Application of bentonite clay for human use
investigating the effects of geophagy all over the world,
Staniša T. Stojiljković1, Milena S. Stojiljković2
Faculty of Technology Leskovac, University of Niš
Contact emails: 1stanisastojiljkovic@gmail.com,
2
milena0919@yahoo.com
Abstract - Clay minerals can be beneficial to human health
by serving as active principles or excipients in
pharmaceutical preparations, in spas, and in beauty
therapy medicine. Since prehistoric times, man used the
clay in nutrition and therapeutic purposes. The use of
medicinal earths in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt has
also been proven. The use of Nubian earth as an anti-
inflammatory or the use of mud materials for
mummification of cadavers can be cited as examples (Bech,
1987; Robertson, 1996; Veniale, 1997). In the Ancient
Greek period, mud materials (Lemnos Earth) were used as
antiseptic cataplasms to cure skin afflictions, as cicatrisers
or as a cure for snake bites. Both Hippocrates and
Aristotle, among others, produced classifications of
medicinal earths. Most of these materials are clays, given
different names depending on their origins or on the
differences in their mineralogical composition and
properties.
Some poorly known implications of clay uses are
mentioned, such as the effects of organic compounds in the
transdermal migration of elements and the effective
simulation of the digestion, that is in balance between
chemical leaching and adsorptive effect of clays.
From the standpoint of thermodynamics, the
exchange of minerals in the body whether it is oral or
transdermal process, define the character of the wearer.
This is as emulsions, gels, suspensions or heterogeneous
systems. Clay materials have emulsifying power, ion
exchange, adsorption, gelation, which is typical of its living
matter. It should be noted electrical properties of clay. It
usually negatively charged very effectively bind metal
cations positive charges or protein.
Historically in most developed civilizations
demonstrated activity alumino silicate clay in the exchange
minerals and trace elements in the body (Stojiljković,
2003).
I. INTRODUCTION
Since prehistoric times man used clay for
therapeutic purposes. There are indications that homo
erectus and homo neanderthalensis used ochres mixed
with water and different types of mud to cure wounds,
to soothe irritations, as a method of skin cleaning, etc. In
addition to inorganic minerals and prehistoric remains
of unicellular organisms, bentonite clay is one of a few
natural materials. The composition is not the only
indicator of effects. The energy, that is received and
transmitted as a composite within all the forms of heat,
magnetism, chemistry and biology, is actually
something that today seems unfathomable.
The mobility of chemical elements is perhaps the
most studied subject in the perspective of therapeutic
uses, mainly because several papers have been
for both beneficial or dangerous effects (see the review
by Wilson, 2003).
Even if the water was rich in Mn (1150 ppm) with
respect to the clay, and to a lesser extent also rich in Fe
(1270 ppm), the concentration of these elements (and
many others) was not augmented in the matured mud.
Only Ca increased after the crystallisation of gypsum,
whereas Na and K slightly decreased because of the clay
minerals (smectite in particular) followed hydrolysis as
in lagoonal environments (Sánchez et al., 2002). The
degradation of (smectitic) clays can give a key to
interpret the lack of enrichment in elements from
maturing waters, even at relatively high pH values
(between 8 and 9).
II. THE PROPERTIES OF CLAY AND
APPLICATION
An early modern approach to the compositional
study of four mud spas (Curini et al., 1990) takes into
account the mineralogical changes on maturation (very
small) and the development of organic compounds such
as sulpholipids and phospholipids. Lipids penetrate the
skin barrier more easily than water solution, and can
establish strong bindings with metals; this feature could
be significant for the mobility of chemical elements to
the organism.
Ionic migration in clay systems is involved in such
processes as nutrient uptake by plants, soil formation,
salination and reclamation of saline soils and many
others. One of the convenient ways of determining the
ionic mobility is by measuring the electrical
conductivity of the clay-water system.
Element mobility after clay ingestion has been
investigated for a long time, with different scopes and
methods, giving contrasting conclusions as a result,
sometimes because the analytical survey was not
adequate to supply an answer (Wilson, 2003). It seems
clear that the digestion exerts strong leaching of clay
minerals and associated phases (carbonates,
phosphates, hydroxides…) the result of which depends
on the kind and dose (remembering Paracelsus) of
chemical elements, but also on the chemical
composition of solutions into the stomach (poor or rich
in soluble cations).
Gel clay has outstanding thermodynamic
properties of warming the body from the outside
(Stojiljković, 2003).
The first classification curative clay is determined
due to highly specialized absorption of minerals, such as
calcium bentonite, which is found in nature.
Another classification is based on specialized
organic substances contained in the clay. New types of
fungi were discovered in clay. Plants that have long
since disappeared from the face of the earth was found
in trace amounts in the clay. The amazing mystery is the
fact that such healing clays contain a myriad of
substances which are proven to be good for the human
body.
The third classification refers to one where there is
no clay absorbed substances. Some healing clays are
appreciated for their purity and they have a simple
crystal structure.
All healing clays are specialized forms of crystals,
and thus have the ability to act as transducers if they are
properly hydrated, i.e. transforming the light into the
vibration and vice versa. The density of hydrated clay
(colloidal) and the cumulative effect of the
electromagnetic negatively charged particles, along with
the unique shape of the particles (a very wide area), well
explains the powerful effect of clay and its use in natural
medicine. However, researchers have not been fully
explained effect string that causes the clay in the human
body.
The use of clays for healing purposes is widespread
(see the reviews by Veniale, 1997; 1999a; Carrettero,
2002; Woywodt and Kiss, 2002) and is based on
wellknown beneficial effects discovered after trials and
errors (see for example Mahaney et al., 2000) or based
on clinical–biological basis (Droy-Lefaix and Tateo,
2006). This special issue is devoted to different aspects
of clays and health. It is opened by a review on the
beneficial and harmful effects of minerals in general and
clay minerals by Gomes and Pereira Silva (2007-this
issue): Minerals and clay minerals in medical geology.
In the first section are reported the many applications of
clay minerals in pharmacy and cosmetics indicating the
broad variety of these materials as active principles,
adsorbents, excipients, for drug delivery and in retard
formulations: Use of clays as drug delivery systems:
possibilities and limitations by Aguzzi et al. (2007-this
issue), uses of clay minerals in semisolid health care.
III. THE USE OF CLAY MINERALS IN
PHARMACEUTICAL FORMULATIONS
Clay minerals used in pharmaceutical formulations
are: smectites, palygorskite, kaolinite and talc. These
minerals can act as active principles or excipients. The
properties for which they are used in pharmaceutical
formulations are fundamentally: a high specific area and
sorptive capacity, rheological properties, chemical
inertness and low or null toxicity for the patient.
Application of the clay is usually in the form of a
powder, suspension, emulsion or gel. All these forms
have expressed ion exchange, adsorption, emulsifying
and electromagnetic properties.
The beneficial effects of clay minerals on human
health are not restricted to therapies and uses in
pharmacy and cosmetics. Clays and clay minerals
became important materials in environmental
technology to protect our environment against harmful
substances (Nir et al., 2006; Churchman et al., 2006).
Use as active principles:
 Oral applications (gastrointestinal
protectors, osmotic oral laxatives,
antidiarrheals)
 Topical applications (dermatological
protectors, cosmetics)
Oral consumption of pre-hydrated alumina on an
empty stomach in quantities of 2 to 5 grams in 200 ml
of water makes 0.1% of ingested food and cannot be
contaminate by the body of humans and animals. Ion
exchange properties of the clay to the toxic elements are
characterized by strong ties. Both of clay connection
lead very difficult to let him go and thus contaminating
organism. This applies to drinking on an empty stomach
when stomach acid concentration is negligible
(Stojiljković,2003).
The clay is used in the process of treatment from
the onset of the human species. The aim of the analysis
of various procedures is the clay used in thermal process.
Heating of clay can be indirectly and directly. Indirect is
pure conduction process. Direct heat can diffuse through
the cream-based clay that is applied spreading, dipping
in water-based clay and inhalation of team heating the
particles of clay-volatile aerosols.
Action of heat causes the skin irritation receptors,
causing reflex mechanism, via parasympathetic, there is
vasodilation of arterioles, capillaries and venules.
Capillary network is significantly extended, including
the so-called. "Capillary reserves", which is located in a
state of relative rest. At the same time, the reflex
mechanism, starts to grow blood vessels in depth. When
applying heat to the entire procedure body leads to a
strong expansion of courts across the entire surface of
the skin, which results in changing the amount of blood
in the muscles of internal organs (compensatory
vasoconstriction).
Pharmaceutical preparations, using minerals as carrier-
releasers of active ingredients, can generally be
administered orally to the patient. However some drugs
(antibiotics, analgesics, and antihistamines) adsorbed on
clay minerals phyllosilicates (e.g., talc, kaolinite) are
applied topically (e.g., to the skin).
In some cases, such as fresh injury without
bleeding, so bruises need refrigeration. Clay in the form
of creams is very efficient treatment possible
consequences of stroke, when used immediately after
the attack. Mosquito bites and some insects cause local
heating of tissue from swelling. Clay spreading heat
away very efficiently by not allowing the spread of
infections due to bites. This is very important for
mosquito bites. (Stojiljković,2003).
IV. MINERALS AS CONDITIONERS OF
HUMAN HEALTH
Clay minerals in the form of a gel in a living
organism which are very important for the exchange of
many minerals. Man and minerals (here considered as
natural inorganic solids, generally crystalline) are
chemical systems having in common, in their
composition. The major chemical elements oxygen,
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, the so-called mineral salts
sulphur, phosphorous, sodium, potassium, magnesium,
and some others called oligoelements or micronutrients
or trace minerals such as Fe, Cu, Zn, Se, Mn, I, F which
are essential both to life and to the formation of
minerals. (Stojiljković,2006). Hence, considering their
physical and chemical properties, minerals can be
essential to keep human health in good shape, but in
certain circumstances, deficiency or excess of minerals
can be factors of human disease generation. Minerals s.l.
being present in the environment where man lives can
interact, either positively or negatively with the human
body. Although being essential to human health, some
chemical elements in macro or micronutrients can be
good, toxic or lethal, depending on the individual
dosage.
The medicinal use of minerals is most probably as
old as mankind itself. There are references to the use of
“medicinal earths” (clay/mud) in Mesopotamia, Ancient
Egypt and Ancient Greece, to cure wounds and soothe
skin rashes. For instance, in Ancient Greece Hippocrates
(460–377 BC), regarded as the Father or Founder of
Medicine, reported interesting information about
medicinal earths in his book “On Airs, Waters, and
Places”, and so did Aristotle (384–322 BC) who
dedicated part of his life to biological research.
Hippocrates reports the negative effects (corrosive,
caustic, etc.) of arsenic minerals, much later identified
as orpiment (As2S3) and realgar (As2S2), at that time
extensively used as therapeutic agents. Recently, and
according to the International Agency for Research of
Cancer (IARC), arsenic and arsenic-containing
compounds are considered as human carcinogens
(IARC, 1987).
In human bones a tiny amount of Si replaces P, and
there is evidence that Si can improve bone strength.
Yamada et al. (2003) found that in the human vertebral
column the Si/Ca ratio in the lumbar vertebra is twice
the Si/Ca ratio in the cervical vertebra. This finding
suggests that Si is biokinetically compatible with Ca
from bones, and the Si/Ca ratio increases along the
backbone to the sacral direction. Thus, Si may
contribute to increasing the vertebra strength as a
response to compensate the higher compression due to
gravity.
This finding suggests that Si is biokinetically
compatible with Ca from bones, and the Si/Ca ratio
increases along the backbone to the sacral direction.
Thus, Si may contribute to increasing the vertebra
strength as a response to compensate the higher
compression due to gravity.
Certain minerals (such as Zn, Se, and Mg minerals)
as well as certain enzymes and vitamins (such as A, C,
E) are examples of anti-oxidants, substances which are
able to protect the organism from oxidation processes
constantly being in progress. Oxygen essential for life
can also be a source of toxicity. Many of its harmful
effects are attributed to free oxygen radicals which are
highly unstable, rapidly react with neighboring
molecules, and initiate a harmful process called
oxidative stress (Savić et al. 2014).
Naturopathologists believe that good health mainly
depends on structural, biochemical and emotional
factors. Naturally, the biochemical factors are those
which are closely related to minerals considered as
natural chemical products, reason why the interactions
of minerals s.l. with human health deserve to be dealt
with in this publication.
Every day the human body produces the essential
nutrients that make life possible. Human body is like a
factory producing skin, muscles and bones, and feeding
the red globules or erythrocytes which transport
nutrients and oxygen to the cells all over the body. To
accomplish these goals, the human body requires raw
materials, the vitamins (organic micronutrients, lipid-
soluble like A, D, E, K, or watersoluble like B and C),
and the so-called minerals (here considered as inorganic
chemical elements) or mineral elements which are
obtained through food or nutritional supplements.
Clay minerals are important constituents of soils
which are essential to life, in general, and to human
health, in particular. Clays are the result of chemical
processes taking place at or near the earth surface and
are essentially formed at the interfaces of the earth crust
with the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the biosphere.
Clay minerals occur everywhere, in rocks of all types
(Pédro, 1994; Moll, 2000), dispersed in atmospheric
aerosols (Sanfeliu et al., 2002), and dispersed in water
from oceans, seas, lakes, lagoons, and rivers (Gomes,
1987).
In addition, other excreted metabolites with metal-
complexing properties, e.g. amino acids, phenolic
compounds and organic acids, may play a role. Low-
molecular-mass carboxylic acids can play an important
role in chemical attack of minerals, providing protons as
well as a metalchelating anion (Burgstaller & Schinner,
1993; Jacobs et al., 2002, b; Huang et al., 2004; Lian et
al., 2008, b). Oxalic acid can leach metals that form
soluble oxalate complexes, including Al and Fe (Strasser
et al., 1994).
V. CONCLUSION
Clay minerals are very important for maintaining
the hygiene of the mouth and teeth. In spas and aesthetic
medicine, geotherapy, pelotherapy and paramuds are
used due to their absorption/adsorption capacity, their
cation exchange capacity, plastic properties, rheology,
grain size and cooling index. Clay minerals are used for
therapeutic purposes, with a beneficial effect on health,
in pharmaceutical formulations, spas and cosmetics. In
pharmaceutical formulations, they are used as active
principles orally administered (gastrointestinal
protectors, osmotic oral laxatives, antidiarrheals) or
administered topically (dermatological protectors,
cosmetics); and as excipients (lubricants, delivery
systems, inert bases, emulsifiers), principally due to their
high specific area and their absorption/adsorption
capacity, rheology, and chemical inertness. Clay
minerals in the form of a thin gel on the skin by inunction
diagnosticians may be of some disease. A layer of clay
that dries the last indicates the dysfunction of that part of
the skin. When clay minerals are used as excipients there
might be an interaction between the drug and the mineral
which influences the bioavailability of the active
principle, both in its liberation process and its stability.
They are used in spas to treat dermatological diseases
and to alleviate the pain of chronic rheumatic
inflammations (Stojiljković 2011). Special prepared clay
with mineral salts is used in thermotherapy and massage
the body. In aesthetic medicine, they are mainly used to
clean and moisturise the skin and to combat compact
lipodystrophies, acne and cellulite.
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Bill Lee • Rainer Gadow
Vojislav Mitic
Editors
Proceedings of the IV
Advanced Ceramics
and Applications Conference

SBN 978-94-6239-212-0 ISBN 978-94-6239-213-7

(eBook)
DOI 10.2991/978-94-6239-213-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953323
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S.T. Stojiljković (&) M.S. Stojiljković

Faculty of Technology Leskovac, University of Niš,
Niš, Serbia
e-mail: stanisastojiljkovic@gmail.com
M.S. Stojiljković
e-mail: milena0919@yahoo.com
© Atlantis Press and the author(s) 2017
B. Lee et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the IV Advanced
Ceramics
and Applications Conference, DOI 10.2991/978-94-
6239-213-7_24
Application of Bentonite Clay for Human Use . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Staniša T. Stojiljković and Milena S. Stojiljković