES OF COMPOUND STATEMENTS P if and only if Q (consequent) P Q 𝐏 ∙ 𝐐
One simple statement – capital letter P is equivalent to Q T T T
If and only if I am hungry, T F F
1. CONJUNCTION ( · ) then I eat. (E ≡H)
and also however F T F
but although moreover F F T
P Q 𝐏 ∙ 𝐐
still yet nevertheless
Only true if both conjuncts are T T T
true T F F TRUTH TABLE METHOD
Not all uses of these logical
F T F 1. Given the compound statement:
connectives are meant for
conjunction. F F F ~ (J ∙ D) ≡ (~ J ∙ ~D)
o R and J are lovers.
~ (J ∙ D) ≡ (~ J ∙ ~D)
T T T F F F
T F F F F T
F F T T F F
F F F T T T
~ (J ∙ D) ≡ (~ J ∙ ~D)
F T T T F F F
T T F F F F T
T F F T T F F
T F F F T T T
~ (J ∙ D) ≡ (~ J ∙ ~D)
F T T T T F F F
T T F F F F F T
T F F T F T F F
T F F F T T T T
61
ANSWER KEY:
1. ~~(~I v ~ L)
2. M → (L → S)
3. (I v L) ∙ ~(I ∙ L)
4. (~N v G) v S
5. (~I v E) → ~L
6. F ∙ (D ∙ A)
7. (~S v M) → R
8. ~(C ∙ L) v E
9. ~M ∙ (M → S)
10. ~~(~E v ~L)
11. [S → (P → L)] ∙ (~P → ~S)
12-21. The tinman got his heart and the scarecrow got
his brains only if Dorothy could not have gone back to
Kansas. But if the scarecrow did not get his brains,
then the tinman at least got his heart and Dorothy went
back to Kansas. So really, the scarecrow got his brains.
1T
2T
4T 1F
2F 1T
8/2= 1F
1T
2T
4F 1F
2F 1T
1F
62
4. Note: For three letters:
A B C D
A B C D E
8/2= 1F
{~S ∙ [(~D ∙ ~E) → V] ∙ (D → ~S) ∙ (~S → ~E)}
1T
2T →V
4F 1F
2F 1T 3. Determine the number of possible true and
1F false value combinations. 2 raised to 4= 16.
Thus, the first set would be 8T and 8F. The
second set would be 4T 4F 4T 4F; the third 2T
2F 2T 2F 2T 2F 2T 2F and so on.
63
Note on Paradoxes of Material Implication (see
page 60):
64
3 Rules of Inference; Formal Proof of Validity
Last edited: 9.29.12/11:03 Lecture: 9/21/12
6 L v (I v C) 9 ~L (3, 8) MP
1 SW 4 D ~I
2 W ~L 5 D
3 S 6 L v (I v C)
4 D ~I 7 CB /∴ B
5 D 8 S ~L (1, 2) HS
6 L v (I v C) 9 ~L (3, 8) MP
7 CB /∴ B 10 IvC (6, 9) DS
8 S ~L (1, 2) HS 11 ~I (4, 5) MP
9 ~L (3, 8) MP 12
10 13
11
12
13
66
7. If we take statements 10 and 11, disjunctive e. There may be more than one
syllogism can prove C. method to prove validity. However,
the shorter method is preferred
1 SW (The one with the least steps)
2 W ~L
SEATWORK (36/35 points)
3 S
Prove the validity of the following premises using
4 D ~I the rules of inference.
5 D
6 L v (I v C) 1-6.
7 CB /∴ B
8 S ~L (1, 2) HS 1 (F ∙ ~P) ~S
9 ~L (3, 8) MP 2 F∙W
10 IvC (6, 9) DS 3 W ~A
11 ~I (4, 5) MP 4 A v ~P /∴ ~S
12 C (10,11) DS 5
13 6
7
8. Finally, to arrive at B (the conclusion), we
8
can invoke modus ponens to statements 7
and 12. 9
10
1 SW
2 W ~L
7-15.
3 S
4 D ~I 1 ~(T ∙ U) ∙ ~(Y ∙ V)
5 D 2 ~S [(VW) ∙ (X Y)]
6 L v (I v C) 3 (T ∙ U) v [(~S V) ∙ (~S X)]
7 CB /∴ B 4 S (T ∙ U) /∴ W v Y
8 S ~L (1, 2) HS 5
9 ~L (3, 8) MP 6
10 IvC (6, 9) DS 7
11 ~I (4, 5) MP 8
12 C (10,11) DS 9
13 B (7, 12) MP 10
11
9. Some points to remember:
a. Numbers may be interchanged. For 12
example, you can use (2,1) instead 13
of (1,2) for the eighth line (or first
proof).
b. You cannot add or remove numbers Note: There are two possible proofs for 7-
inside (x,y.) Example: (1,2,3) HS for 15. However, the one with the fewer proofs
the eighth line or first proof is is preferred.
wrong; as well as (2) HS.
c. There must always be a rule of
inference supporting each proof.
d. The sequence of steps shown here
need not be followed in the exact
order to be considered as correct.
67
16-22. ANSWER KEY
8
6 W (2) simp
7 ~A (3, 6) MP
9
10 8 ~P (4, 7) DS
9 F ∙ ~P (5, 8) conj
11
10 ~S (1, 9) MP
23-30.
7-15.
1 S v [(W ∙ D) J]
2 ~S ∙ W
1 ~(T ∙ U) ∙ ~(Y ∙ V)
3 ~D ~W
2 ~S [(VW) ∙ (X Y)]
4 WR /∴ J ∙ R
3 (T ∙ U) v [(~S V) ∙ (~S X)]
5 4 S (T ∙ U) /∴ W v Y
6 5 ~(T ∙ U) (1) simp
7 6 ~S (4, 5) MT
8 7 (VW) ∙ (X Y) (2, 6) MP
9 8 (~S V)∙ (~S X) (3, 5) DS
10 9 ~S v ~S (6) add
11 10 VvX (8. 9) CD
12 11 WvY (7, 10) CD
31-36.
1 ~(T ∙ U) ∙ ~(Y ∙ V)
1 (J R) ∙ (~J E) 2 ~S [(VW) ∙ (X Y)]
2 RI 3 (T ∙ U) v [(~S V) ∙ (~S X)]
3 [(J R) ∙ (R I)] [(J ∙ I) v (~J ∙ ~I)] 4 S (T ∙ U) /∴ W v Y
4 (J ∙ I) T 5 ~(T ∙ U) (1) simp
5 (~J ∙ ~I) D /∴ T v D 6 ~S (4, 5) MT
6 7 (VW) ∙ (X Y) (2, 6) MP
7 8 (~S V)∙ (~S X) (3, 5) DS
8 9 VW (7) simp
9 10 ~S V (8) simp
10 11 V (6, 10) MP
11 12 W (9, 11) MP
13 WvY (12) add
68
16-22.
“Contrary wise, if it was so, it might be; and if it
1 [(A v ~B) v C] [D (E ≡ F)] were so, it would be; but as it isn't, it ain't. That's
logic.”
2 (A v ~B) [(F ≡ G) H]
- Lewis Carroll
3 A [(E ≡ F) (F ≡ G)]
4 A /∴ D H
5 (E ≡ F) (F ≡ G) (3, 4) MP
6 A v ~B (4) add
7 (F ≡ G) H (2, 6) MP
8 (E ≡ F) H (5, 7) HS
9 (A v ~B) v C (6) add
10 D (E ≡ F) (1, 9) MP
11 D H (8, 10) HS
23-30.
1 S v [(W ∙ D) J]
2 ~S ∙ W
3 ~D ~W
4 WR /∴ J ∙ R
5 ~S (2) simp
6 W (2) simp
7 D (3, 6) MT
8 R (4, 6) MP
9 (W ∙ D) J (1, 5) DS
10 W∙D (6, 7) conj
11 J (9, 10) MP
12 J∙R (11, 8) conj
31-36.
1 (J R) ∙ (~J E)
2 RI
3 [(J R) ∙ (R I)] [(J ∙ I) v (~J ∙ ~I)]
4 (J ∙ I) T
5 (~J ∙ ~I) D /∴ T v D
69
70
1 Introduction to Inductive Logic
Last edited: 10.3.12/17:31 Lecture: 9/28/12
71
To counter: “Do not put words into cannot directly observe what you
my mouth. That is not my original really want to see, so you are
argument.” looking for an analogous case.
o Red herring Before you do that, you must
Bringing up irrelevant issues; establish the parallelism of the two
change of subject; diverting the cases first.
issue False analogy – the parallelism is
Government tactics or strategies questionable: “My grandfather is
when the issues are becoming too brave. Bonifacio is brave.
hot to handle (Ex. terrorists now in Therefore, my grandfather should
Manila/insurgents/NPA soldiers are become a hero too.”
always to blame for explosions; Organic shampoo commercial:
when CJ Sereno was being “Hair begins at the roots.”
criticized for being psychologically Comparing the roots of a plant
unfit, the BIR brings up tax that grows well with added
evasion cases against Former CJ fertilizer, and the roots of human
Corona to divert the issue) hair, is fallacious (equivocation)
o Slippery slope EXAMPLES:
“If you are pro-abortion; therefore,
1. Since you cannot prove that intelligence tests
you are as evil as Hitler.”
are inaccurate, they must be accurate. (ad
“If we allow parents to select the
ignorantiam)
sex of their children, before long
2. We must reduce the size of public debt since
they will expect to pay all sorts of
Rosanna Roces, the well-known bold actress,
desirable attributes and we will
pointed out that this is essential. (ad
have the nightmare of designer
verecundiam)
babies.”
3. Salesman to an undecided customer: “Shall I
“Legalizing soft drugs such as
charge this TV set to your account or do you
cannabis will encourage
wish to pay cash?” (complex question)
experimentation with hard drugs,
4. How can you accept his recommendation that
and before we know it, the streets
surgery should be performed? After all, Dr.
will be littered with syringe-crazed
Santos is a surgeon and surgeons are expected
junkies.”
to recommend operations. (ad hominem –
“Showing leniency to young
circumstantial because the surgeon is to
offenders will spur them on to
benefit)
greater criminal acts, and before
5. This problem is wrong. It is wrong because
long, our houses will be under
there is a mistake in it. There is a mistake in it
siege from thieving and
because it is incorrect, and it is incorrect
murderous youths.”
because it is wrong. (petitio principii)
o False dilemma
6. A: I only go to good movies. B: But how do
A genuine dilemma is balanced –
you know that they are good? A: Well, I don’t
You can choose between two
choose to go to them unless they are good.
alternatives A and B, and actually
(petitio principii)
argue both sides well.
7. Efren Bata Reyes pulled an excellent billiard
Choosing between the devil and
game after he had an argument with his wife.
the deep blue sea.
Thus, he was able to play a good game
You do not need to choose
because he had an argument with his wife.
between the two alternatives;
(post hoc, ergo, propter hoc)
there might be a third alternative
8. When did you start losing half of your weekly
or proposal.
paycheck at the racetrack? (complex question)
You are the loser either way;
9. You cannot possibly accept his view that the
twisted or slanted towards one
employees need a raise; after all, he is the
side.
secretary of the labor union and he is paid to
o False analogy
make these statements. (ad hominem)
An analogous argument, by its
10. If you convict this man, who will feed the
very nature, is a weak argument
mouths of his three hungry children? (ad
because you are just looking at or
misericordiam)
establishing a parallel case. You
72
Two principles on which induction is grounded: o “Induction goes beyond the limits of
o Principle of causality validation but not beyond the limits of
o Principle of uniformity of nature justification.”
In using the principle of induction, when you are o “We might justify induction as a tool for
trying to connect one isolated event with another, establishing reasonable beliefs (that they
you have to assume that nature is caused; that are valuable for their own sake) –
events are caused in this world. vindication as leading to reasonable beliefs.”
You also have to assume that the causes and
effects that you have observed in the past will still HERBERT FEIGL
be true today and will still be true tomorrow; that o There are two kinds of justification:
there is equilibrium in your life. 1. Validation – by showing that it is governed
by an accepted rule (e.g. rules of inference)
BERTRAND RUSSELL – could not accept the 2. Vindication – by showing that a given
principle of induction decision, policy or act is well adapted to
o “How sure are you when you argue “Swan achieving a certain end.
# 1-3 are white, therefore all swans are o Vindication – “adopting methods which are
white?” You are now making an inference best suited to the attainment of our ends.”
from the observed cases to cases yet
unobserved.”
F. L. WILL
o “You are now proposing that since this is
the evidence that you have on hand, it is
PAST PRESENT FUTURE 1
only supported with warranted assertability
17 yrs old Remote future
and you could not be sure because it is
always possible that experience will prove o “Will the Future be Like the Past”
you wrong. So you could not be sure – this o What is now part of the present will later
is only what the evidence could warrant.” on become part of the past.
o Inductive leap – Russell tried to find a o What is part of the future later on will
justification for induction which is as clear become part of the present.
as deduction. o Imagine that you have been on Earth for
o the past 17 years of your life. From these
S1
S2 observed evidence inductive leap 17 years that you have been on this Earth,
S3 when you ask the question, “Will the future
∴ All unobserved be like the past?”, how would you answer?
o According to F. L. Will, there are two
o Solipsism – “I, alone, exist.” I could not
senses of the word “future”:
even rely on my past experiences and
Future 1 – future that is like the
memories. I could only account for my own
past; it is confirmed by uniform
experiences at the moment that I am
experiences and instances of life.
experiencing them.
For example: ten years
from now, you want to be
MAX BLACK
successful doctors perhaps.
o “Induction, by definition, is not deduction.”
Still, it is part of our future
o “No general justification of induction is
that is confirmable and
either possible or needed.”
observable because it is
o “The idea of the so-called inductive leap is
part of our experiences.
built into our conception of an inductive
Future 1 is a part of the
argument.”
future that is like the past;
o Inductive demonstration – by using
confirmable instances that
principles that have been found to work
are not beyond the bounds
(induction is needed in everyday life)
of our experiences.
73
Future 2 (future future) – remotest It would entail big changes in
future (example: 1,000 years from terms of how we view the world
now) and in terms of how we explain
Not within the framework things. Ex: changing the textbooks
or realm of our in the Middle Ages.
experiences It took 200 years for the Church to
All of the things that we recognize his discoveries when
would be imagining 1,000 they could no longer evade the
years from now are anomalies, and when more and
unknowable or something more people were proving Galileo’s
beyond us. claim.
We can only imagine; or “Fear of the unknown” – a natural
give speculations and human defense mechanism; no
conjectures about Future 2. one would immediately believe
Future 2 is not confirmable; Galileo during his time. (Example:
it is not like the past When microwave ovens were first
because we have no way released, no one would buy them.
of confirming it. It took 10-15 years later for
o To summarize: Filipino households to fully accept
Future 1: the future being like the this innovation)
past, confirmed by uniform Another example: GMOs; cell
experiences and instances of life phones and brain cancer
Future 2: not like the past because o Scientific revolutions – When normal
it is not empirically confirmable; science can no longer evade anomalies
unknowable that subvert existing traditions, there will
be a shift to a new set of commitments
THOMAS KUHN and a new practice of science. This will
o “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, lead to the rejection of a scientific theory in
nd
1972 2 ed.” favor of another. (paradigm shift)
o Paradigm – an accepted model or pattern
with conceptual parameters
“Nature has established patterns originating in the
o A paradigm is a prerequisite for perception return of events, but only for the most part. New
itself. illnesses flood the human race, so that no matter how
What is relevant data is many experiments you have done on corpses, you have
determined by your paradigm or not thereby imposed a limit on the nature of events so
your framework. that in the future they could not vary.”
o The interpretation of data presupposes a ― Gottfried Leibniz
paradigm.
If these are my conceptual
parameters, when do I say if this is
relevant data or not? Our
methodology determines our
paradigm in our research.
o Normal science – there is a strenuous and
devoted attempt to force nature into its
conceptual boxes
There is a tendency to suppress
novelties because it is subversive.
Example: Since the priests before
believed that the Earth is at the
center of the universe, they
rejected Galileo’s discoveries that
the Sun is at the center.
74
2 Generalization; Evaluation of Arguments
Last edited: 10.3.12/19:25 Lecture: 10/2/12
There are two possible cases when we are making an Cases with an open domain (imperfect cases):
inference from the observed to cases yet unobserved: where we cannot define the number of cases that
Cases with a closed domain (perfect cases): Where we have to observe. Most of the generalizations
we can define the domain or the number of cases that we make in the real world have open domains.
that we have to observe (finite). This is where we Thus, we cannot definitely assign degrees of
can easily assign degrees of reliability on reliability as neatly as we can with the perfect
statements according to their inferential patterns. cases, but even if we cannot do this, we can still
Given 100 marbles inside a box: make a generalization using a universal statement
o Singular statement – “A marble is white.” “all” provided that the following two (2) conditions
Required evidence: 1 marble are satisfied:
Certain: no inductive inference o The observed cases or samples must be
o Particular statement – “Some marbles are representative of the class – but how does
white.” one determine that the sample is
Required evidence: at least 1 ‘representative’?
marble Try to look at and criticize data
Certain: no inductive inference from surveys. Example: Channel 2
o General statement – “Most marbles are and 7 are always number 1
white.” because they paid for these self-
Required evidence: 50% + 1 serving surveys.
marble (certain) Unemployment rate in the
10% or 10 marbles: degree of Philippines – check the inclusion
reliability is only probable and exclusion criteria. Example:
30% or 30 marbles: highly After you graduate, you seek for
probable employment within a year, but you
50% or 50 marbles: true beyond still do not get employed. You stop
reasonable doubt seeking employment after this
o Universal statement – “All marbles are year. You are not counted as
white.” unemployed because you are not
Required evidence: 100% or actively seeking employment in a
complete enumeration year.
30% or 30 marbles: probable In a month, if your neighbor hires
80% or 80 marbles: highly you to paint his fence or wash his
probable clothes for half a day only (in that
99% or 99 marbles: true beyond month), and you earn some
reasonable doubt money in return, you are still
o “Almost all/nearly all” – it depends on your considered employed.
notion, whether the required evidence is The unemployment rate should
80% or 80%-90% realistically be higher.
o Please note that in ordinary discourse, the Another example: The census is a
use of “a few”, “several” or “many” are 100% enumeration of the
purposely vague terms. population of the country
o Example: How many is “many”? conducted by the NSO. There are
usually “free riders”, or other
agencies of the government who
would add their own survey
questions to the ones that NSO
has already made for the census.
During 1989, the Population
Institute joined the census
surveying because they wanted to
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address the problem of mortality FOUR (4) TYPES OF GENERALIZATION
rate. The resulting combined Uniform generalization
questionnaire was so thick and full o Conducting an experiment or making a
of intrusive and invasive questions generalization inside a laboratory
like, “How many times have you where all the variables are controlled.
undergone abortion? Where and Under these controlled conditions, this
when?” Of course, the resulting is what the generalization would be.
responses will be inaccurate and Generalization by enumeration
unreliable because no household o Trying to observe a property: S1, S2, S3
would openly admit to having are white; therefore all swans are
gone through abortion to the NSO white
surveyor (a complete stranger to o Weakness: From these enumerated
the households). cases, you only look for the particular
Del Monte tomato sauce – used by property that you are interested in.
9 out of 10 mothers. Ask this But there could be other
question: “Who conducted the characteristics or qualities that could
survey?” make a significant difference! However,
Question the reliability of the data you won’t search for these because
being presented. those are not what you are searching
Some surveys have leading for.
questions – if you answer them, Statistical generalization
they will get the answer that they o We are looking at the characteristics of
want because of how the question the whole class in terms of numbers or
was phrased. statistics, then you make a
Channel 2 survey conducted generalization.
during 1989 (Channel 2 is still two o Statistics do not apply to particular
years old) claims: “Number 1 from cases; not applicable to an individual
Luzon to Mindanao.” They did not (but the whole class)
want to release the data initially. o Example: UP medical board exams –
After some talking and gifts, the 99.39% passed; but this does not talk
researchers found out that there about the characteristics of the one
were only 150 subjects in the who flunked.
survey. (The devices installed on Generalization by analogy – looking for a
televisions that monitor channel parallel case; establish parallelism first; weak
preferences were still costly at that argument because there is no direct
time.) In fact, these devices were observation
only found in Metro Manila,
Bulacan, Pampanga and Cavite.
TECHNIQUES OF EVALUATING ARGUMENTS
o No conflicting case has been observed –
the moment that a conflicting case has Examine the claim of the conclusion. The claim
been observed, it is enough to render the of the conclusion must be very clear. Do you
universal statement false. have ambiguous or vague terms? Identify the
(Counterclaim) type of argument or reasoning involved.
o Fallacy of hasty generalization – when one o Deductive – form
argues from too few cases o Inductive – probability
After your first break-up with an o Evaluative – inter-subjective
abusive boyfriend, you will consensus
therefore assume that all other Do the premises provide strong, moderate or
boys are abusive as well. little support to the conclusion?
When you get food poisoning from o Avoid making a hodgepodge of ideas
eating in a restaurant in making an essay or research paper;
some ideas may be irrelevant to the
proposed thesis
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Challenge the truth of the premises, especially
those containing “all”, “most” or “almost all” HI PQ
claims.
I1, I2, I3… Q
Challenge the truth of the conclusion by
producing counter examples. (like Wittgenstein H ∴P
in his book “Philosophical Investigations”)
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UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MANILA
College of Arts and Sciences
Department of Social Sciences
PHILOSOPHY I (Philosophical Analysis)
I. FILL IN THE QUOTE AND IDENTIFICATION. (90 points; 2 pts each quote; 1 pt per
philosopher)
Direction: Fill in the blanks with the correct expression to complete the quotation.
Afterwards, identify the corresponding philosopher. Wrong spelling is marked wrong.
_____________________________________________?”
__________________."
3. "I believe the good to be _______________ and yet still say that good, itself, is
_____________________."
5. “In the world of _______________, the last thing to be perceived and only with great difficulty is
the essential ____________________, which is the source of whatever is right and good for all
____________________… Without a vision of this Form, no one can act with ______________,
7. “___________ is the necessity of an action done from respect for the ___________… To have
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_____________. But _________________ in _________ win penalty. Conclusion?
____________________________________.”
13. “_______________ to count for one, _______________ for more than one.”
14. "The __________, to put it briefly, is only the expedient in the way of our ________________, just
15. "Meanwhile, we have to live _________ by what truth we can get _________ and be ready
17. "A _______________- states what are the parts which invariably compose a certain ________; and
_______________________________________."
19. “Grant an ________or ________ to be true… what concrete difference will its being true make in
terms.”
20. “It is an activity that requires a ________________, for one ____________ does not make a
_________________, nor does one ___________. Similarly, one day or a brief period of
21. “The __________ of an idea is not a stagnant property inherent in it. ___________ happens to an
idea.”
22. "Happiness is a _________… that each person's happiness is a _______________________, and the
23. “Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world and even out of it, which can be called
24. “The will stands between its ______________ principle which is ____________ and its
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25. “The _______ of every man possesses the power of ____________________ and the ________ to
see it with; and that, just as one would have to turn the ______________ around in order that the
eye should see ________________________, so the entire ___________ must be turned away from
the __________________, until its eye can bear to contemplate ___________- and that supreme
26. “To _________, every other motive must give place, because ________ is the condition of the
27. “Thus, the _____________ of an action does not lie in the effect which is expected from it.”
28. “…to feel these feelings (fright, anger, desire, pity, pleasure, pain) at the right __________, on the
right ____________________, towards the right _______________, for the right _______________
and in the right _______________, is to feel the best amount of them, which is the
29. “A _____________ is the subjective principle of volition. The objective principle is the
__________________.”
30. “We have in fact two kinds of morality, side by side, one which _____________ but
1. We live in a/an _____________ society – no single code of ethics but different values
and rules; different groups of people that may conflict with each other.
5. It refers to the diversity of moral standards and values in different cultures and societies.
6. Criticisms against pragmatism state that it would now lead to this cycle.
7. What is ________ is something that is contrary to the mores of the time and place.
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12. According to Sumner, these are the notion of what is right for us; these are not a
13. This concept states that what is good in any situation can be demonstrated and
14. It is the core of attitudes, beliefs and feelings that give coherence and vitality of a
people.
15. This virtue is an exercise of the mean for feelings and actions.
16. According to Aristotle’s doctrine, plants reach the (1) phase; animals reach the (2)
18. It is the systematic questioning and critical examination of the underlying principles of
21. It is the study of moral goodness or badness; the rightness or wrongness of an act.
24. These values claim precedence over other values because you are willing to set aside
other values.
26. This branch of ethics deals with norms for standard behavior; deals with specific
questions of right or wrong; good and evil; and tries to settle on some concrete rules of
correct behavior.
27. This concept states how likely an occurrence of a pleasurable thing would be.
28. “When the sun goes down, the stars come out.” This statement is (2)
29. The Sophists were the first professional teachers who exacted money for their services
31. “Is of identity”, wherein the subject and predicate are identical, refers to this kind of
statements.
33. When one considers the disjunction of P and not P, if P is true, then not P is (1). Thus,
feeling in others.
35. The role of philosophy is the logical analysis of language, according to this philosophy.
36. Among the five types of sentences, only this type expresses a statement with the
37. These are imperatives which are priorities that make a claim upon our actions; limited
38. According to this concept, we make the inference of causality based on experiences,
39. Two questions that philosophers actually ask when they asked “What is good?”
40. These are the folkways themselves with the connotation of what is right and true with
41. A posteriori knowledge gives rise to (1) statements, makes use of the (2) theory of
44. A priori knowledge gives rise to (1) statements, makes use of the (2) theory of truth
45. According to Sumner, this is the most expedient way of doing things.
46. They were known as the wise ones because they claimed that they could teach
47. It is the view of things in which one’s group is the center of everything and all others
48. A criticism against Descartes’ second indubitable premise of knowledge states that this
49. Mill’s loophole states that all persons have a right to equality of treatment except
50. According to this principle, a statement is either true or false, and nothing else.
51. Among the two kinds of institutions, these take shape in the mores and are not
invented.
52. This deals with the validation and verification of knowledge claims.
53. The students of Aristotle’s academy were called by this term, from a root word
56. This group of people believes that the end of an action or its purpose should be based
on its consequences.
58. This concept states how likely a pleasurable thing would be followed by other
pleasures.
59. This judgment is with reference to the judge’s own future action.
61. According to the first indubitable premise of knowledge, this is merely an accidental
property.
63. This expression means that the mind is a blank sheet of paper.
64. According to this doctrine, the transcendental faculty of reason is the only reliable
source of knowledge.
65. Descartes introduced this method, whose goal is to arrive at clear and distinct ideas
which are nonsensical to doubt, because the moment you doubt, then you contradict
yourself.
66. This concept states the number of people to be affected by a pleasurable thing.
67. According to this principle, a statement cannot be both true and false at the same
68. It is based on a hypothetical imperative that is based on the effect which is expected
71. This meaning contains an assertion that is verifiable as either true or false.
73. According to Sumner, when all adapted the same way for the same purpose, it
became a mass phenomenon, thus, these were developed in connection. Examples are
74. Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that we possess (1) within us – because we have our
own (2).
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75. This branch of ethics deals with more abstract questions concerning the meaning and
76. This concept states how unlikely a pleasurable thing would be followed by pain.
78. The morality of a group at a time is the sum total of these two things in the folkways
80. This concept states how near at hand a pleasurable thing is.
82. According to Kant, we must always act so as to treat humanity, whether in ourselves
83. People must be directly ____________ with “yellow” and “good” to be able to
recognize them.
84. Relation of ideas become this kind of statements based on the faculty of reason.
92. According to this principle, any statement will always imply itself.
95. This virtue is an exercise in one’s rational principles from which right behavior can
proceed.
96. According to Kant, we must always act as if to bring about, and as a member of a (1).
98. Gold soul: philosopher-kings:: Silver soul: ________________:: Bronze soul: slaves
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III. CLASSIFICATION. (67 points; 1 point each)
Direction: Classify the following theories, concepts and beliefs according to the
corresponding philosopher. Write the complete name. Wrong spelling is marked as wrong.
1. Golden mean
2. Animal inference
3. Emotivist
4. Utilitarianism
5. Dialogues
6. God is a non-deceiver
7. Allegory of the Cave
8. Man as the measure of all things
9. Gold, silver and bronze souls
10. Method of systematic doubt
11. Nicomachean ethics
12. Constructivist view of reality
13. Substantive and simple terms
14. Banish poets and artists
15. Knowledge must be like an inverted pyramid
16. Entelecheia
17. Ese es percipi
18. We possess our own telos within us
19. Hedonic calculus (original author)
20. Virtue = knowledge = wisdom
21. Community of pleasure and pain
22. Deontologist
23. Ethical absolutism
24. Eudaemonia
25. Peripathetics
26. Aporia
27. Direct perception paradigm
28. Intellectual and physiological pleasure
29. Three indubitable premises of knowledge
30. The Pragmatic Criterion of Truth
31. A thinking thing
32. Intuitionist and analytic philosopher
33. Lyceum
34. Idealist
35. Knowledge is remembrance
36. Logical positivist
37. Dualism between mind and body
38. Teleologist
39. Cogito ergo sum
40. Summum bonum
41. Notion of equality as an aspect of justice
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42. Noumena
43. Justice as an aspect of utility
44. Categorical imperative
45. Tabula rasa
46. Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals
47. Cognitive vs emotive meaning
48. World of forms and ideas
49. Dubito cogito existo
50. Naturalistic fallacy
51. Language Truth and Logic
52. Justice in accordance with the stronger party
53. Ethical naturalism
54. Mind existing without the body
55. Direct apprehension of knowledge as self-evident truths
56. Fork
57. The Republic
58. Faculty of pure reason and intuition of space and time
59. Good is indefinable
60. Infanticide
61. Loophole
62. Virtue is many; depends on one’s status
63. A Critique of Pure Reason
64. Metaethics
65. Principia Ethica
66. Doctrine of potentialities
67. Deontological ethics
FS AY 12-13/9.6.12/21:02
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UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES MANILA
College of Arts and Sciences
Department of Social Sciences
PHILOSOPHY I (Philosophical Analysis)
1. Ethically pluralist
2. Self, good, material objects
3. Pre-reflective morality
4. Positive, customary
5. Ethical relativism
6. Vicious relativism
7. Immoral
8. Composition
9. Naturalistic fallacy
10. Plato
11. Aristotle
12. Folkways
13. Hedonistic calculus
14. Ethos/ethnos
15. Moral virtue
16. Nutritive, sentient, rational
17. Moral judgment
18. Ethics
19. Socrates
20. Nicomachus
21. Morality
22. Cogito ergo sum
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23. True
24. Moral values
25. Identity
26. Normative
27. Certainty
28. Empirical
29. Rhetorics and persuasion
30. Experience
31. Analytic
32. British Magna Carta
33. False, true
34. Emotive
35. Logical positivism
36. Declarative
37. Value
38. Animal inference
39. What things are good? How is good to be defined?
40. Mores
41. Empirical, correspondence, empirical
42. Self-sufficient, final
43. Experience
44. Analytic, coherence, formal
45. Groups (concurrence)
46. Sophists
47. Ethnocentrism
48. Existence
49. Social expediency
50. Excluded middle
51. Crescive
52. Epistemology
53. Peripathetics
54. Freedom, obligation
55. Empirical
56. Teleologists
57. Intuition
58. Fecundity
59. Moral decision
60. Noumena
61. Body/extension
62. Reason
63. Tabula rasa
64. Rationalism
65. Method of systematic doubt
66. Extent
67. Non-contradiction
68. According to duty
69. Ese es percipi
70. Conduct
71. Cognitive
72. Lyceum
73. Instincts
74. Telos, entelecheia
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75. Metaethics
76. Purity
77. To live
78. Taboos, prescriptions
79. Never accept the truth of any statement or belief unless there is adequate evidence
for it
80. Propinquity
81. Aporia
82. End-in-itself, means to an end
83. Acquainted
84. Analytic
85. Kingdom of Ends
86. Aristotle
87. Golden mean
88. Analytic
89. Analytic
90. Greatest happiness principle
91. Known, knowable, unknowable
92. Identity
93. Self, society
94. Intellectual, physiological
95. Intellectual
96. Kingdom of Ends
97. Dubito cogito existo
98. Warriors
1. Aristotle
2. Hume
3. Ayer
4. Mill
5. Plato
6. Descartes
7. Plato
8. Protagoras
9. Plato
10. Descartes
11. Aristotle
12. Kant
13. Moore
14. Plato
15. Descartes
16. Aristotle
17. Berkeley
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18. Aristotle
19. Bentham
20. Plato
21. Plato
22. Kant
23. Plato
24. Hume
25. Aristotle
26. Plato
27. Hume
28. Mill
29. Descartes
30. James
31. Descartes
32. Moore
33. Aristotle
34. Plato
35. Plato
36. Ayer
37. Plato
38. Mill
39. Descartes
40. Mill
41. Mill
42. Kant
43. Mill
44. Kant
45. Locke
46. Kant
47. Ayer
48. Plato
49. Descartes
50. Moore
51. Ayer
52. Thrasymachus
53. Aristotle
54. Descartes
55. Moore
56. Hume
57. Plato
58. Kant
59. Moore
60. Plato
61. Mill
62. Gorgias
63. Kant
64. Moore
65. Moore
66. Aristotle
67. Kant
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6 Tips on Surviving Philo I Under Prof. Sioco
On the Grading System. Prof. Sioco is very objective; each requirement is examined,
corrected, recorded and given its appropriate weight. “Magic grades” are non-existent for all
purposes. For your reference, one can approach Prof. Sioco by the start of the succeeding
semester to inquire about the breakdown of one’s grades, which she will happily show to you
(although the author himself has never attempted to ask her). The bulk of the grading system
(65%) comes from the three long examinations, which as said before, are highly objective and
require a lot of memorization. 15% is allotted to the Things-to-Do, a set of activities focusing
on the application of philosophy in daily life. These exercises can be found in A. E. Acuña’s
Philosophical Analysis (currently in its seventh edition), which will be tackled later. Finally, the
remaining 20% is a bit of a toss-up, including such requirements as SAQs, Quizzes,
Assignments, Reaction Paper and Attendance. They will be discussed shortly.
On Examinations. The bulk of her examinations (over 80 points each) is based on her
PowerPoint presentations; this module can serve as a complete substitute for those. However,
do not skip classes nor ignore her discussions; no module, however excellent, can be produced
that can serve as a sufficient substitute for attending class and listening to the great
philosopher explain abstract philosophical concepts and crack a few jokes. Again, her
examinations are highly objective; be sure to memorize, memorize, memorize. Names, terms,
ideas, quotations etc. The class is required to submit three sheets of yellow pad per person
before the first examination. Examination results will be released one week after.
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On TTDs. Comprising 15% of the total grade, “things-to-do”, or skills application
exercises, as Prof. Sioco puts it in her syllabus, is a set of exercises that must be accomplished
by the end of the corresponding examination. (For example, TTD’d related to Epistemology
and Ethics, topics for the second examination, must be submitted by the date of the second
examination.) Prof. Sioco may change or extend the deadline a week after though – it
depends on the schedule and pace of discussion. There are three sets of TTD’s to be
submitted, which can be found in Philosophical Analysis, at the end of each chapter. However,
not all TTD’s in Philosophical Analysis must be answered;; Prof. Sioco has already designated
which of them to answer in her syllabus. Answers are usually encoded on sheets of short bond
paper and placed in a short brown envelope. The real perk in TTD’s are the bonus points – if
one chooses to answer additional exercises originally unassigned in the syllabus, a maximum
of five (5) points may be added, giving a total maximum score of 105% for that particular TTD.
A usual tactic of students includes giving more examples than what is specified – for instance,
students will give ten (10) examples instead of three (3) examples as stated in the syllabus.
Most times, the extra five (5) points can easily be awarded by answering a minimal number of
questions – you do not need to answer every single TTD under that topic to gain the bonus.
Prof. Sioco is very generous in grading TTDs - usual grades range from 85-100+ (an estimate).
It should be noted that the TTD for the third examination is shorter compared to the other two
because no TTD under deductive logic is required.
On Quizzes. To compensate for the lack of assigned TTDs (there are TTDs in
Philosophical Analysis but Prof. Sioco decides not to use them) under deductive logic (Unit V of
this module), she gives quizzes instead. These quizzes are usually worth twenty (20) points
total, but more or less may be given, depending on the particular semester. Topics include
Chapters 2 and 3 (Truth Table Method of Validity, Rules of Inference and Formal Proof of
Validity.) She may ask the class to decide whether to have a long quiz (a quiz covering both
topics at once), or multiple quizzes instead. For the truth table method, given a paragraph,
one is to represent each statement symbolically and construct the appropriate truth table
using the prescribed format. (Be strict with the symbols.) Usually, the paragraph is invalid; one
row will bear an invalid result. On the other hand, all the proofs are already provided for the
Formal Proof of Validity quiz. For example: I v C is already provided. One simply has to supply
the corresponding rules of inference (abbreviated) and the corresponding number(s) of the
statements of the original paragraph that were used in arriving at the said rule. For example:
(1, 2) MT. Review the “Some points to remember” section on page 67 for more information.
Be reminded that before each quiz, Prof. Sioco will arrange the class (in a very time-
consuming manner) in definite rows and columns to minimize any sort of cheating – so please,
do not attempt to cheat, unless you want to be yelled at, kicked out of the room and be given
an automatic 5.00. Prof. Sioco herself corrects the Truth Table quiz; one of your classmates
will be the one responsible for checking your Formal Proof of Validity quiz.
On Assignments. Prof. Sioco is extremely strict with assignments; her grading system
is also unique for these requirements. All assignments follow the reaction or integration paper
format specified at the syllabus (except for the minimum of ten pages restriction.) The
questions for the assignments are roughly as follows (not her exact words for most):
Assignment No. 1
1. What is philosophy?
2. Differentiate analytic from speculative philosophy.
3. Differentiate Eastern and Western philosophy.
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Assignment No. 2
1. Cognitive dissonance – Enumerate three (3) beliefs or principles that you hold dear.
Explain or justify why you believe in these principles so much; then, attack, criticize
and contradict these beliefs.
Assignment No. 3
1. Discuss Wittgenstein's theory of meaning and his notion of "language games".
Explain adequately.
2. What is an ideal language? Is Wittgenstein for or against the creation of an ideal
language? Explain coherently.
3. Explain clearly the role of philosophy and the following quotation: "Philosophy may
in no way interfere with the actual use of language; it can in the end only describe it,
for it cannot give it any foundation either...it leaves everything as it is."
Assignment No. 4
1. List down three (3) of your moral values, and the values you're willing to give up or
set aside just to promote these moral values. Also, justify why you consider each as
your moral value/s. Explain further. Usually, there are topics to be avoided, such as
God and family, but it depends on what Prof. Sioco will ban.
Be sure to pour all your effort in answering the assignment; three to four-liner
responses are unacceptable. Each assignment is due for submission the meeting immediately
after it is assigned. After all assignments have been submitted, Prof. Sioco will randomly pick
around five (5) students and ask them one of the questions in the assignment – sort of like a
recitation activity, so be sure to know what your assignment contains to prevent unnecessary
embarrassments. (Although Assignments No. 2 and 4 are personal opinions, so no recitation
there). Each assignment is graded with a system that follows (labels are purely the author’s):
✓ m/n ?
Extremely good Very good Full credit Partial No credit/did
credit not pass
There may be other grading schemes used, but the above five are the most common
ones found in her record book. The usual grade is a check mark, which denotes full credit
given. Fractions denote partial credit given, presumably because of an insufficient answer in
one of the questions in the assignment. Stars are given for excellent work, usually one star.
Two stars are quite rare. On the other hand, question marks are given for works that do not
meet her standard – usually these are too short, rushed and lacking in information.
Assignments are not returned to the student, although the grades can be seen by the end of
the semester in her record book.
On the Integration Paper. The integration paper (akin to the term paper for other
Philosophy professors) is a ten-page (or more) reaction paper concerning the different ethical
issues and dilemmas that were encountered in the various films that Prof. Sioco will let her
students watch at regular intervals during the entire course of the semester. These movies
usually revolve around highly controversial themes, such as abortion, homosexuality etc. Some
examples of these movies (Prof. Sioco will assign a different set of movies per semester)
include: If These Walls Could Talk (both 1 and 2), The Crime of Padre Amaro, Osama, Kinsey
and Raise the Red Lanterns. Be sure to take note of the plot and the moral dilemmas
confronting the characters in each movie. The reaction paper should include ethics concepts
discussed in class (Unit IV in this module). Also be sure to pass TEN FULL PAGES minimum
(9.5 pages would not cut it.) Be punctual in passing it as well.
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On Attendance. Attendance is regularly checked around ten (10) minutes after the
scheduled starting time of classes (for example, 4:10 PM if the class should start at 4:00 PM)
It is highly suggested that you come to class on time, and run on your way to Philo I class if
your previous class is from another college or another building far from RH or GAB (for
example, NEDA). Prof. Sioco’s mood is usually aggravated by late students.
On Decorum. This is simple advice: come to class on time; bring your book every day;
pass requirements on time; do not talk to your seatmates too loud; do not use any gadgets
during lectures and examinations; do not cheat; study well for examinations; do not contest
your wrong answers especially if Prof. Sioco’s answer is supported by her deep understanding
of philosophy. Remember these and you’ll be fine (i.e., you will not be verbally assaulted.)
On 1.00s. 1.00s are not impossible to obtain; just score high in the examinations, and
get at least a check on all assignments. Also, do well in your integration paper.
Acuña, AE (2006). Philosophical Analysis (7th ed). 1 Quezon City: UP Department of Philosophy.
1
Retrieved from sulit.com.ph
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